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NEW WAYS OF WORKING PRACTICES:
ANTECEDENTS AND OUTCOMES
ADVANCED SERIES IN MANAGEMENT

Previous Volumes:

Relational Practices, Participative Organizing

EDS. CHRIS STEYAERT AND BART VAN LOOY

Autopoiesis in Organization Theory and Practice

EDS. RODRIGO MAGALHAES AND RON SANCHEZ

Organizations as Learning Systems “Living Composition” as an Enabling Infrastructure

ED. MARJATTA MAULA

Complex Systems and Evolutionary Perspectives on Organizations: The Application of Complexity

Theory to Organizations
ED. EVE MITLETON-KELLY

Managing Imaginary Organizations: A New Perspective on Business

EDS. BO HEDBERG, PHILIPPE BAUMARD AND A. YAKHLEF

Systems Perspectives on Resources, Capabilities and Management Processes

EDS. JOHN MORECROFT, RON SANCHEZ AND AIMÉ HEENE

Tracks and Frames: The Economy of Symbolic Forms in Organizations

ED. K. SKOLDBERG

Electronic HRM in Theory and Practice

EDS. T. BONDAROUK, H. RUËL, AND J. C. LOOISE

Commercial Diplomacy and International Business: A Conceptual and Empirical Exploration

ED. H. RUËL

(Dis)honesty in Management: Manifestations and Consequences

EDS. TIIA VISSAK AND MAAJA VADI

Social Media in Strategic Management

EDS. MIGUEL R. OLIVAS-LUJÁN AND TANYA BONDAROUK

Social Media in Human Resources Management

EDS. TANYA BONDAROUK AND MIGUEL R. OLIVAS-LUJÁN

Shared Services as a New Organizational Form

ED. TANYA BONDAROUK

Human Resource Management, Social Innovation and Technology

EDS. TANYA BONDAROUK AND MIGUEL R. OLIVAS-LUJÁN

Dead Firms: Causes and Effects of Cross-Border Corporate Insolvency

EDS. MIGUEL M. TORRES, VIRGINIA CATHRO, AND MARIA ALEJANDRA
GONZALEZ-PEREZ
NEW WAYS OF WORKING
PRACTICES: ANTECEDENTS
AND OUTCOMES

EDITED BY

JAN DE LEEDE
University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands

United Kingdom North America Japan

India Malaysia China
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2017

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Contents

List of Contributors vii

Introduction ix

1. Finding the Optimal Mix between Telework and Office Hours to Enhance
Employee Productivity: A Study into the Relationship between Telework
Intensity and Individual Productivity, with Mediation of Intrinsic Motivation
and Moderation of Office Hours
Niels Hoornweg, Pascale Peters and Beatrice van der Heijden 1

2. Boundaryless Work, Psychological Detachment and Sleep: Does Working

‘Anytime Anywhere’ Equal Employees Are ‘Always on’?
Christin Mellner, Göran Kecklund, Michiel Kompier, 29
Amir Sariaslan and Gunnar Aronsson

3. New Ways of Working and Leadership: An Empirical Study in the Service

Industry
Jan de Leede and Paddy Heuver 49

4. Understanding Teamwork Behaviors in the Use of New Ways of Working

Jan de Leede and Joyce Nijland 73

5. Fostering Innovation: The Influence of New Ways of Working on Innovative

Work Behavior
Florian Moll and Jan de Leede 95

6. A Comparison between New Ways of Working and Sociotechnical Systems

Merle Blok, Friso van der Meulen and Steven Dhondt 145

7. Outlook: Some HR Implications towards Normal Ways of Working

Tanya Bondarouk and Jan de Leede 163
This page intentionally left blank
List of Contributors

Gunnar Aronsson Department of Psychology, Stockholm

University, Stockholm, Sweden
Merle Blok TNO, Leiden, Netherlands
Tanya Bondarouk Human Resource Management, University of
Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
Jan de Leede Faculty of Behavioral, Management and
Social Sciences, University of Twente,
Enschede, The Netherlands
Steven Dhondt TNO, Leiden, Netherlands; KU Leuven,
Belgium
Paddy Heuver Sensire, P&O-PSA, Varsseveld, Netherlands
Niels Hoornweg Kuehne + Nagel N.V., Western Europe
Region, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Göran Kecklund Stress Research Institute, Stockholm
University, Stockholm, Sweden
Michiel Kompier Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud
University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
Christin Mellner Department of Psychology, Stockholm
University, Stockholm, Sweden
Florian Moll METRO Cash and Carry, Düsseldorf,
Germany
Joyce Nijland Rabobank Enschede-Haaksbergen,
Netherlands
Pascale Peters Business Administration, SHRM, Radboud
University, Institute for Management
Research (IMR / GAINS), Nijmegen,
Netherlands
viii List of Contributors

