Hardware

Computer system hardware functionality:

A computer system has to support three major areas of operational capability:
 The processing of data
 The storage of data
 The input and output of data
At the heart of the system the processing of data is carried out by the CPU (Central
Processing Unit). A general-purpose computer system comprises a processor, memory, and
I/O functionality.

Data storage: Speed Capacity Size Cost

Component Category
Register Processor
component
Cache memory Primary storage
Primary storage
Main memory Primary storage
Hard disk Secondary storage
Secondary storage
Auxiliary storage

Data output – For data output from a computer system the following options are available:
 Screen display
 Hardcopy using a printer or plotter
 Virtual headset display
 A speaker
 Writing any of the data storage devices described earlier
 Transmission on a network link
Data input – For the input of data to a computer system the following are among the
options available:
 Keyboard or keypad entry by a user
 A user using a game controller
 A user using a scanner
 A user using a microphone in tandem with voice recognition software
 Reading form any of the storage devices described earlier
 Transmission on a network link
Note the any input or output in a computer system are controlled by an I/O sub-system.
Embedded systems:
Miniature computer systems such as microprocessors that are often a part of a more
extensive system. Each embedded system performs a few specific functions.

Memory components:
Read-only memory (ROM) – non-volatile memory that cannot be written to but can be read
from any number of times.
Random access memory (RAM) – Volatile memory that can be read from or written to any
number of times. There are 2 types of RAM:

SRAM DRAM

Doesn’t need to refresh; hence, it uses less Has to be refreshed; it has slower access
power and faster access time times and needs higher power

More complex circuitry, hence more Only a single transistor & capacitor, hence
expensive less expensive to purchase

Each bit is stored in a flip-flop Each bit is stored as a charge

Has lower data density Has higher data density

Used in cache memory Used in main memory

Buffer – A temporary storage created for data transmitted from one part of the system to
another which functions as a queue.

Secondary storage devices:

Magnetic media – Magnetic media is any storage medium that uses magnetic patterns to
represent information. Common examples include hard drives, floppy disks, and magnetic
tapes
Optical media – Optical media is a type of data storage that uses light to read or write data
to an underlying optical media. This means that a laser is used to read and write data on the
media. Common examples include compact discs (CDs) and digital versatile discs (DVDs)
Solid state media – Solid-state media is a type of storage that uses electronic circuits to
store data persistently. It has no moving parts. This means that solid-state media is much
faster, more durable, and more energy-efficient than traditional hard drives. Solid-state
drives (SSDs) are a common example of solid-state media.
Output device provided for a user of a general-
purpose computer system:
Screen display – Screen displays use pixels, which are made up of three sub-
pixels (red, green, blue) that emit varying levels of light to create a full range of colours.
Traditionally, screens used phosphors that glowed when hit by electrons. Modern screens
use liquid crystal displays (LCDs), which are backlit by LEDs. Each pixel cell contains liquid
crystals that can be manipulated by voltage to change the polarization of light, affecting
what is displayed on the screen.
 Liquid-crystal display (LCD) – A screen back-lit by light-emitting diodes and with
liquid crystal cells sandwiched between polarisers.
Virtual reality headset – Virtual headsets consist of 2 lenses, (an LCD) display, a circuit
board with sensors, a cover and foam padding. The display provides a simulation of a 3D
environment generated by a 3D graphics package. The user can ‘move’ in the virtual
environment by moving their head or using controllers
Hard-copy output of text – Two technologies have dominated the printing of documents
from data stored in a computer system.
 Laser printer – Laser printers use a laser beam and rotating mirrors to create an
image on a photosensitive drum. This image is then transferred to the paper
using toner, which is attracted to the charged image. Heat is applied to fuse
the toner to the paper.
 Inkjet printers – Inkjet printers work by spraying tiny droplets of ink onto paper. They
use a print head with tiny nozzles that are heated to create bubbles of ink. These
bubbles are then forced out of the nozzle, creating a fine mist of ink droplets.
Hard-copy graphics output – Specialised technical applications often require a more
accurate representation to be created on paper. This required the use of a graphic plotter. A
plotter uses pens to write, usually, on a large sheet of paper constrained by sprockets along
one pair of sides. The sprockets can move the paper forwards or backwards and pens can
either be parked or in use at any given time. The controlling circuitry and software can
create the drawing directly from the original vector graphic file.
A 3D design is created in a suitable computer-aided design (CAD) package. The design is split
into layers. The data for the first layer is transmitted to the 3D printer. Rather than using ink
to draw the layer, the 3D printer uses a nozzle to squirt material on to the printer bed to
create a physical layer to match the design. This process is repeated for successive layers.
When the whole object has been formed it has to be curved in some way to ensure that the
layers are stick together and the material has been converted to the form required for the
finished product.
Input devices provided for a user of a general-
purpose computer system:
Keyboard – The keyboard allows a user to input text data.
 The keys are positioned above a key matrix, which consists of a set of rows and wires
and another set of columns of wires.
 Pressing a key cause’s contact at one of the points where wires cross.
 The microprocessor continuously tests to see of any electrical circuit involving a row
wire and a column wire has become closed.
 When the microprocessor recognises that a circuit has become closed, it can identify
the particular intersection that is causing this.
 The processor then uses data stores in the ROM to identify the character code
relating to the key associated with that intersection and sends this character to the
screen.
The screen – There are a number of ways in which a user can cause in which a user can
cause data to be input through an interaction with a screen. A graphical user interfaces
(GUI) provides a number of different types of screen icon, each of which allows the user to
control data input. The user needs a pointing mechanism to use a GUI effectively. One
example of a pointing mechanism is a computer mouse that controls the position of a cursor
on the screen. The screen is now not just an output device but also an input device activated
by a mouse click.
Touch screen – There are 2 types of touch screens:
 Resistive touch screen – A flexible surface that causes contact between electrically
resistive layers beneath when touched.
 Capacitive touch screen – A rigid structure above a conductive layer that undergoes
a change in electrical state when a finger touches the screen.
Input of a graphic – Methods of Image Capture:
 Webcam: Streams live video directly into a computer.
 Digital Camera: Captures images and videos that can be downloaded to a computer.
 Scanner: Creates a digital representation of a physical image (like a document or
photograph) by scanning it with a light source.
Input and output of sound:
Voice input and output – IP telephony and video conference are two applications that
require both voice input and voice output. Voice recognition can be used as an alternative
way for data input.

 Input – For input a microphone is needed. This is a device that has a diaphragm, a
flexible material that is caused to vibrate by an incoming sound. The diaphragm is
connected to a circuitry that change the electrical signal due to vibrations. An
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) is used so that the signal can be processed by
the computer.
 Output – For output a speaker is needed. A digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) is
used. A current is sent through a coil suspended within the magnetic field provided
by a permanent magnet in the speaker. As the current changes the coil moves
backwards and forwards. This movement controls the movement of a diaphragm,
which causes sound to be created.

The input and output are controlled by a sound (audio) card installed in the computer.