Principles and Theories of
Language Acquisition and
Learning
ELT 1
Theories of Second
Language
(L2) Acquisition
How Do We Learn a New Language?
How Do We Learn a New
Language?
"How did this child
learn two
languages? Is it the
same for adults?"
Krashen’s 5 Hypotheses
1. The Acquisition-Learning
Distinction
a. Acquisition: A subconscious process (like how
children pick up their first language) through
natural communication. You don’t think about
rules; you just "feel" what’s correct.
b. Learning: A conscious process (like studying
grammar rules in a classroom). You memorize
rules and correct errors deliberately.
2. The Natural Order Hypothesis
• Learners acquire language rules in a predictable
sequence, regardless of teaching order.
• Example: In English, learners typically master
"-ing" (progressive) before irregular past tense
("went").
• Transitional forms: Learners make temporary
errors (e.g., "goed" instead of "went") as they
progress toward mastery.
3. The Monitor Hypothesis
• Learning" acts as an editor (Monitor) for output
produced by "acquisition.“
• Example: After saying "I go to school," you might correct
yourself to "I went to school" if you know the past tense
rule.
• Individual variation in Monitor use:
• Over-users: Rely too much on rules, slowing speech.
• Under-users: Speak freely but with more errors.
• Optimal users: Use the Monitor only when appropriate
(e.g., in writing).
4. The Input Hypothesis
• Statement: We acquire language best when we
understand input that is slightly above our level
("i+1").
• Example: If you know basic English ("i"), you learn
from sentences with a few new words ("+1").
• Evidence:
• Immersion works because learners get
comprehensible input.
• Children learn from parents speaking in "caretaker
speech" (simplified but meaningful language).
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
• Emotional factors (stress, motivation, confidence)
act as a "filter" that can block input.
• Low filter (relaxed, motivated learners) → Better
acquisition.
• High filter (anxious, unmotivated learners) →
Slower progress.
• Implication: A supportive environment helps
learning.
Acquisition vs. Learning
Criteria Acquisition Learning
Subconscious (like L1 Conscious (formal
Process
acquisition) instruction)
- Immersion learners
outperform classroom learners - Meta-analysis shows
in fluency (Krashen, 1982). explicit instruction improves
Evidence
- fMRI studies show acquired accuracy (Norris & Ortega,
language activates Broca’s area 2000).
(like L1) (Paradis, 2004).
- Children in bilingual homes
- Grammar drills
Classroom Example - "Silent period" in immersion
- Error correction in writing
programs
Criteria Acquisition Learning
Subconscious (like L1 Conscious (formal
acquisition) instruction)
Process Note: (formal study of
Note: (like how children learn
rules, like memorizing
their first language).
verb conjugations).
Example: Picking up Spanish
Example: Studying
naturally while living in
French grammar from a
Mexico.
textbook.
Criteria Acquisition Learning
- Immersion learners outperform
classroom learners in fluency
(Krashen, 1982). - Meta-analysis shows
Note: Immersion learners (e.g., explicit instruction
studying abroad) often become improves accuracy
more fluent than classroom (Norris & Ortega,
learners. 2000).
Evidence
- fMRI studies show acquired
language activates Broca’s area (like Note: Explicit instruction
L1) (Paradis, 2004). (e.g., grammar lessons)
Note: Acquired language activates improves accuracy,
Broca’s area (the brain region used especially in writing.
Criteria Acquisition Learning
- Children in bilingual - Grammar drills
homes Note: Fill-in-the-blank
Note: Learn without formal exercises for verb tenses.
lessons (e.g., hearing parents speak
two languages).
- Error correction in
Classroom Example
- "Silent period" in writing
immersion programs Note: Teacher marks
Note: In immersion programs, mistakes on essays.
learners listen before speaking
(mimicking L1 development).
Krashen’s hypotheses shift the focus from
memorization and grammar to natural, meaningful
communication. They help teachers:
•Create immersive, input-rich environments.
•Reduce student anxiety.
•Understand that mistakes are natural.
•Focus on understanding and interaction, not perfection.
