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Collection Highlights

Industry 4 0 Solutions for Building Design and

Construction A Paradigm of New Opportunities 1st Edition
Farzad Pour Rahimian

Blockchain of Things and Deep Learning Applications in

Construction Digital Construction Transformation Faris
Elghaish Farzad Pour Rahimian Tara Brooks Nashwan Dawood
Sepehr Abrishami

Industry 4 0 for SMEs Challenges Opportunities and

Requirements 1st Edition Dominik T. Matt

Data Science Careers Training and Hiring A Comprehensive

Guide to the Data Ecosystem How to Build a Successful Data
Science Career Program or Unit Renata Rawlings-Goss
Restraining Reeba West Coast Doms 4 1st Edition Nicolina
Martin

Social Norms in Medieval Scandinavia Jakub Morawiec

Rift in the Democracy: The Little-known Story of Political

Personalities and Intrigue in the Annexation of Texas
Which Led to the Civil War James C. N. Paul

Spectrum Grade 5 Critical Thinking for Math Workbook State

Standards for 5th Grade Geometry Fractions Decimals With
Answer Key for Homeschool or Classroom 128 pgs Spectrum

The Media Studies Toolkit 1st Edition Michael Z. Newman

Egg Cookbook: An Egg Cookbook Filled with Delicious
Breakfast Recipes 2nd Edition Booksumo Press
Industry 4.0 Solutions for Building
Design and Construction

This book provides in-depth results and case studies in innovation from actual work undertaken in
collaboration with industry partners in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC). Scientific
advances and innovative technologies in the sector are key to shaping the changes emerging as a result
of Industry 4.0. Mainstream Building Information Management (BIM) is seen as a vehicle for addressing
issues such as industry fragmentation, value-driven solutions, decision-making, client engagement,
and design/process flow; however, advanced simulation, computer vision, Internet of Things (IoT),
blockchain, machine learning, deep learning, and linked data all provide immense opportunities for
dealing with these challenges and can provide evidence-based innovative solutions not seen before.
These technologies are perceived as the “true” enablers of future practice, but only recently has the
AEC sector recognised terms such as “golden key” and “golden thread” as part of BIM processes and
workflows.
This book builds on the success of a number of initiatives and projects by the authors, which include
seminal findings from the literature, research and development, and practice-based solutions produced
for industry. It presents these findings through real projects and case studies developed by the authors
and reports on how these technologies made a real-world impact.
The chapters and cases in the book are developed around these overarching themes:

• BIM and AEC Design and Optimisation: Application of Artificial Intelligence in Design
• BIM and XR as Advanced Visualisation and Simulation Tools
• Design Informatics and Advancements in BIM Authoring
• Green Building Assessment: Emerging Design Support Tools
• Computer Vision and Image Processing for Expediting Project Management and Operations
• Blockchain, Big Data, and IoT for Facilitated Project Management
• BIM Strategies and Leveraged Solutions

This book is a timely and relevant synthesis of a number of cogent subjects underpinning the paradigm
shift needed for the AEC industry and is essential reading for all involved in the sector. It is particularly
suited for use in Masters-level programs in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction.

Farzad Pour Rahimian is Professor of Digital Engineering and Manufacturing at Teesside University, UK.

Jack Steven Goulding is Professor of Construction Project Management at the University of

Wolverhampton, UK and Director of a specialist BIM consultancy service.

Sepehr Abrishami is a Senior Lecturer and BIM Programme Leader at the University of Portsmouth, UK.

Saleh Seyedzadeh is a Data Scientist at Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult, Scotland, UK.

