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CONSERVATION MEDICINE
This page intentionally left blank
CONSERVATION MEDICINE

ECOLOGICAL HEALTH IN PRACTICE

Edited by
A. Alonso Aguirre
Richard S. Ostfeld
Gary M. Tabor
Carol House
Mary C. Pearl

OXPORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

2002
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Oxford New York
Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai
Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi
Sao Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto
and an associated company in Berlin

Copyright © 2002 by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016
www.oup.com
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Conservation medicine : ecological health in practice / edited by A. Alonso Aguirre . . . [et al.].
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-19-515093-7
1. Environmental health. 2. Ecology. I. Aguirre, A. Alonso.
[DNLM: 1. Environmental Health. 2. Conservation of Natural Resources. 3. Ecology.
4. Environmental Medicine. WA 30 C755 2002]
RA566.C667 2002
615.9'02—dc21 2001036851

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on recycled, acid free paper
This book is dedicated to the scientists and practitioners
in the field, on the ground, and around the globe—
the new generation of ecological care givers.
This page intentionally left blank
 Foreword: Giant Moths and
Doing No Harm

Michael Soule

I n the future, the Legend of the Great Dying will be recited to the
children of the Third Planet:

// happened thusly. First, there was the Great Explosion in human numbers and in
technological prowess. In 200 Earth years, all the wild places were degraded or de-
stroyed. Next, the chemicals and gases released by agriculture and industry impaired
the health of the surviving species and changed the climate. The Great Heat then
occurred, as did the Second Great Flood. Simultaneously, thousands of species of plants
and animals were transported across natural barriers and became invasive species in
their new surroundings; this was known as the Great Mixing. Near the end of that era
there were many new plagues—the Great Sickness—that ravaged the weakened, un-
prepared human beings and other species. After that, the survivors left.

The birth of conservation medicine is timely. It is an essential response to the

emergence of new diseases and the physiological threats to human beings and
millions of other species caused by industry, agriculture, and commerce. Even
while the life expectancy of people from the richest northern countries is increas-
ing, the defenses against the relentless old diseases, such as malaria and tuber-
culosis, are weakening. Moreover, there are indications that disease is becoming
a major cause of ecological simplification, including extinction. The most shock-
ing harbinger is the global decline in amphibians caused by habitat loss, pollution,
and a virulent fungus. Conservation medicine addresses the two-way exchange of
pathogens between human society and self-regulated nature, and it calls for in-
terdisciplinary research that might lead to new solutions. For this we can only
applaud the emergence of conservation medicine.
viii Foreword: Giant Moths and Doing No Harm

The ultimate cause of the Great Dying is thought to have been the failure of humanity
to restrain its fecund industry. Prophet David Ehrenfeld, in his book The Arrogance of
Humanism, quoted Rene Dubos: "Developing countertechnologies to correct the new
kinds of damage constantly being created by technological innovations is a policy of
despair."
Our descendents learned too late the simple, karmic law of ecology: all is inter-
dependent and all is interconnected. As bad philosophers continued to debate whether
human beings were part of nature or its butcher, a spiral of dreadful causation erased
this illusory dualism, and it became evident that the destiny of humanity on Earth was
to be both victim and executioner of creation. At the end all earthly beings became
joined in an intimate, slow dance of death.
The new discipline arrives just in time. New diseases are emerging; pathogens
and parasites are spreading more rapidly and infecting new plant and animal hosts.
The widespread misuse of antibiotics, insecticides, fertilizers, and other anthro-
pogenically amplified and created chemicals is contributing to the decline of phys-
iological vigor and demographic vital rates in multitudes of species.
Conservation medicine is the right medicine. We need more expertise, more
knowledge, new cures, interdisciplinary research. Conservation medicine can draw
more attention to the problems, attract funding for analysis and new therapies,
educate citizens and decision makers, and help activists lobby for more effective
regulations.
In time, conservation medicine must define itself; it is not the same as envi-
ronmental medicine—a purely anthropocentric discipline—but pressure exists to
move in that direction. Most human beings equate value (goodness) with human
welfare. Granted, this human-centered bias will make it easier for conservation
medicine to carve out a niche and raise funds. And the more it emphasizes the
health of human beings, the more money can be raised. This may be good or bad
for nature, depending on the interests of the grantees. But money virtually always
corrupts, as it has in the field of sustainable development, where multimillion
dollar projects have led neither to sustainable economic development nor to ef-
fective protection of nature. For the sake of saving nature, conservation medicine
will also need to clarify whether its salvational mission is ecocentric or human-
itarian. For institutional reasons, it cannot remain on the fence, even though it is
desirable to erase disciplinary borders.
An early warning of the Great Dying was the global disappearance of most amphibians,
soon followed by reptiles and most freshwater organisms. Causes were discovered but
cures were never implemented because human greed and expansion trumped other
values. Human beings systematically exterminated any species that stood in the way of
profit and comfort. For example, the tsetse fly, a vector for sleeping sickness in Africa,
was eradicated to create more settlement areas for people, even though the project also
eliminated most of the remaining wildlands on the continent.

