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Fine Sediment Dynamics
in the Marine Environment
Companion books to this title in the Proceedings in Marine Science series are:

Volume I: Solent Science - A Review

M. Collins and K. Ansell (Eds.)

Volume 2: Muddy Coast Dynamics and Resource Management

B.W. Flemming, M.T. Delafontaine and G. Liebezeit (Eds.)

Volume 3: Coastal and Estuarine Fine Sediment Processes

W.H. McAnally and A.J. Mehta (Eds.)

Volume 4: Muddy Coasts of the World: Processes, Deposits and Function

T. Healy, Y. Wang andJ-A. Healy (Eds.)
 Proceedings in Marine Science 5

Fine Sediment Dynamics in the

Marine Environment
Edited by

Johan C. Winterwerp
WL I Delft Hydraulics, Delft, The Netherlands
also
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences,
Section of Fluid Mechanics

Cees Kranenburg
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences,
Section of Fluid Mechanics

2002
Pl c, P \ / I I:::I~
ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V.
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In memory of RAY B. K R O N E

Ray B. Krone, who died on December 7, 2000, was born in 1922 in Califomia, and apart from
the years he spent in World War II he lived, studied and worked in California. During those
war years he piloted a P-38 aeroplane over Germany in the U.S. Army Air Corps 31 st Photo-
reconnaissance Squadron. He was fond of recalling his photographing sorties in the war zone,
especially one during which he flew over the Eagle's Nest - Adolph Hitler's hideout in the
mountains. Piloting small planes remained one of his loves in life, and he never lost his
fondness for flying over the state's great Central Valley with its breadbasket farms and
orchards.

9'." (,, "7,.,." "...,.~ 2].. ~.. ,...'.. -

9 ., , ,.i:, k% "':

, ~ _ _ _ .

After returning home from Europe he decided to complete his college education at UC
Berkeley. There, in 1950 obtained his B.S. in Soil Science, then M.S. in Sanitary Engineering
in 1958, and finally his doctorate in 1962, also in Sanitary Engineering. In 1964 he joined UC
Davis as Associate Professor, and the next year founded the environmental engineering
programme there. He went on to serve as Chair of the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, and as Associate Dean for Research in the College of Engineering. Even while
serving in administration, he continued to teach and guide students. Many of his masters and
doctoral students went on to become successful engineers and scientists.
vi