Faris Elghaish is a Lecturer in Construction Project Management at Queen’s University Belfast,

Northern Ireland, UK.
Industry 4.0 Solutions for Building
Design and Construction
A Paradigm of New Opportunities

Farzad Pour Rahimian, Jack Steven Goulding,

Sepehr Abrishami, Saleh Seyedzadeh,
and Faris Elghaish
First published 2022
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Farzad Pour Rahimian, Jack Steven Goulding, Sepehr Abrishami, Saleh
Seyedzadeh, and Faris Elghaish
The right of Farzad Pour Rahimian, Jack Steven Goulding, Sepehr Abrishami, Saleh
Seyedzadeh, and Faris Elghaish to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted
by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Rahimian, Farzad Pour, author.
Title: Industry 4.0 solutions for building design and construction : a paradigm of new
opportunities / Farzad Pour Rahimian, Jack Goulding, Sepehr Abrishami, Saleh
Seyedzadeh, and Faris Elghaish.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021030897 (print) | LCCN 2021030898 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367618803 (hbk) | ISBN 9780367618780 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003106944 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Building—Data processing. | Building information modeling. |
Industry 4.0.
Classification: LCC TH438.13 .R34 2022 (print) | LCC TH438.13 (ebook) | DDC
690.068—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021030897
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021030898
ISBN: 978-0-367-61880-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-61878-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-10694-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003106944
Typeset in Goudy
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

1 Industry 4.0 solutions for building design and construction:

a paradigm of new opportunities 1

2 AI-based architectural design generative BIM workspace for

architectural design automation 11

3 Towards intelligent structural design of buildings: a BIM solution 27

4 BIM and design for manufacturing and assembly 52

5 Virtual reality–based cloud BIM platforms for integrated AEC projects 75

6 XR-openBIM integration for supporting whole-life management of

offsite manufactured houses 97

7 A centralised cost management system: exploiting earned value

management and activity-based costing within integrated project
delivery 138

8 Success factors driving cost management practices through

integrated project delivery 155

9 4D BIM for structural design and construction integration 170

10 BIM integrated project delivery: an automated earned value

management–based approach 193

11 Revolutionising cost structure within integrated project delivery: a

BIM-based solution 216

12 Dynamic sustainable success prediction model for infrastructure

projects: a rough set–based fuzzy inference system 240
vi Contents
13 Multi-objective optimisation to support building window design 263

14 Artificial intelligence image processing for on-demand monitoring of

construction projects 309

15 Digitalisation of Architecture, Engineering, and Construction:

immersive technologies and unmanned aerial vehicles 339

16 Optical code division multiple access–based sensor network for

monitoring construction sites affected by vibrations 357

17 Blockchain integrated project delivery: an automated financial system 381

Index410
1 Industry 4.0 solutions for building
design and construction
A paradigm of new opportunities

1.1. Introduction
One of the main reasons this book came to fruition was in part inspired by frustration and
in part driven by a collective soliloquy of wanting to present readers with a rich picture of
golden opportunities. Frustration in this sense relates to the way through which Architecture,
Engineering, and Construction (AEC) has responded to change (particularly over the last
50 years), where, for example, several global reports have repeatedly mentioned that AEC
needed to change. Key report recommendations have included several issues, from industry
fragmentation through to the need for higher skills, improved quality, enhanced performance
and productivity, better value, tangible progress in innovation, improved communication and
integration, and the need for more meaningful collaborative relationships. Arguably, this list
could be extended almost ad infinitum; however, an interesting point to note here is that sev-
eral of these reports have attempted to compare the performance of the sector against others,
such as automotive, aerospace, engineering, healthcare, and manufacturing – all of which
seem to have performed significantly better than AEC. The question is why? Whilst this
book does not seek to provide solutions to this specific question per se, it does open debate
in several important areas, with a view of challenging the current perception and status quo
(in the hope that this will inspire change). For example, the global AEC geospatial market
is expected to reach US$12.26 trillion by 2023 (Narain, 2020). This is not only tangible and
significant, but this also offers AEC a unique opportunity to step beyond introspection, to
an industry that fervently aspires to continually evolve as new industry leaders and pioneers.
It is acknowledged from the outset that this journey may not be easy. Moreover, it would
be rather naïve of the authors to focus on all issues and challenges facing the industry. That
being said, we had to start somewhere; collectively, we decided to focus on some of the under-
pinning themes and challenges relating to design. In this respect, design-related issues have
been seen as causal contributors to many of these high-level challenges. These issues include
(but are not limited to): communication and information processing, technology adoption,
collaboration, integration, automation, interoperability, labour, and skills (Egan, 1998; Pean-
supap & Walker, 2005; Goulding & Pour Rahimian, 2019; Fruchter et al., 2016; Day, 2019;
Pour Rahimian et al., 2019; Elghaish et al., 2020; Leon & Laing, 2021). These factors are not
only fundamental and integral (throughout the project lifecycle), but they also have a direct
or indirect knock-on effect with many other support services.
To address some of these issues (particularly within the context of design), this book seeks
to raise awareness by presenting several practice-based solutions, with the expressed aim
of unlocking AEC’s digitalisation potential. For example, whilst client organisations are
predominantly seen as the core initiators of the design process, they (arguably) often tend