Amir Sariaslan Department of Psychiatry, Medical Sciences

Division, University of Oxford, England
Beatrice van der Heijden Business Administration, SHRM, Radboud
University, Institute for Management
Research (IMR/GAINS), Nijmegen, The
Netherlands; Open University of the
Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands;
Kingston University, London, UK
Friso van der Meulen TNO, Leiden, Netherlands
Introduction

New Ways of Working: About the Hype and More to Come

This book is about new ways of working, about the new world of work. To put
it broader, one might say it is about the future of work. New technologies and new
office concepts are decisive for our working environments. New ways of working
refer to broader management labels, such as ‘the new workplace’ (Holman, Wall,
Clegg, Sparrow, & Howard, 2003); ‘the New World of Work’ (Gates & Rasmus,
2005); ‘new ways of organizing work’ (Kelliher & Richardson, 2012); and ‘New
Ways to Work’ (Peters, Poutsma, Van der Heijden, Bakker & De Bruijn, 2014).
These are all big words and concepts, and we are just at the start to understand the
impact of these global trends across the world on shaping our behaviours at work.
Not only in the management world, also in the facility management world, New
Ways of Working (NWW) is ubiquitous. An example is the White Book of ISS
entitled ‘New ways of working; the workplace of the future’ (2013) in which a glo-
bal survey among facility managers is reported. According to the FM industry, vir-
tual work will have the greatest influence on office design in 2020.
We might understand the status of these ‘new’ concepts if we view them as manage-
ment fashions. Abrahamson (1991, 1996) describes how management fashions work
and how important they are both for practice and research. We may observe remark-
able similarities with the NWW discourse. Now, it is in the ‘upswing’ phase, with
many positive stories on the outcomes of NWW, although some critical studies are
appearing. Still, this upswing phase is characterized by a ‘superstitious’ way of learn-
ing, as trendsetters present the new concept as a quite simple but powerful technique
with quasi-magical powers. This goes along with enthusiastic stories and anecdotal
evidence; you simply cannot be against these new management philosophies. Many
organizations do copy these techniques, why we can label it as a fad or fashion.
NWW seems to be in the upswing phase of a management fashion. Five argu-
ments can be put to this statement. Firstly, the academic rigour of the concept is
questionable, the definitions are too broad and loose. Do NWW refer to new work
practices, new working environments, new office environments, new technologies,
new labour relations or new management styles? If so, then the concept simply
seems too broad to say something about it. If it is so general, it covers everything.
Secondly, NWW is taken as a simplification of reality: the old versus the new ways
of working. Thirdly, NWW as a concept is put forward with a prescriptive
x Introduction

character. Many authors present some broad or even very detailed prescriptions of
management and employee practices that have to be followed in order to get the
promised benefits. Fourthly, the rate of imitation is quite high. Many boardrooms
of organizations wonder if they also should follow this concept. NWW is ‘in the
air’, it resonates to modern views of organizing. Finally, a lot of rhetoric accompa-
nies NWW as the concept that finally will raise the welfare of today’s knowledge
society by increasing the productivity of knowledge workers.
To some extent, it is dangerous and regrettable if NWW just sticks to this phase.
Regrettable, because if organizations just blind copy these management practices,
they run the risk of making the same mistakes as others do. They do not take the
optimal configuration of new technologies, practices and management techniques,
but just copy them from others, inspired by some best practices and misinformed
by many consultancy agencies that only seek their own business. So, already we see
some failures in trying to implement new ways of working, or we witness some
retreats. A famous example is Yahoo in 2013, whose CEO Marissa Mayer wants to
have everyone at the office in ‘normal’ business hours. No more flexible working
hours, no working from home, just back to normal work. She explained that
people who work alone are more productive, but people who work together are
more collaborative and innovative. Those competences are needed for their com-
pany at that particular phase. The next phase of a management fashion according
to Abrahamson, after a short and unstable asymptote, is the downswing, symmetric
to the rise and giving way to new fads and fashions.

Towards a Definition

Apparently, the concept of NWW is stemming from practice and has been coined
in the professional literature (e.g. Bijl, 2009; Gates & Rasmus, 2005; Hartmans &
Kamperman, 2009; Veldhoen, 2005). The academic literature on new ways of work-
ing is not well elaborated (see Blok, Groenesteijn, Van den Berg, & Vink, 2011; Ten
Brummelhuis, Bakker, Hetland, & Keulemans, 2012). Therefore, it is important to
disentangle the concept of NWW into concepts that have been researched in order
to conclude anything about the nature, the conditions and the outcomes of NWW.
Only then it is possible to counter or to support the claims of NWW advocates.
Only then, we can distinguish the real NWW from ‘consultancy-selling-promo-talk’
with lots of promised and non-real claims.