Ray retired from UC Davis in 1988, but continued his involvement in teaching and research
as professor emeritus, and engineering consulting work through Ray Krone & Associates in
Davis, where he lived. David Schoellhamer taught a course on sediment transport once taught
by Ray, who continued to run the one-day field trip as part of the course. One stop was a
restored wetland. David recalls that on one such trip the group drove their vans up to a locked
gate with a large "No Trespassing" sign. With a characteristic sparkle in his eye, Ray quickly
climbed the gate and headed off toward the wetland, as the students looked on dumbfounded.
So at that point David told them to get over the gate and follow Ray.
For several years, until the end, he served as a most valued consultant on ports and harbors
to the Committee of Tidal Hydraulics of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, with which he
was closely associated since his 1950's work in the San Francisco Bay. He also served on
boards of the National Research Council. The American Society of Civil Engineers, of which
Ray was a Fellow and in which he served in various professional capacities, presented him the
Hans Albert Einstein Award in 1991 for his seminal contributions to sediment transport and
sedimentation engineering. This was an apt tribute - Ray worked for almost two decades with
Prof. Einstein first as a researcher, then as a student, and finally as a colleague. Ray's
scientific work bears a clear mark of the phenomenological and stochastic interpretative
approach of Einstein, whom Ray adored both as a scientist and as a person. Among the many
memories of their long friendship and partnership, Ray was fond of recounting Einstein's
remark to Ray's wife Jane, when Ray decided to accept the professorial position at UC Davis
- Einstein said, "Ray will never be rich but he will be happy". Ray also considered Einstein a
great m e n t o r - "whenever you wanted to talk to him about research he was all ears", is what
Ray would say.
In 1995 Ray achieved another distinction by being elected to the National Academy of
Engineering, and in 1996 he was elected a fellow of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science for "efforts toward advancing science or fostering applications that
are deemed scientifically or socially distinguished."
Jane died in 1999 after 54 years of marriage, the year before Ray's own death, survived by
son Ray III, daughter Ann and grandchildren. To those who knew him in his professional life,
Ray will be remembered as a founder of the hydraulics of cohesive sediment transport, and as
one with the ability to analyse and explain sedimentation related problems with great insight
and clarity of communication. He will be remembered even more by the large number of
students and colleagues in the U.S. and throughout the world to whom he served as a mentor,
and as a source of inspiration through his personal example of human kindness and dedication
to profession.
Ray's scientific work, together with Prof. Einstein and later with his students, covered a
variety of topics mainly in wastewater treatment and estuarine processes. He contributed to
design of ports and harbours to reduce erosion or sedimentation, and hydraulics of marsh
restoration. A significant amount of his scientific and engineering work is related to the San
Francisco Bay system and tributaries, where he carried out numerous projects on marina
design and saltmarsh restoration. He developed an early understanding of the relationship
between flow circulation and sedimentation in the bay and its channels, and simple but
effective models for simulating the long-term evolution of the peripheral marsh-plains. He
served as an expert witness in many cases involving sedimentation and waterline boundary
disputes in the bay area.
 vii

Sedimentation in the San Francisco Bay has been the focus of interest and research at UC
Berkeley from the late 19th century, when the bay and its tributaries, especially the
Sacramento-San Joaquin river system, began experiencing excessive sedimentation due to
hydraulic mining in the Sierra Nevada range. This sediment raised the bed levels in the rivers
and caused flooding of the neighbouring farmland. As a result a legal dispute between the
mine owners and farmers, which led the State of California to request several agencies
including the U.S. Geological Survey to conduct research on the rivers and the bay to propose
appropriate flood control measures. Gustav Karl Gilbert of USGS constructed a flume at the
Berkeley campus and conducted his well-known studies on the relationship between flow and
sediment (sand) transport. After hydraulic mining was banned, attention shifted to
sedimentation in the ports and channels within the bay, which meant looking at the properties
of material that was fine-grained and cohesive.
Ray's doctoral work was related to the structure of water, and he revisited that general
subject in later years when he pointed out that the classical theory based on molecular (gas)
dynamics did not correctly predict the relationship between the viscosity of a liquid and the
absolute temperature (Krone, 1983). Using liquid benzene as an example, he carefully
reinterpreted molecular dynamics focusing on liquids. Through a momentum exchange model
for molecular layers he proposed a better physics-based model for the viscosity-temperature
relationship.
Aside for his work on water, the vast majority of Ray's work was related to fine-grained
sediments, and of all his contributions in that area, he is most well known for two reports he
wrote in the early 1960's (Krone, 1962; 1963). These works included his laboratory studies on
the transport of cohesive material from the San Francisco Bay. The need for that work was
rooted in a field study carried out in the 1950's in the bay to track the movement of sediment
floes by way of radioisotopic inoculation of the floes (Einstein and Krone, 1961).
The focus of the 1962 report was the study of deposition of cohesive material from the bay
in a flume at Berkeley's Richmond Field Station. The most important observation derived
from that work was the demonstration that depositing flocs must not be treated as integral
units because due to collisional mechanisms they undergo growth and breakup, or
aggregation, which causes their transport properties to change continuously even as they fall
out of suspension. Using simple but highly insightful arguments starting from the flocculation
theory and experimental observations of Overbeek (1952), Ray developed three equations for
the rate of floc deposition, each applicable within a certain range of concentration of the
suspended matter. Of these, the equation for the lowest concentration range, with an upper
limit of 0.3 kg/m 3, is most commonly used and bears his name. Because of its wide
applicability, its utility remains unchallenged in cohesive sediment transport, although in
subsequent years it has been extended to enable it to handle fine graded sediment.
The 1963 report, meant to determine the strength and density of floes in the bay, was a
natural extension of the earlier work, and was conducted in a concentric cylinder rheometer.
Ray made the observation that when a suspension of bay mud was tested in this apparatus, the
derived relationship between the shear rate and the shear stress was piece-wise linear, with the
slope of the line, denoting viscosity, decreasing as shear rate increased. This meant, he
concluded, that each line corresponded to a class of flocs of constant properties and hence
viscosity. Using this observation, and beginning with Albert Einstein's work on the viscosity
of a suspension of solid spheres at infinite dilution (Einstein, 1911), Ray developed a method
viii