DOI: 10.1201/9781003106944-1
2 Industry 4.0 solutions
to lack knowledge and awareness needed to inform or shape the professional capability to
deliver real value (CLC, 2018). This lack of understanding or wider appreciation of nuance
influences the project lifecycle from day one – from conceptual design through to handover,
maintenance, and deconstruction. This is a significant challenge to address, especially as pro-
jects seem to be increasingly more complex. Several solutions have started to enter the mar-
ket, from advanced virtual reality–based collaborative technologies (Pour Rahimian et al.,
2019)to artificial intelligence–based optimisation (Pilechiha et al., 2020) and data-driven
decision support systems (Seyedzadeh et al., 2019). These solutions offer AEC significant
opportunities – enabling (or empowering) them to not only unlock their digital potential to
improve performance and capability, but also leverage better value throughout the whole
process (McKinsey, 2017). In fact, significant markets have now started to leverage success
by unlocking this digital potential (Herr & Fischer, 2019; Ahuja et al., 2020).
Part of the journey of unlocking AEC’s digital potential involves moving towards Industry
4.0. This may seem a little daunting to most; however, this is seen as the way forward – a real
paradigm shift for the sector – a transformative journey which more purposefully engages
new ways of thinking, where digital technologies converge to provide significant advantages.
Whilst this transition to Industry 4.0 may not be easy, it is encouraging to note that many
AEC entities have made significant progress to achieve this goal (Maskuriy et al., 2019;
Alaloul et al., 2020). This paradigm shift is not only significant and transformative, but it is
starting to open up many new revenue streams and divested services for AEC (Figure 1.1);

Figure 1.1 AEC and industry 4.0 transformational opportunities

 Industry 4.0 solutions 3
however, a caveat of caution needs to be raised at this juncture. This transition is not free;
it comes at a cost. This ‘cost’ requires conjoined thinking and a willingness (acceptance) to
embrace change, not just at the individual or organisational level, but also at the macro level
(involving the whole sector and supply chain). In this respect, fragmentation and siloed posi-
tioning needs to be replaced by conjoined processes and ‘digital coalition’.
This not only highlights the need to become more connected, dynamic, and customer-cen-
tric, but more importantly, mechanisms through which future AEC business will need to oper-
ate. This includes the need to think about new business strategies and models – from design to
procurement and delivery, even the way goods are produced and delivered. Successful compa-
nies will be those that unleash their true potential, using business models that drive innovation
and deliver evidence-based value. Those that do not do this will (more than likely) fall by the
wayside. Therefore, AEC organisations will need to be highly competitive (perhaps more so
than they are already), using factories and warehouses (physical and virtual) to leverage econ-
omies of scale (and expertise) to become much more streamlined, agile, and efficient. In doing
so, they will be able to establish several new services and opportunities, especially through the
deployment of cloud computing, big data, visualisation, artificial intelligence, machine learn-
ing, the internet of things, blockchain, etc. Data will undoubtedly be seen as the main asset
–not only to inform decision-making, but also to drive innovation and facilitate continuous
improvement. This will also enhance customer-experience analytics, providing new end-to-
end services and servitisation opportunities; where, for example, significant growth-driven
potential has already been evidenced in other sectors. In summary, the inertia underpinning
Industry 4.0 provides AEC with many powerful opportunities to explore, nurture, and exploit.
Some of these opportunities are presented throughout the following chapters.