A caveat: It would be morally wrong for advocates of conservation medicine

to become agents of human hegemony. Even though nature and human beings
are inseparable ecologically, it does not follow that everything that benefits human
beings economically and medically is also good for nature. Malaria causes much
human suffering, but the draining of wetlands to prevent mosquito reproduction
 Foreword: Giant Moths and Doing No Harm ix

is not the ethical equivalent of a drug that suppresses the parasite in our bodies.
The concern about such ethical issues is what distinguishes conservation medicine
from environmental medicine.
Skeptics began to greet the birth of each new conservation-related discipline with sus-
picion. A new field meant an emerging crisis and that a new threat to nature had
reached a threshold demanding an organized response. While the living world was
shattering around them, scientists invented new defensive tactics that grew into new
professions, new government bureaucracies, new journals, and new professional or-
ganizations.
In 1942, prophet Aldo Leopold wrote, "In 1909, when I first saw the West, there
were grizzlies in every major mountain mass, but you could travel for months without
meeting a conservation officer. Today there is some kind of conservation officer 'behind
every bush.' Yet as wildlife bureaus grow, our most magnificent mammal retreats steadily
toward the Canadian border."

A cautionary tale: When I was growing up in San Diego, my passion for nature
was inspired by beautiful lepidoptera such as giant moths in the silkworm family,
including the ceanothus silk moth and the polyphemus moth. I remember being
enthralled by their unexpected nocturnal appearances at the porch light. Now,
these great creatures have all but disappeared in much of the United States, de-
priving children of an opportunity to experience the mystery of contact with "the
other." What happened?
A century ago, U.S. government scientists were looking for a biological way
to control gypsy moths, a serious forest defoliator. They eventually discovered a
fly (Compsilura concinnata) from Europe that parasitizes the caterpillars of many
insects, including gypsy moths. Now we know that the severe declines in these
glorious silk moths are likely to have been caused by the fly—a cure that turned
out to be a scourge. It is an old story: good intentions, combined with ecological
ignorance, are a recipe for iatrogenic disaster.
Conservation medicine holds the promise that by integrating our knowledge
of pathogens and physiology with our knowledge of ecology, society can avoid
disasters like Compsilura in the future and begin to evolve toward a more mature
relationship with living nature.
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

'
T raditional approaches to the development of health strategies and
I eenvironmental protection offer limited solutions to increasingly com-
plex challenges. We are starting to see a connection between ecosystem health,
human health, and animal health with the greater understanding of global climate
change, and the wide-ranging influence of human effects on the planet. One out
of five human health concerns has an environmental cause. With an ever-
increasing human population putting pressure on the planet's resources, and in-
creasing globalization of the world's economy, the ecology of the earth is expe-
riencing dramatic changes, manifested by novel and potentially catastrophic health
consequences.
This book provides a broad survey of the intersection of ecology and health
sciences as it applies to achieving a more sustainable future for our species and
others. It examines ecological health issues from various standpoints, including
the emergence, reemergence, and resurgence of infectious diseases; the increasing
biological effects of toxic chemicals and hazardous substances; and the health
implications of ecological alterations, such as habitat fragmentation and degra-
dation, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and global climate and at-
mospheric changes. The thesis of this book is that health connects all species on
the planet. Ecology teaches us about the interdependence of species, and health
is a fundamental aspect of this tenet.
Our book is intended to be a primer for ecological and health practitioners and
their students who seek to define and achieve ecological health as part of a more
sustainable way for humans to live on a planet of finite resources. The definition
of health is changing with time as our awareness of the multifaceted effects on
health come to light. Environmental influences on health are more apparent. Con-
servation medicine has evolved to provide a framework for creating solutions to
xii Preface