to calculate the density and shear strength of floes of each class, which he called "order". He
further showed that under typical estuarine conditions floes of different orders can coexist,
with the number of orders dependent on the flow condition and sediment composition - the
more cohesive the sediment the greater the number of orders. This important method of
organising the process of floc aggregation in the natural environment led to further work on
the way in which flocs deposit and then consolidate as the deposited floes are crushed by self-
weight and change their order as consolidation proceeds. Subsequent work by others on the
fractal representation of floes is, in sense, a quantification of the order of aggregation concept.
Ray's recognition of the importance of aggregation led to a scientific controversy in the
1960's and 70's based on measurements in some East Coast estuaries where aggregation was
not thought to be important. A partial answer to that issue is found in Ray's 1963 report itself,
in which he observed that among the several estuarine sediments he examined, material from
San Francisco Bay was far more cohesive than most others, which in turn meant that
elsewhere aggregation was likely to be less important. Subsequent work has shown that the
role of aggregation is indeed site-specific, and where the material is not too cohesive, say due
to the presence of a high fraction of silts or organic matter, aggregation tends to be weak,
although usually not negligible. It follows that in experiments where the main objective is to
examine the effects of cohesion on transport, weakly cohesive materials, even such clays as
kaolinite, may not be used.
My first meeting with Ray was in December of 1970, when I had just finished running some
fine sediment deposition tests in an annular flume. He came over to look at the data, flying in
from the city of Naples in Florida in a small rental plane he piloted. The results using a
kaolinite as sediment were somewhat unusual and I expressed my concern. "You should look
at the effect of sorting on your results", he said confidently. New to the area of sediments, I
did not know what "sorting" meant. And was afraid to ask.

Ashish Mehta
University of Florida

References
Einstein, A., 1911, A new determination of molecular dimensions, Annals of Physics, (19),
289-306; (34), 591-592.
Einstein, H. A., and Krone, R. B., 1961, Estuarial sediment transport patterns, Journal of the
Hydraulics Division, ASCE, (87) 2, 51-59.
Krone, R. B., 1962, Flume studies of the transport of sediment in estuarial shoaling processes,
Final Report, Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory and Sanitary Engineering Research
Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 118p.
Krone, R. B., 1963, A study of rheological properties of estuarial sediments, Technical
Bulletin No. 7, Committee on Tidal Hydraulics, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, 105p.
Krone, R. B., 1983, A viscosity-temperature relation for Newtonian liquids, Chemical
Engineering Communications, (22), 161-180.
Overbeek, J. Th. G., 1952. Kinetics of flocculation. In: Colloid Science, Vol. 1, H. R. Kruyt
ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 278-301.
 ix