1.2. Thematic overview of chapters

Chapter 2: AI-based architectural design generative BIM workspace

for architectural design automation
This chapter concerns the integration and automation of design. It presents and builds upon
a theoretical foundation that supports process integration (particularly at the conceptual
design stage), including design representation, cognition, translation, and design integrity.
Building Information Model (BIM) applications supporting design automation are explored,
including their use in whole design integration. The concept of advanced Generative Design
(GD) is presented as a significant opportunity to enhance the design experience. Core BIM
and GD facets are identified and mapped into a generative BIM (G-BIM) framework for pro-
totype development. This prototype was evaluated through multiple projects and scenarios,
the results from which culminate in a valuable set of rubrics for further exploitation (cf.
supporting the conceptual design stage using GD). Specific contribution also highlights the
capabilities and opportunities provided through this prototype, from advanced collaborative
features to the generation of optimised (and more purposeful) design solutions.

Chapter 3: Towards intelligent structural design of buildings: a BIM solution

This chapter outlines the challenges of design coordination and integration, especially between
architectural and structural engineering practices. These different design approaches are
examined, along with different BIM solutions and collaborative platforms. The main concept
presented here is the need to provide automated synergy (given that these two disciplines
are co-dependent). In this respect, these two approaches are examined in detail, noting the
4 Industry 4.0 solutions
requirements needed for linking architectural models with structural engineering models. In
doing so, an automated procedure and proof of concept is presented for discussion. This explores
an automated approach that engages computational systems and toolsets into a solution that
‘binds’ architectural and structural models (for tall buildings). This prototype automatically
generates, updates, and produces alternatives for structural models based on inputs from the
architectural model. Findings highlight that solution generation can provide much richer opti-
mum designs to meet set criteria. This work is acknowledged as being one of the first of its kind
to automatically generate optimised structural design solutions based on architectural models.

Chapter 4: BIM and design for manufacturing and assembly

This chapter discusses the current state of integration of Design for Manufacturing and
Assembly (DfMA) and BIM within AEC throughout the whole project lifecycle. The ration-
ale of this chapter was to evaluate recurrent challenges such as low productivity and poor
quality, high variances in predictability, along with greater building performance and energy
use control. In doing so, a conceptual framework and BIM library for offsite manufactured
components is presented for discussion. This work engaged a case study to demonstrate the
implementation of BIM and DfMA. Findings present new and novel approaches for deliver-
ing synergy, highlighting the need to focus on the development of a new digital manufactur-
ing–driven industry. This work also acknowledges the need for continuous improvement,
highlighting a number of opportunities for exploitation, especially using a BIM-based DfMA
approach to improve consistency and standardisation, reduce design discrepancies, reduce
waste, improve safety, increase design flexibility, and maximise end-user value.

Chapter 5: Virtual reality–based cloud BIM platforms for integrated AEC projects
Chapter 5 reflects on the need to integrate collaborative design teams’ project data to help coor-
dinate the design, engineering, fabrication, construction, and maintenance of various trades (to
facilitate project integration and interchange). In doing so, it evaluates a number of opportu-
nities, including the implementation of BIM Level 3 (Cloud) as an innovative way of further
enhancing the design, management, and delivery processes. This work proffers the need for
change from ‘traditional’ approaches to those aligned with Integrated Project Delivery (IPD).
This chapter also acknowledges that web-based platforms are particularly beneficial, as these
are able to visualise, integrate, and share building components (in real time) and through geo-
graphically dispersed locations. A cloud-based virtual reality (VR) Construction Site Simulator
was presented as a potential solution. This engaged a game environment supported by a web-
based virtual reality cloud platform. Findings presented new insight and understanding into
the development of training programs of this nature, particularly the use of the Unified Soft-
ware Development Process and iterative phases of Elaboration, Construction, and Transition.
Finally, this work offers new understanding and insight into the causal drivers and influences
associated with successful decision-making design in non-collocated design teams, providing a
stepping-stone for developing new relationship models in collaborative environments.