the various inextricably connected signs of environmental distress and dysfunc-

tion. It is the solution-oriented practice of achieving ecological health. While
ecosystem health literature describes the problem, conservation medicine de-
scribes the potential solutions. In this volume, we discuss issues and problems
that are relevant to policy makers and planners in the environmental and health
fields. We hope this book will become the standard reference for human and
veterinary medicine, public health, conservation biology, and ecology students
interested the fields of conservation medicine and ecosystem health.
Conservation Medicine: Ecological Health in Practice is an outcome of an
international conference held in the spring of 1999 at the White Oak Plantation
and Conservation Center in Yulee, Florida. The conference brought together a
broad spectrum of scientists and practitioners in health and environmental fields,
including conservation biology, ecology, epidemiology, human health, public
health, toxicology, and veterinary health. The meeting forged links between com-
munities that focus on climate change, toxic and persistent pollutants, emerging
infectious diseases, conservation biology, and ecosystem health. In addition, the
conference launched a special Symposium on Conservation Medicine at the June
2000 annual meeting of the Society for Conservation Biology in Missoula, Mon-
tana, sponsored by the Consortium for Conservation Medicine.
The chapters in this book represent the first paints on the canvas of defining
and refining the field of conservation medicine. The perspectives presented are an
invitation to expand and enhance our ability to promote ecological health on a
planetary scale. You are invited to take that next step in fine-tuning our work and
building bridges to other necessary fields of allied human endeavor. In the end,
we hope a masterpiece of collected human knowledge will provide our species
with the solutions necessary to distance our planet from its present environmental
predicament. We wish and hope for your success.
A.A.A.
G.M.T.
 Acknowledgments

Ti
•
he Center for Conservation Medicine, an ecological health collabo-
rative of Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine, the Wild-
life Trust, and the Harvard Medical School Center for Health and Global Envi-
ronment, provided the institutional and intellectual milieu for discussions and
research in the areas of ecological health and conservation medicine. In 2000, the
Center for Conservation Medicine expanded into the Consortium for Conservation
Medicine, with the explicit goal of increasing collaboration with other like-minded
institutions—collaboration is essential in finding solutions to complex ecological
health problems.
We are deeply grateful to the New York Community Trust for their continuing
support and vision throughout the development of the field of conservation med-
icine. We are particularly indebted to NYCT for specific support toward the pub-
lication of this book.
This book is the result of a collaborative approach to science and conservation,
supported by all the risk-taking foundations and funders who helped us along the
way: V. Kann Rasmussen Foundation, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Oak
Foundation, Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, Howard Oilman Foundation and the
White Oak Conservation Center, Jessie B. Cox Charitable Trust, Educational
Foundation of America, Homeland Foundation, Rockefeller Financial Services,
Morris Animal Foundation, Scholl Foundation, Acadia Foundation, Weeden Foun-
dation, and the Fanwood Foundation. Research support for several of the authors
included the Nathan Cummings Foundation, Richard Ivey Foundation, National
Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, the National Institute for
Environmental Health Sciences, the National Center for Biotechnology, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Global Change Research Program, and the U.S.
Military HIV Research Program. We most humbly thank them all.
xiv Acknowledgments

The essential heavy-lifting role in enabling the editors and authors to reach
completion was played by Cynthia Barakatt, program officer for the Center for
Conservation Medicine.
The book is a product of many people, and our thanks go to Phil Kosch, Sheila
Moffat, Shelley Rodman, Carolyn Corsiglia, Heidi Weiskel, Gretchen Kaufman,
and George Saperstein from Tufts; Fred Koontz, Robyn Cashwell, Joanne Gullifer,
and Marguerite Cunning from the Wildlife Trust; Rita Chan and Sheryl Barnes
from the Center for Health and the Global Environment; and B. Zimmerman.
 Contents

Foreword vii
Contributors xix

I. Ecological Health and Change

1 Introduction 3
James G. Else and Mark A. Pokras

2 Defining Conservation Medicine 8

Gary M. Tabor

3 Conservation Medicine: The Birth of Another Crisis Discipline 17

Richard S. Ostfeld, Gary K. Meffe, and Mary C. Pearl

4 Biodiversity, Climate Change, and Emerging Infectious Diseases 27

Paul R. Epstein

5 Emerging Infectious Diseases: A Key Role for

Conservation Medicine 40
Peter Daszak and Andrew A. Cunningham

6 Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Human and Wildlife Health 62