Preface

Cohesive sediment, or mud, is encountered in most water bodies throughout the world. Often,
mud is a valuable resource, synonymous with fertile land, enriching the natural environment
and used as an important building material. Yet, mud also hinders navigation. Consequently,
dredging operations have been carried out since ancient times to safeguard navigation.
Unfortunately, many mud deposits are now contaminated, endangering the eco-system and
increasing the costs of dredging operations.
However, the transport and fate of mud in the environment are still poorly understood and
the need for basic research remains. This book contains the proceedings of the INTERCOH-2000
conference on recent progress in cohesive sediment research. It was the sixth in a series of
conferences initially started by Prof. Ashish Mehta in 1984 as a Workshop on Cohesive
Sediment Dynamics with Special Reference to the Processes in Estuaries. Prof. Metha invited
most of the experts on cohesive sediments at that time for a relatively small workshop in
Tampa, Florida, USA. Since then, conferences have been held in:
9 Gainesville, Florida, USA (1987),
9 Petersburg, Florida, USA (1991),
9 Wallingford, UK, (1994), where the name INTERCOH was first introduced, and
9 Seoul, Korea (1998).
During these conferences the character of the first workshop has always been maintained,
that is, small scale and dedicated to the physical and engineering aspects of cohesive
sediments, without parallel sessions, ample time for discussions during and after the
presentations, and a high-quality Book of Proceedings containing thoroughly reviewed papers.
INTERCOH-2000 was the last conference attended by Prof. Ray Krone, who is considered to
be one of the founders of modem cohesive sediment research. Regretfully, he passed away a
few months after the conference. The obituary on the preceding pages of this book was written
by Prof. Mehta.
INTERCOH-2000 was integrated with the final workshop of the COSINUS project. This project
was carried out as part of the European MAST-3 programme, and almost all European cohesive
sediment workers were involved. An introduction to this project by the project co-ordinator,
Prof. Jean Berlamont, can be found in the first chapter of this book. This introduction is
followed by five summaries of the tasks around which the project was organised. Further
details are given in a number of papers elsewhere in the Proceedings.
INTERCOH-2000 focused on the behaviour and modelling of Concentrated Benthic
Suspensions, i.e. high-concentrated near-bed suspensions of cohesive sediment. Special
reference was paid to:
9 Sediment- turbulence interaction,
9 Flocculation and settling velocity,
9 High-concentrated mud suspensions,
9 Processes in the b e d - consolidation,
9 Processes on the b e d - erosion,
9 Field observations on mud dynamics,
9 Instrumentation, and
9 Numerical modelling.
The various papers of the Proceedings are organised in chapters on these subjects in
alphabetical order.
The INTERCOH-2000 conference could not have been organised without the financial support
provided by WL I Delft Hydraulics, Rijkswaterstaat / RIKZ, SILT, Rijkswaterstaat / RIZA, the
Port of Rotterdam and Delft University of Technology. We also gratefully acknowledge
Caroline Sloot and Astrid van Bragt for their skilful organisation of the conference.

Han Winterwerp
Cees Kranenburg

Delft, The Netherlands

 xi

Contents

I n m e m o r y of R a y B. K r o n e ...............................................................
A.J. Mehta

Preface .............................................................................................. ix

Prediction of cohesive sediment transport modelling and bed dynamics

in estuaries and coastal zones with integrated numerical simulation models .........
J.E. Berlamont

C h a p t e r 1: C O S I N U S t a s k s A t h r o u g h D s u m m a r i e s ..........................

Interaction of suspended cohesive sediment and turbulence .............................

E.A. Toorman, A.W. Bruens, C. Kranenburg and J.C. Winterwerp

Flocculation and settling velocity of fine sediment .......................................... 25

J.C. Winterwerp, A.J. Bale, M.C. Christie, K.R. Dyer, S. Jones,
D.G. Lintern, A.J. Manning and W. Roberts

Dynamics of Concentrated Benthic Suspension Layers .................................... 41

J.C. Winterwerp, A.W. Bruens, N. Gratiot, C. Kranenburg,
M. Mory and E.A. Toorman

Measurement and modelling of the properties of cohesive sediment deposits ......... 57