Chapter 6: XR-openBIM integration for supporting whole-life management

of offsite manufactured houses
Chapter 6 advocates the need to understand the importance of integration from a granu-
lar level. In doing so, it critiques project integration across the AEC supply chain using
 Industry 4.0 solutions 5
offsite manufactured housing as an exemplar. This analysis included tools, technologies,
and processes, and especially BIM and data models – noting that AEC needed to man-
age diverse project information. One of the major challenges in this area was interoper-
ability, particularly the level of data compatibility, and how this affects collaboration and
decision-making. This chapter argued that media-rich VR and augmented reality (AR)
environments could help users better understand design solutions. It was proffered that
a solution could be developed on the capabilities of openBIM and industry foundation
class (IFC) schema, using the BIM server concept to provide concurrent multiuser engage-
ment (with low-latency communication between applications). A prototype of an offsite
manufactured integrated virtual showroom was presented for discussion. This exemplar
used openBIM-Tango, BIM models, and data from IFCs. This enabled users to interact
with these models though VR immersive and AR environments (including Google Tango-
enabled devices). Findings highlight several new innovative approaches for interrogating
data. It also presented wider AEC opportunities, noting that this concept could mitigate
the need for advanced technical skills, as it allows decision-makers (with different skillsets
or areas of expertise) to access and engage with data and information in a more accessible
and meaningful way.

Chapter 7: A centralised cost management system: exploiting earned value

management and activity-based costing within integrated project delivery
This chapter introduces the concepts of earned value management (EVM) and activity-
based costing (ABC) within AEC. In doing so, it evaluates risk/reward sharing opportuni-
ties through IPD, advocating the need for a decentralised, automated, and secure financial
platform for managing and controlling financial transactions. In pursuance of this goal,
mathematical models for determining the three main IPD financial transactions were
evaluated. This includes coding of reimbursed costs, profit and cost saving, and engage-
ment of IPD smart contract functions. The development of this proof-of-concept prototype
(Centralised Cost Management System) was validated through an IPD case project. Find-
ings highlight the benefits of using this system to automate financial transactions, whilst
also demonstrating several other advanced features. In summary, this work advocated
the need for AEC to embrace IPD adoption as a means of resolving some of the existing
financial challenges. Recommendations included the incorporation of technologies such
as IBM’s Blockchain Platform for IBM Cloud and Fabric v2.x for smart contract lifecycle
management.

Chapter 8: Success factors driving cost management practices through

integrated project delivery
This chapter evaluates the pivotal forces and concepts underpinning cost management prac-
tices in AEC. It promotes the need to support effective cost management practices, especially
those that share cost data with all project stakeholders. Emphasis was placed on accuracy,
timeliness, and transparency (to support governance and trust). From this focus, IPD was
critically reviewed as a mode of project procurement, along with the application of cost
management approaches and success factors underpinning these. This included the need for
an integrated and resilient cost information system to support IPD. A questionnaire survey
was conducted with leading IPD experts to identify challenges, priorities, and opportunities,
especially factors driving the implementation of IPD. Findings revealed that ABC and EVM
6 Industry 4.0 solutions
were particularly effective at identifying and appropriating costs. Moreover, that there was a
greater need to develop these further in order to support accounting transparency. In pursu-
ance of this task, the use of mathematical models could be generated to propagate equitable
risk/reward distribution. Findings from this work endorse the role of BIM-enabled web-based
management systems to not only enhance IPD-based cost management effectively but also
encourage wider uptake.