Theo Colborn
xvi Contents

II. Monitoring Ecological Health

7 Monitoring the Health and Conservation of Marine Mammals,

Sea Turtles, and Their Ecosystems 79
A. Alonso Aguirre, Todd M. O'Hara, Terry R. Spraker,
and David A. Jessup

8 Disease Monitoring for the Conservation of Terrestrial Animals 95

Linda Munson and William B. Karesh

9 Emergence of Infectious Diseases in Marine Mammals 104

Carol House, A. Alonso Aguirre, and James A. House

10 Viruses as Evolutionary Tools to Monitor Population Dynamics 118

Mary Poss, Roman Biek, and Allen Rodrigo

11 Assessing Stress and Population Genetics Through

Noninvasive Means 1 30
Samuel K. Wasser, Kathleen E. Hunt, and Christine M. Clarke

12 Animal Behavior as a Tool in Conservation Biology 145

J. Michael Reed

III: Ecological Health and Humans

13 Global Ecological Change and Human Health 167

Jonathan A. Patz and Nathan D. Wolfe

14 Biodiversity and Human Health 182

Eric Chivian and Sara Sullivan

15 Vector-Borne Infections and Health Related to

Landscape Changes 194
David H. Molyneux

16 Ecological Context of Lyme Disease: Biodiversity, Habitat

Fragmentation, and Risk of Infection 207
Richard S. Ostfeld, Felicia Keesing, Eric M. Schauber,
and Kenneth A. Schmidt

17 Zoonotic Infections and Conservation 220

Thaddeus K. Graczyk
 Contents xvii

18 Chronic Effects of Toxic Microalgae on Finfish, Shellfish, and

Human Health 229
JoAnn M. Burkholder

IV. Implementing Conservation Medicine

19 Ecological Health and Wildlife Disease Management in

National Parks 253
Colin M. Gillin, Gary M. Tabor, and A. Alonso Aguirre

20 Wildlife Health, Ecosystems, and Rural Livelihoods in Botswana 265

Michael D. Kock, Gary R. Mullins, and Jeremy S. Perkins

21 Zoological Parks in Endangered Species Recovery and

Conservation 276
Anthony Allchurch

22 The Mountain Gorilla and Conservation Medicine 282

Michael Cranfield, Lynne Gaffikin, Jonathan Sleeman,
and Matthew Rooney

23 Linking Human and Ecosystem Health on the Amazon Frontier 297

Tamsyn P. Murray, James J. Kay, David Waltner-Toews,
and Ernesto F. Raez-Luna

24 Deer Tick-Transmitted Zoonoses in the Eastern United States 310

Sam R. Telford III

V. Conservation Medicine and Challenges for the Future

25 Biodiversity in Biomedical Research 327

Joshua P. Rosenthal and Trent Preszler

26 Introducing Ecosystem Health into Undergraduate Medical

Education 345
David J. Rapport, John Howard, Robert Lannigan, Robert McMurtry,
Douglas L. Jones, Christopher M. Anjema, and John R. Bend

27 Ecotourism: Unforeseen Effects on Health 361

Mary E. Wilson

28 Global Ecological Integrity, Global Change, and Public Health 372

Colin L. Soskolne and Roberto Bertollini
xviii Contents

29 Wildlife Health and Environmental Security: New Challenges

and Opportunities 383
Jamie K. Reaser, Edward J. Gentz, and Edward E. Clark, Jr.

Index 397
 Contributors

A. Alonso Aguirre, D.V.M., M.S., Ph.D. Roberto Bertollini, Ph.D.

Director for Conservation Medicine Director
Wildlife Trust European Centre for Environment
Palisades, New York and Health
aguirre @ wildlifetrust.org World Health Organization, Rome
Division
Rome, Italy
Anthony Allchurch, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S. [email protected]
Jersey Zoo
Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust
Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kindom Roman Biek
aallchurch @ durrell. org Wildlife Biology Program
School of Forestry
University of Montana
Christopher M. Anjema, B.S., B.E.D., Missoula, Montana
M.E.S., M.D. rbiek@ selway.umt.edu
Professor
Department of Ophthalmology
Ivey Institute of Ophthalmology JoAnn M. Burkholder, Ph.D.
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry Department of Botany
The University of Western Ontario North Carolina State University
London, Ontario, Canada Raleigh, North Carolina
JoAnn [email protected]

John R. Bend, Ph.D.