M.P. Dearnaley, W. Roberts, S. Jones, K.C. Leurer, D.G. Lintern, L.M. Merckelbach,
G.C. Sills, E.A. Toorman and J.C. Winterwerp

Numerical simulation of cohesive transport:

intercomparison of several numerical models ................................................ 75
D. Violea, S. Bourban, C. Cheviet, M. Markofsky, O. Petersen,
W. Roberts, J. Spearman, E. Toorman, H.J. Vested, H. Weilbeer
xii

C h a p t e r 2: H i g h - c o n c e n t r a t e d m u d s u s p e n s i o n s ................................. 91

Tidal asymmetry and variability of bed shear stress and sediment bed
flux at a site in San Francisco Bay, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
M.L. Brennan, D.H. SchoeUhamer, J.R. Burau, S.G. Monismith

Physical modelling of entrainment by a Concentrated Benthic Suspension ........... 109

A.W. Bruens, C. Kranenburg and J.C. Winterwerp

lnterfacial instabilities at the lutocline in the Jiaojiang estuary, China ................ 125
J. Jiang and A.J. Mehta

CBS layers in a diffusive turbulence grid oscillation experiment ........................ 139

M. Mory, N. Gratiot, A.J. Manning and H. Michallet

Modelling of turbulent flow with suspended cohesive sediment ......................... 155

E.A. Toorman

Scaling parameters for High-Concentrated Mud Suspensions in tidal flow .......... 171
J.C. Winterwerp

C h a p t e r 3: F l o c c u l a t i o n a n d s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y ...................................... 187

Direct observation of the formation and break-up of aggregates

in an annular flume using laser reflectance particle sizing ............................... 189
A.J. Bale, R.J. Uncles, J. Widdows, M.D. Brinsley and C.D. Barrett

The turbidity maximum in a mesotidal estuary, the Tamar Estuary, UK:

I. Dynamics of suspended sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
K.R. Dyer, A.J. Bale, M.C. Christie, N. Feates, S. Jones and A.J. Manning

The turbidity maximum in a mesotidal estuary, the Tamar Estuary, UK:

II. The floc properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
K.R. Dyer, A.J. Bale, M.C. Christie, N. Feates, S. Jones and A.J. Manning

A comparison of floc properties observed during neap and spring

tidal conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
A.J. Manning and K.R. Dyer

Particle size distribution in an estuarine turbidity maximum region .................. 251

S.B. Mitchell and J.R. West

On the geometry of cohesive settling flocs ................................................... 265

P.D. Scarlatos and H.-S. Kim
 xiii

Comparison of flocculation models for applied sediment transport modelling ...... 277
J.g. Spearman and W. Roberts

In situ measurements of settling velocity and particle size distribution

with the LISST-ST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
M. van Wijngaarden and J.g. Roberti

C h a p t e r 4: P r o c e s s e s in a n d o n t h e b e d : c o n s o l i d a t i o n a n d e r o s i o n ...... 313

On the erodibility of fine-grained sediments in an infilling freshwater system ....... 315

T.J. Andersen, E.J. Houwing and M. Pejrup

Gas bubble nucleation and growth in cohesive sediments ................................. 329

W.G.M. van Kesteren and T. van Kessel

Erosion properties of mud beds deposited in laboratory settling columns ............. 343
D.G. Lintern, G.C. Sills, N. Feates and W. Roberts

Strength modelling of consolidating mud beds ............................................... 359

L.M. Merckelbach, C. Kranenburg and J.C. Winterwerp

Description of vertical exchange processes in numerical mud transport

modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
O. Petersen and H.J. Vested

Simulation of biogenic sediment stabilisation by heterotrophic bacteria

in an annular flume ................................................................................ 393
J. Prochnow, C. Schweim and J. Koengeter

The influence of an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) on

cohesive sediment stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
T.J. Tolhurst, G. Gust and D.M. Paterson