Chapter 9: 4D BIM for structural design and construction integration

This chapter introduces the challenges of monitoring, inspecting, and evaluating work, par-
ticularly for concrete pouring. These issues were explored through literature, culminating in
the need to support AEC with better monitoring/assessment measures, especially to support
structural design, production processes, concrete pouring, integration, joint assessment, etc.
This research observed that meticulous planning was required to achieve this goal, especially
to ensure aesthetic and structural integrity (in order to mitigate structural defects and con-
struction rework). Challenges included the need to manage several issues, not least design
challenges, but also critical path dependencies and onsite operational constraints. In order to
address these issues, a 4D BIM approach was presented as a solution. This used an automated
concrete joint positioning (proof-of- concept) solution to help support design profession-
als and contractors. This engaged structural modelling information from Revit and spatial
information on construction joints, linking these through Microsoft (MS) Excel and Matlab
spreadsheets with Dynamo software. Findings presented significant benefits, including an
automated system for optimising design solutions, a cost-effective and accurate methodology
for addressing previous limitations, and a new way of designing construction joints and plan-
ning pours. These innovative solutions support the need for wider integration of structural
design considerations with construction and site operational procedures. This novel applica-
tion of BIM in structural engineering also highlighted how the different capabilities of various
software applications could be integrated.

Chapter 10: BIM integrated project delivery: an automated earned

value management–based approach
This chapter challenges current thinking on IPD, highlighting the need for robust and
defendable systems to appropriate and manage project costs. In doing so, it presented a dis-
cussion on IPD and cost management practices used to determine the risk/reward ratio. This
discussion included the concepts and application of EVM and ABC, especially in relation
to supportive technologies such as BIM. It was proffered that AEC needed some form of
solution that integrated IPD with BIM as an optimal approach for delivering construction
projects. Acknowledging this knowledge gap, this chapter presented a bespoke model that
could be used to exploit EVM – to structure the compensation approach in IPD (using ABC
to optimise the cost structures). This innovative approach was expressly designed to exploit
the capabilities of these techniques coupled with BIM to automate/optimise the process of
IPD risk/reward sharing. Findings observed that the mathematical equations underpinning
this risk/reward sharing approach could be used to strengthen IPD parties’ relationships,
especially through the EVM-Web grid, as this enabled project participants to track their costs
more effectively. This research also suggested the need to incorporate future 4D/5D BIM
platforms and developments with openBIM to further improve the accessibility, usability, and
management of AEC digital data.
 Industry 4.0 solutions 7
Chapter 11: Revolutionising cost structure within integrated project delivery:
a BIM-based solution
Chapter 11 reflects on the cost structures underpinning IPD, highlighting the need to
improve cost estimation, especially at the ‘front end’ of IPD projects (where project informa-
tion is seldom fully available). This work explores several cost estimation approaches, meth-
ods, and tools currently used in IPD. In doing so, it presents a novel theoretical argument and
new approach to enhance cost estimation. This approach incorporated target value design
(TVD), ABC, and Monte Carlo simulation into an IPD cost structure within a BIM-enabled
platform. A framework was developed to present the proposed methodology of cost estima-
tion throughout all IPD stages. A case project was used to validate the practicality of this
solution by comparing the profit-at-risk percentage for each party, using both traditional cost
estimation and the proposed solution. Research findings highlighted the benefits of adopting
such an approach as a workable solution for BIM–IPD integration. This produced reliable
cost data from different sources and project delivery modes, noting that the use of BIM (as
a means of developing a conceptual model to address client criteria) could enable costing
professionals to build statistical models with higher levels of cost certainty and predictability.

Chapter 12: Dynamic sustainable success prediction model for infrastructure

projects: a rough set–based fuzzy inference system
This chapter recognises the importance of being able to successfully implement sustainability
in projects, particularly infrastructure projects. It acknowledges that whilst the definition of
project success was subjective, it predominantly encompassed measures and criteria asso-
ciated with time, quality, and cost. More importantly perhaps, it noted that several stud-
ies failed to address other success indicators associated with criteria, such as environmental
compliance, building performance, client satisfaction, socio-political drivers, etc. To address
this challenge, this study presents a decision support system (DSS) for evaluating and pre-
dicting project success against sustainability criteria. This used rough set theory (RST) for
rules generation. The generated rulesets were filtered through a fuzzy inference system (FIS)
to support the DSS. This tool was then tested and validated by applying data from a real
infrastructure project. Research findings highlighted that the developed rough set fuzzy
method was able to evaluate and predict project success through robust rulesets to support
enhanced prediction. This tool also enabled decision-makers to dynamically evaluate and
predict project success based on customisable sustainability criteria.