Pioneers of Virtual Work

If we follow some non-academic authors who have been pioneering with the con-
cept of NWW in The Netherlands we can conclude that they point on some impor-
tant trends in today’s world of work. However, their analytical power in dealing
with the different concepts is a bit lacking. What they normally propose is to cluster
some practices and label these trends into one concept: New Ways of Working.
 Introduction xi

Bijl (2009), Veldhoen (2005), Van den Haterd (2010) do not define NWW in an
exclusive and clear way. They all point to important developments. Especially
Veldhoen (1994, 2005) can be viewed as one of the pioneering authors on NWW.
Here, we want to elaborate on his work.
Veldhoen (2005) describes trends like open offices, individualization and new
information technologies that enable a lot of choices in where and when to work. In
his view, all these new possibilities imply a new function of the office. The nature of
the office is changing from a space to work into a space to meet. Work is done at
home, on the road or at the customer. The office is the place to meet each other, or
to have meetings and brainstorms. Veldhoen (1994, 2005) defines the concept of
workstyle as the system that regulates how people deal with one another and
resources. A workstyle is the configuration of three coherent environments or
dimensions: (1) the virtual environment (information technology supporting the
using and sharing information and knowledge; (2) the physical environment (the
building and interior design of the office) and (3) the behavioural environment or
mental dimension (attitudes and behaviour that come along with collaboration,
both from managers and employees). An activity-based workstyle means putting
the activity at the centre and choosing the right environment in which this activity
can be performed at best. This might be one of the cornerstones of NWW: provid-
ing people the freedom to choose when and where they perform their tasks and
activities and therefore optimizing the time, place and tools to perform the work. In
activity-based workstyle offices approximately 35% of the workers change work-
space during the course of the day, 45% change every other day, 18% change 2 3
times a week and 2% use the same workspace almost always (Hartmans &
Kamperman, 2009).

Many Definitions

New Ways of Working (NWW) is a concept that has been defined in a broad and
somewhat loose manner. Table 1 presents some of the most cited definitions.
We observe some overlap as well as some differences between these definitions.
In the first place, they all focus on practices in which employees can choose to work
at the time and workplace they prefer. It is safe to conclude that these definitions
all focus on practices in which employees experience some autonomy in when and
where to work. Some authors call it autonomy, others empowerment or freedom to
choose. To our understanding, this is a very basic principle of NWW and it is based
on the early insights of Veldhoen (1994) that it is about providing freedom to peo-
ple to choose the appropriate time and space to work. If employees may choose on
their own individual workstyle, it will boost their productivity and work-life
balance. In other words, one of the most important characteristics of NWW is the
possibility for employees to work independently of time and workplace. Of course,
it is important to know to what extent these two types of autonomy are realized.
We come back to the boundaries and to this ‘degree of virtuality’ (De Leede,
Kraan, den Hengst, & van Hooff, 2008) later on.
xii Introduction

Table 1: Definitions of new ways of working.

Baane, Houtkamp, and NWW consist of four basic principles

Knotter (2010, p. 42) 1. Time and place independent work
2. Steering on output
3. Free access to knowledge, experience and
information
4. Flexible labour relations.
Blok, Groenesteijn, Schelvis, ‘This empowerment implies offering the
and Vink (2012, p. 5075) employees more self-control and freedom by
introducing flexible work arrangements. This
transformation is often referred to as “the
New Ways of Working” (NWW) and consists of
changes that take place at four aspects:
1) the physical workspace,
2) (ICT) technology,
3) organization & management and
4) work culture’.
Ten Brummelhuis et al. ‘Flexible work designs whereby employees can
(2012, p. 113) decide themselves when they work (schedule
flexibility), where they work (telecommuting),
and via which communication medium (smart-
phone, e-mail, videoconference) they work’.
De Leede and Kraijenbrink ‘… an innovative configuration of work,
(2014, p. 7) technology and people whereby the employee is
able to work independent of time, place and
organization. It is supported by a flexible work
environment which is facilitated by the latest
technology and ICT. In addition, it provides
more responsibility and autonomy to employees,
and management will change into managing by
output and trust. This new way of working will
result in a higher efficiency and effectiveness to
the organization and the employees’.
Peters et al. (2014, p. 2) ‘… a set of HRM practices (employee
empowerment, teleworking, and creating trust
relationships)’.