C h a p t e r 5: F i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s o n m u d d y n a m i c s a n d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n 427

The seasonal dynamics of benthic (micro) organisms and extracellular

carbohydrates in an intertidal mudflat and their effect on the concentration
of suspended sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
E.M.G.T. de Deckere, B.A. Komman, N. Staats, G.R. Termaat, B. de Winder,
L.J. Stal and C.H.R. Heip
xiv

Interaction of submerged vegetation, hydrodynamics and tubidity;

analysis of field and laboratory Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
E.J. Houwing, I.C. Tdnczos, A. Kroon and M.B. de Vries

Sedimentation in a coastal mangrove system, Red River Delta, Vietnam .......... 455
B.M. Janssen-Stelder, P.G.E.F. Augustinus and W.A.C. van Santen

A preliminary study on using acoustic waves to measure

high resolution marine sediment bed structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
J.P.Y. Maa and D.-Y. Lee

An unusual turbidity maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

B.W. Nelson

Near bed sediment transport in the ltajai-asu River estuary,

southern Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
C.A.F. Schettini

Field study and modelling on the characteristics of bed mud formation

processes at the Rokkaku River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
R. Watanabe, T. Kusuda, H. Yamanishi and K. Yamasaki

C h a p t e r 6: N u m e r i c a l m o d e l l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Numerical simulation of cohesive sediment transport in the Loire estuary

with a three-dimensional model including new parameterisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
C. Cheviet, D. Violeau and M. Guesmia

3D application of the continuous modelling concept to mud slides in open seas... 545
P. Le Hir and F. Cayocca

The influence of fresh water distribution on SPM transport in the

Dutch coastal zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
J.M. de Kok

A process-based sand-mud model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

M. van Ledden

3-D numerical modelling of mud and radionuclide transport in the

Chernobyl Cooling Pond and Dnieper- Boog Estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
N. Margvelashvili, V. Maderich, S. Yuschenko and M. Zheleznyak

Episodic transport of organic-rich sediments in a microtidal estuarine system... 611

F.G. Marvdn, S.G. Wallis and A.J. Mehta
 XV

An adaptive finite element solution for cohesive sediment transport ................ 627
D.A. Mayne, A.S. Usmani and M. Crapper

Numerical modelling of mud transport processes in the T a m a r Estuary ............ 643

0. Petersen, H.J. Vested, A.M. Manning, M. Christie and K.R. Dyer

Dynamics of the turbidity maximum in the Changjiang Estuary, China ........... 655
Z. Shi

Numerical assessment of source and sink terms for cohesive sediments ........... 671
C. Schweim, J.V. Prochnow and J. K6ngeter

Modeling the sediment concentration profiles at the Amazon Shelf ................ 687
S.B. Vinzon and A.M. Paiva

Contributing authors ................................................................... 703

This Page Intentionally Left Blank
x-,u~ o~uuU~llt l . ~ y l i i l l l l l C b lI1 t i l e l v l a r l n e tznvlronment
J.C. Winterwerp and C. Kranenburg (Editors)
9 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Prediction of cohesive sediment transport and bed dynamics in estuaries

and coastal zones with integrated numerical simulation models (COSINUS)

Jean E. Berlamont a

aHydraulics Laboratory, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

The managing authorities of coastal waters and estuaries face a large number of problems
related to cohesive sediment transport, sedimentation and erosion, such as:
* How to maintain safe navigable depths (at minimum cost)?
, Where and how to dump dredged material?
. How can the volume of wetlands be maintained or increased?
, What will happen to the location of the turbidity maximum after constructing new harbour
basins or deepening the navigation channels ? etc.