Chapter 13: Multi-objective optimisation to support building window design

This chapter investigates the concepts of configuring window systems design in office build-
ings, cognisant of such issues as energy performance, daylighting levels, visual comfort,
etc. The need to produce better-quality evaluation tools to support the design process was
highlighted. In this respect, a new multi-objective method of analysing and optimising the
window system design process was presented for discussion. This system incorporated simul-
taneous consideration of multiple and conflicting design objectives, using rubrics based on
the fundamental recognition that the process of optimising parameters on issues such as
building energy loads via window system design can often reduce the quality of the view to
outside (including the received daylight). This study developed a multi-objective method
of assessment, using a reference room that was parametrically modelled against real climate
8 Industry 4.0 solutions
data. A method of Pareto frontier and a weighting sum was applied for multi-objective opti-
misation to determine the best outcomes – ergo, one that balances design requirements and
criteria. Findings present a new approach for quantifying the Quality of View in office build-
ings, one that balances energy performance and daylighting, thereby enabling and facilitat-
ing improved window design optimisation. This work provides decision-makers with a novel
approach of window design evaluation based on performance criteria and desired outcomes.

Chapter 14: Artificial intelligence image processing for on-demand monitoring

of construction projects
One of the continual challenges facing AEC is the need to monitor project performance.
This chapter posits that whilst inspections and progress monitoring are a vital part of the pro-
cess, in some instances, the actual process of comparing ‘as-planned’ with ‘as-built’ progress
does not readily add any tangible intrinsic value to the process. It argues that for large-scale
construction projects in particular, a better system is needed for monitoring and inspection.
In this respect, a new framework and proof-of-concept was presented for discussion. This
used AI-based Image Processing and Computer Vision for on-demand monitoring. This pro-
totype also engaged ML, image processing, BIM, and VR, using the Unity game engine to
integrate data from the original BIM models with as-built images. These were processed via
various computer vision techniques, including object recognition and semantic segmentation
(to identify different structural elements). Findings provide a unique insight into alternative
approaches of monitoring and inspection through a 3D virtual environment. This prototype
was proffered as being able to support project managers and the inspection team – to help
them make better informed decisions, much quicker than through conventional approaches.
Moreover, this work provides a technical exemplar for integrating ML with image process-
ing approaches together with immersive and interactive BIM interfaces. The algorithms and
programme codes presented could also help other specialists in different contexts/settings
with issues of replicability.

Chapter 15: Digitalisation of Architecture, Engineering, and Construction:

immersive technologies and unmanned aerial vehicles
This chapter investigates the concepts and applications of using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs) and immersive technologies in AEC. In doing so, it presents a critical literature
review of these areas and aligns key studies using meta-synthesis to focus on optimisation.
This work examined immersive technologies and UAV technologies applications in order to
evaluate and integrate these findings into a single context. The findings from this research
were assessed and contextualised to AEC needs. Findings highlighted that whilst the uptake
and use of UAVs and immersive technologies was steadily improving, there was still a greater
need to accelerate these initiatives as part of the progress towards wider digital transforma-
tion. Several benefits and opportunities were discussed, showcasing potential applications
of these technologies, noting the importance of integration. It was proffered that UAVs and
immersive technologies could be used in conjunction with 4D BIM to assess project progress,
undertake compliance checking of geometric design models, evaluate and control certain
parts of construction projects remotely, undertake quality control, and help assess health
and safety issues, etc. In summary, the opportunities presented were seemingly endless – with
new avenues to explore, including thermal and acoustic sensors, links to developments in
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