Professor Eric Chivian, M.D.
Departments of Paediatrics, and Pharma- Director
cology and Toxicology Center for Health and the Global
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry Environment
The University of Western Ontario Harvard Medical School
London, Ontario, Canada Boston, Massachusetts
[email protected] eric [email protected]

xix
xx Contributors

Edward E. Clark Jr. Center for Conservation Medicine

Executive Director Tufts University School of Veterinary
The Wildlife Center of Virginia Medicine
Waynesboro, Virginia North Grafton, Massachusetts
[email protected] [email protected]

Paul R. Epstein, M.D., M.P.H.

Christine M. Clarke, Ph.D. Associate Director
Professor Center for Health and the Global
Department of Pathology Environment
University of Washington School Harvard Medical School
of Medicine Boston, Massachussetts
Seattle, Washington paul_epstein @ hms. harvard .edu

Lynne Gaffikin, Ph.D.

Theo Colborn, Ph.D. Department of International Health
World Wildlife Fund Division of Health Systems
Washington, D.C. School of Hygiene and Public Health
[email protected] Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore Maryland

Michael Cranfield, D.V.M.

Edward J. Gentz, M.S., D.V.M., Dipl.
Director
A.C.Z.M.
Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project
Director of Veterinary Services
c/o Baltimore Zoo
The Wildlife Center of Virginia
Druid Hill Park
Waynesboro, Virginia
Baltimore, Maryland
[email protected]
[email protected]

Colin M. Gillin, M.S., D.V.M.

Andrew A. Cunningham, B.V.M.S., Ph.D. Assistant Research Professor
M.R.C.V.S. Center for Conservation Medicine
Head Tufts University School of Veterinary
Wildlife Epidemiology Medicine
Institute of Zoology Rocky Mountain Field Office
Zoological Society of London Wilson, Wyoming
London, United Kindom GillinCM @ aol.com
[email protected]
Thaddeus K. Graczyk, M.Sc., Ph.D.
Associate Research Professor
Peter Daszak, Ph.D. Departments of Molecular Microbiology
Executive Director and Immunology, and
Consortium for Conservation Medicine of Environmental Health Sciences
c/o Wildlife Trust School of Hygiene and Public Health
Palisades, New York Johns Hopkins University
[email protected] Baltimore, Maryland
[email protected]

James G. Else, D.V.M., M.S. Carol House, Ph.D.

Associate Professor/Director Formerly: U.S. Department of Agriculture
 Contributors xxi

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Serv- William B. Karesh, D.V.M.

ices Director
National Veterinary Services Laboratories Field Veterinary Program
Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Labo- Wildlife Conservation Society
ratory Bronx, New York
Greenport, New York [email protected]
Currently: 29745 Main Road
Cutchogue, New York James J. Kay, Ph.D.
Jhousefish @ aol .com Department of Environmental Studies
University of Waterloo
James A. House, D.V.M. Waterloo, Canada
Formerly: U.S. Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Serv- Felicia Keesing, Ph.D.
ices Department of Biology
National Veterinary Services Laboratories Bard College
Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Labo- Annandale, New York
ratory keesing @ bard.edu
Greenport, New York
Currently: 29745 Main Road
Cutchogue, New York Michael D. Kock, M.R.C.V.S., M.P.V.M.
Jhousefish @ aol .com 19 Oak Street
P.O. Box 106
Greyton, South Africa
John Howard, M.D., F.R.C.P.C. [email protected]
Professor of Medicine and Paediatrics
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry
Robert Lannigan, M.D., F.R.C.P.C.
The University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario, Canada Professor of Microbiology and
Immunology
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry
Kathleen E. Hunt, Ph.D. The University of Western Ontario
Center for Conservation Biology London, Ontario, Canada
Department of Zoology
Seattle, Washington
Robert McMurtry, M.D., F.R.C.S.C.,
huntk@u. washington.edu
F.A.C.S.
G.D.W. Cameron Visiting Chair, Health
David A. Jessup D.V.M., M.P.V.M., Dipl. Canada (Ottawa, Ontario)
A.C.Z.M. Professor of Surgery and Former Dean
California Department of Fish and Game Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry
Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Re- The University of Western Ontario
search Center London, Ontario, Canada
Santa Cruz, California
[email protected]
Gary K. Meffe, Ph.D.
Editor
Douglas L. Jones, Ph.D., F.A.C.C. Conservation Biology
Professor, Departments of Physiology and Department of Wildlife Ecology and Con-
Medicine servation
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry University of Florida
The University of Western Ontario Gainesville, Florida
London, Ontario, Canada [email protected]
xxii Contributors