In the second place, most definitions also imply a technological basis: it is the
Information Technology that is enabling to work independent from time and loca-
tion. Through the use of internet, business networks, e-mail, social media and all
kinds of collaboration technologies it is possible to work at times beyond standard
office hours and to work beyond the standard office workplaces. Technology makes
 Introduction xiii

it possible. You may discuss whether this is a defining characteristic or an enabling

one. However, because of the importance of IT, in most definitions IT is therefore
included in the definition of NWW. This also is quite close to the origins of the
concept, back in the 1980 and 1990s in which teleworking or telecommuting refers
to practices to work at home by making use of IT (Bailey & Kurland, 2002; Bailyn,
1989; Baruch, 2000).
Next to these similarities about autonomy and technology, the definitions begin
to differ. Do characteristics like ‘steering on output’ and ‘organization & manage-
ment’ belong to the defining characteristic of NWW, or not? Or is it a consequence
of working in the new concept, like De Leede and Kraijenbrink (2014) state?
Likewise, another difference is the way how they treat culture. Do ‘work culture’ or
aspects like ‘trusting relationships’ belong to the defining characteristics of NWW,
or do they belong to the conditions or even the consequences of NWW? It might be
difficult to entangle these variables, however, for a thorough analysis of the concept
and its outcomes, it is necessary to make a deliberate choice.

Our Definition

For reasons of analytical clarity, we define NWW in a focused manner. The main
characteristic of NWW is the freedom for employees to choose their working times
and working places. The second characteristic is the use of IT to enable this remote
work and this 24/7 possibility to work at other times. It is because information and
communication technologies enable time-space compression (Harvey, 1989) that
work is less bound to place and time. This second characteristic is absolutely a must,
because otherwise NWW will not discriminate from traditional work that for example
teachers usually do in preparing lectures or grading tests at home. That kind of work
usually was paperwork, and also possible beyond business hours and beyond office
workspaces. Nevertheless, it is not a practice that is characteristic for New Ways of
Working. Therefore, in our definition we need to incorporate the technology.
Our definition of NWW is as follows:

New Ways of Working are practices in which employees are able to work independent of time,
place and organization, supported by a flexible work environment which is facilitated by infor-
mation technologies.

We now are able to make a list of NWW practices that are exemplary for NWW,
see Table 2. It is largely based on the work of Blok et al. (2011), however we added
some practices and also left some out (like management based on trust), because
these seem to be conditions for the effective application of NWW practices.
Having defined NWW as working independent of time, place and organization,
we incorporated only the flexible working environment and the technology as part
of the definition. No other variables. That is a deliberate choice. It seems important
to distinguish between the concept and its conditions. Of course, we agree that
NWW needs to be managed in a somewhat different way compared to the old
xiv Introduction

Table 2: NWW practices.

NWW Practice Description

Teleworking Doing the work (partly) from home, fully connected to the
office network
Mobile working Enabling employees to work while commuting
Satellite offices Offices outside an organization’s office buildings, for example
at customer’s locations
Flexible Flexible workspaces in the office building that are shared
workspaces among employees and offer specific environments that
correspond to the various tasks to facilitate effective working
Flexible working Allowing to start and end the workday outside of the core time
hours
Social networks Using smartphones and other mobile devices to allow
employees to stay digitally connected via for example work-e-
mail at home, Facebook or LinkedIn
Collaborative Using smartphones and other mobile devices to enable video
tools conferencing, digital collaboration and document sharing

situation in which people are always and simultaneously around. In Chapter 3, the
new way of leadership will be discussed. And of course, it is important to having
trusting relationships between managers and remote workers, or between co-work-
ers. And we also agree with the notion of communication as an important vehicle
to ensure collaboration between employees who are working on different places and
different times. In Chapter 4 we will discuss the implications of NWW for team-
work. However, key is that we see all these variables as an implication of NWW,
not as a defining characteristic.

Who Are the NWW Workers

The definition of NWW as time-and-space-independent work also excludes lots of

workers in today’s organizations. In modern society, still many people work at sites
that are not suitable for NWW. We may think of the sector of the hotels and res-
taurants: no one can think of drinking a beer at a place while the waiter is working
at home only. As a consequence, workers at the hospitality sector mostly have
place-dependent work. They cannot work at home nor do mobile work. The same
applies for the time aspect of this kind of work. They cannot work only during the
day, because most work is in the evening! As a matter of fact, they can use IT to
make work easier. The same is for the healthcare sector and still for the educational
sector. Mostly, work is done during business hours at special places designated for
treating people and for educating them. That work is on fixed hours and on
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