David H. Molyneux, M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc., Department of Environmental Health Sci-

F.I.Biol. ences
Professor of Tropical Health Sciences Johns Hopkins School of Public Health
School of Tropical Medicine Baltimore, Maryland
University of Liverpool [email protected]
Liverpool, United Kingdom
fahy @ liverpool .ac.uk Mary C. Pearl, Ph.D.
Executive Director
Gary R. Mullins, Ph.D. Wildlife Trust
Agricultural Economist Palisades, New York
PAN Livestock Services pearl @ wildlifetrust.org
Reading, United Kingdom
[email protected] Jeremy S. Perkins, Ph.D.
Department of Environmental Sciences
Linda Munson, D.V.M., Ph.D. University of Botswana
Department of Veterinary Pathology, Gaborone, Botswana
Microbiology, and Immunology
School of Veterinary Medicine Mark A. Pokras, M.S., D.V.M.
University of California Professor/Director
Davis, California Wildlife Clinic
[email protected] Tufts School of Veterinary Medicine
North Grafton, Massachussetts
M ark. Pokras @ tufts. edu
Tamsyn P. Murray, M.Sc.
Health and Ecosystem Management
Mary Poss, D.V.M., Ph.D.
Centre Internacional de Agricultura
Division of Biological Sciences
Tropical
University of Montana
Centro Eco-Regional
Missoula, Montana
Pucallpa, Peru
[email protected]
tamsynmurray @ netscape.net
[email protected]
Trent Preszler, Ph.D.
Fogarty International Center
Todd M. O'Hara, D.V.M., Ph.D., Dipl. National Institutes of Health
A.B.V.T. Bethesda, Maryland
Research Biologist
Department of Wildlife Management Ernesto F. Raez-Luna
North Slope Borough Institute for Resources and Environment
Barrow, Alaska University of British Columbia
tohara® co. north-slope, ak. us Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
[email protected]
Richard S. Ostfeld, Ph.D.
Scientist David J. Rapport, Ph.D., F.L.S.
Institute of Ecosystem Studies Professor
Millbrook, New York Department of Rural Planning and
[email protected] Development
College Faculty of Environmental Design
Jonathan A. Patz, M.D., M.P.H. and Rural Development
Assistant Professor and Director University of Guelph
Program on Health Effects of Global En- Guelph, Ontario, Canada
vironmental Change drapport @ oac. uoguelph .ca
 Contributors xxiii

Jamie K. Reaser, Ph.D. Colin L. Soskolne, Ph.D., F.A.C.E.

U.S. Department of State Professor of Epidemiology
OES/ETC, Room 4333 Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry
Washington, D.C. 20520 Department of Public Health Sciences
[email protected] University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
J. Michael Reed, Ph.D. [email protected]
Department of Biology
Tufts University Michael E. Soule, Ph.D.
Medford, Massachusetts Science Director
[email protected] The Wildlands Project
Hotchkiss, Colorado
Allen Rodrigo, Ph.D. [email protected]
Computational and Evolutionary Biology
Laboratory Terry R. Spraker, D.V.M., Ph.D., Dipl.
School of Biological Sciences A.C.V.P.
University of Auckland Colorado State University
Auckland, New Zealand Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory
[email protected] Fort Collins, Colorado
tspraker@ vth.colostate.edu
Matthew Rooney
Colorado State University
Sara Sullivan, A.B.
Veterinary Teaching Hospital
Center for Health and the Global Environ-
Fort Collins, Colorado
ment
Harvard Medical School
Joshua P. Rosenthal, Ph.D. Boston, Massachusetts
Program Director for Biodiversity,
Ecology, and Informatics
Gary M. Tabor, V.M.D., M.E.S.
Fogarty International Center
Wilburforce Foundation
National Institutes of Health
Yellowstone to Yukon Program Office
Bethesda, Maryland
Bozeman, Montana
joshua_rosenthal@ nih.gov
[email protected]
Eric M. Schauber, Ph.D.
Scientist Sam R. Telford III, D.Sc.
Institute of Ecosystem Studies Lecturer in Tropical Public Health
Millbrook, New York Harvard School of Public Health
schaubere @ ecostudies.org Boston, Massachusetts
[email protected]
Kenneth A. Schmidt, Ph.D.
Department of Biology David Waltner-Toews, Ph.D.
Williams College Department of Population Medicine
Williamstown, Massachusetts University of Guelph
[email protected] Guelph, Ontario, Canada
[email protected]
Jonathan Sleeman, Vet.M.B., M.R.C.V.S.
Director of Veterinary Services Samuel K. Wasser, Ph.D.
Wildlife Center of Virginia Endowed Chair in Conservation Biology
Waynesboro, Virginia Center for Conservation Biology
[email protected] Department of Zoology
xxiv Contributors

Seattle, Washington Chief of Infectious Diseases, Mount Au-

[email protected] burn Hospital
Cambridge, Massachusetts
_ „_,, ,.,_ maryJ [email protected]
Mary E. Wilson, M.D. ~
Associate Professor of Medicine, Nathan D. Wolfe
Harvard Medical School Department of Environmental Health Sci-
Associate Professor of Population and In- ences
ternational Health, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health
Harvard School of Public Health Baltimore, Maryland
Part I

Ecological Health
and Change
This page intentionally left blank
 1

Introduction

James G. Else
Mark A. Pokras

A primary goal of conservation medicine is the pursuit of ecological

^health or, by extension, the health of ecosystems and their inhabi-
tants. Ecological health is, and will remain, in a continuous state of flux. As our
environment continues to change, so will the disease patterns and their effects on
the health of human and animal populations.
These types of interactions by their very nature will remain unpredictable and
poorly understood. When evaluating the health of an ecosystem, there is a need
to tease out normal background noise to look for long-term trends and changes,
rather than short-term occurrences that may or may not be significant. One needs
to draw a composite picture from an array of perceived trends that as a whole
may indicate the health of the environment and its occupants.
This book is a compilation of chapters defining the potential boundaries of the
field of conservation medicine. These chapters describe the wide array of issues
presently involving health and the environment. On one end of the spectrum is a
degraded biosphere being consumed by insatiable human needs, and on the other,
the health effects on human and other species as a result of this consumptive
behavior. The decline in ecological health is happening on all scales from the
global to the local. The chapters in this book present effects in terrestrial, marine,
and freshwater environments in the developed and developing worlds. Attention
is also given to changes in the practice of human, veterinary, and ecosystem health
care. To understand the scope of conservation medicine, a framework for the
exploration and practice of the field is presented.
In part I, Tabor (chap. 2) offers an in-depth discussion of the concept of con-
servation medicine with an invitation to the reader to join in the development of
this practice and both refine its parameters and extend its scope to additional

3
4 Ecological Health and Change

allied fields. The definition is developed in the context of related disciplines by

Ostfeld et al. (chap. 3), who present conservation medicine as a "crisis discipline"
as defined by Soule. Epstein (chap. 4) examines the contributions of social par-
ameters, ecological change, and climate trends to species dynamics in controlling
disease and suggests guidelines for selecting biological indicators for improving
disease surveillance and ecosystem monitoring. Daszak and Cunningham (chap.
5) and House and colleagues (chap.9) highlight the emerging and resurgent in-
fectious diseases as one manifestation of ecological health. Colborn (chap. 6)
presents two studies illustrating the damage done to both human and animal en-
docrine systems by chemical contamination: one, on ingestion of tainted fish, and
the second, on exposure to a fungicide.
The monitoring of ecological health requires both interpretation and extrapo-
lation, and the synthesis of scientific information so that it can be presented in a
usable form to managers, policy makers, and the public. This synthesis is impor-
tant because political decisions often have to be made before a sufficient scientific
base has been established.
Part II focuses on the monitoring and assessment of these complex interactions,
using a range of ecological, biomedical, and behavioral indicators. In order to
monitor ecological health, and to interpret perceived trends, we need to have at
our disposal a set of tools that span a wide range of ecologic, biologic, and
demographic measures. Consequently, this section is not about monitoring tech-
niques per se, but rather the incredibly wide spectrum of parameters that the
conservation medicine practitioner should take into account in making a diagnosis.
The challenge is to synthesize properly what we already know, while incorporat-
ing an ever-increasing range of monitoring indices and assessment techniques. It
takes a well-coordinated and truly multidisciplinary team effort to accomplish
these tasks—a recurring theme that cuts across each of the chapters in this section.
Since the mid twentieth century we have experienced unprecedented environ-
mental change that has affected the health of both marine and terrestrial ecosys-
tems. Until very recently the capacity of the ocean seemed limitless—but now
we are beginning to see the effects of generations of dumping and extractions.
Aguirre and colleagues (chap. 7) provide evidence of the extent to which we are
undermining the health of the ocean, while Munson and Karesh (chap. 8) turn
our attention to terrestrial ecosystems, stressing the importance of wildlife health
and viable animal populations to a healthy ecosystem. House and colleagues
(chap. 9) discuss the significance of the emergence and increasing incidence of a
number of marine microbial diseases. Fundamental to this is the understanding
of the ecology of infectious agents and toxic compounds. The authors discuss the
value of long-term disease monitoring, particularly when faced with an epidemic
or the need to make wildlife management or policy decisions.
Poss and colleagues (chap. 10) examine the role of viruses both in shaping
host population structure and as a tool to monitor host population dynamics. The
authors underscore the importance of accurate laboratory isolation and character-
ization of suspected disease agents when studying disease outbreaks and the emer-
gence of new disease syndromes, and how genetic typing can help elucidate dis-
ease etiology. It is necessary, however, to distinguish between the presence of a
 Introduction 5

disease agent and actual disease with these increasingly sensitive diagnostic tech-
niques. Wasser and colleagues (chap. 11) review noninvasive monitoring proce-
dures that can be used to track physiological parameters of selected wildlife spe-
cies, and in the study of disease. Reed (chap. 12) touches upon the ways behavior
can contribute to population persistence, risk, and recovery and can be used as a
tool to evaluate ecosystem health. Recognizing the limitations of some of the
popular bioindicators of ecosystem health, including cost and the need for long-
term data sets, Reed points out how particular behaviors can be used as indicators
of ecosystem health and how knowledge of behavior can contribute to the design
of more effective monitoring techniques. It is clear that the authors in this section
recognize the need to take a holistic approach to monitoring and assessment that
transcends traditional scientific or medical disciplines. This is a basic tenet of
conservation medicine and should lead to the identification of new patterns or
connections that perhaps previously went unnoticed.
The impact of ecological change on human health is presented in part III. Each
chapter acknowledges the common truth that the expansion of our human popu-
lation and its ever more consumptive lifestyles are increasingly causing conflicts
between the interests of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. These include
the crowding of more and more free-ranging species onto less and less habitat,
declining quality of air and water, accelerated rates of climate change, increased
spread of disease and disease vectors, introduction of nonnative species, and a
host of other threats. Patz and Wolfe (chap. 13) describe the effects of some of
the natural and human-induced changes in the environment on the incidence,
proliferation, and emergence of disease. Chivian and Sullivan (chap. 14) present
examples of medications found in nature that may have already disappeared, or
will in the near future, as a result of species loss. The authors illustrate the use
of endangered animals as research models and subjects as well as infectious dis-
eases affected by disruption of ecosystem and biodiversity equilibria.
Molyneux (chap. 15) discusses the impact of deforestation and reforestation
on vectors and infectious diseases in humans. Biodiversity and disease risk using
Lyme disease as a case study is addressed (chap. 16) demonstrating that by frag-
menting the eastern seaboard forests into fragments below a minimum critical
size, we lose the predators that keep the primary Lyme disease carriers (white-
footed mice and chipmunks) in check, thereby providing more carriers of the
disease. Graczyk (chap. 17) describes the impact of zoonoses on public health,
wildlife conservation, and agriculture. Nutrient loading and water contamination
as a result of intensive agricultural practices have led to potentially harmful algal
blooms (Burkeholder, chap. 18).
Earlier sections of this volume have focused on documenting how widespread
and serious ecological health issues are becoming and on techniques used to
monitor such environmental perturbations. Part IV focuses on integrative ap-
proaches that are aimed at effecting solutions. The various applications presented
reflect the diversity of skills, knowledge and approaches that are required if people
are to implement creative, workable solutions to the complex problems facing
wildlife and natural ecosystems. Controversial wildlife disease issues in protected
areas are discussed by Gillin et al. (chap. 19); whereas Kock et al. (chap. 20)
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