To answer these questions, one needs a model capable of simulating the many different and
interrelated (cohesive) sediment processes occurring in coastal and estuarine waters, which
can predict natural phenomena and the effects of human interference. Unfortunately, the
presently used models are unable to simulate accurately the many different and interrelated
cohesive sediment processes occurring in coastal and estuarine waters due to too many
simplifications. Therefore there is a need for an integrated sediment transport management
model in which all relevant physical processes are integrated.
Progress in the understanding and the mathematical description of the different processes
and the increasing capacity and speed of modem computers opens new doors toward the
operational use of much more detailed models.
Therefore, the goal of the COSINUS project (executed from October 1997 through September
2000) was to contribute to the development of an integrated sediment transport management
model. "Integrated" refers to the integration of all relevant physical processes over the entire
water column and the sediment bed and their interactions.
COSINUS covers the theoretical, experimental and numerical study of the interaction of the
processes which play a crucial role in the flocculation of sediment particles, the interaction
between suspended sediment and turbulent flow, the generation and maintenance of
concentrated near-bed suspensions (including lutocline formation) and the transition between
fluid mud and the sediment bed.
The state-of-the-art knowledge on cohesive sediment transport showed that there was still a
lack of experimental data on the role of flocculation and turbulence in the formation and
erosion of mud beds and on the formation of CBS (concentrated benthic suspensions, or "fluid
mud"). Therefore, an experimental programme has been set up to obtain these data. It
consisted of field measurements in the Tamar estuary on floc formation and laboratory
experiments on formation and erosion of mud beds and CBS, and the influence of floc
structure and turbulence on these processes. All data are available to the public.
Process modules have been developed and implemented into detailed 1D and 2D vertical
models which solve the full hydrodynamic, turbulent energy and sediment mass conservation
equations. Two different bed models, to be coupled to these hydrodynamic models have been
developed as well (1OV POINT MODEL).
The process modules have been parameterised to obtain relatively simple formulations,
which can be (and have been) implemented into currently used 3D and 2DH engineering
system models. This was the main objective of the research project.
The performance of the improved system models has been tested by application of the
models to a schematic estuary, for which a 2DV solution with the detailed research model was
used as a reference. Various scenarios have been simulated. The models have also been
applied to three real estuaries (Tamar, Loire and Weser). Data to set-up and calibrate the
model applications are stored in the database.
From the experience with the large-scale applications feed-back has been produced towards
the process module development and their parameterisations.

The following sub-objectives have been formulated:

1. Select the most suitable model for the simulation of cohesive sediment-laden flow. Extend
existing turbulence models to allow for the simulation of sediment-laden flow for a wide
range of concentrations and turbulence intensities. Establish a formulation for the
turbulence damping (buoyancy effect) and turbulence generation (internal wave turbulence
production) in concentrated suspensions.
2. Establish a formulation for the floc formation from which the depositional flux and the
resulting bed structure can be evaluated. Define the structural floc parameters that govern
the rheological properties of the bed and of fluid mud. Develop a floc model which allows
the calculation of the settling velocity of flocs in relation to turbulence, concentration,
residence time and, if possible, organic content.
3. Establish a formulation for the exchange of mass and momentum at the fluid mud/water
interface, unifying the concepts from deposition, entrainment/erosion and interface
instabilities (internal waves). Understand why and how benthic suspensions (CBS) can be
generated and maintained, and quantify the relevant processes.
4. Establish a formulation for the development of erosion resistance (strength) in mud beds,
unifying the concepts from rheology, consolidation, liquefaction and fluidisation.
In order to make the modules applicable for integrated system models, aimed at large scale
simulations, further sub-objectives were to:
5. Establish a data base to validate the models.
6. Establish parameterized forms of the above mentioned process models based on numerical
and experimental data.
7. Establish guidelines to select and implement the proper model formulation.
8. Establish guidelines to carry out the necessary experiments in the laboratory as well as in
the field for calibration of the models.
9. Establish general guidelines for engineers and managing authorities on how to set up the
necessary field measurement campaigns to obtain the necessary initial and boundary
 conditions and the material parameters in order to validate or apply the integrated system
models.

The project has been structured in six sub-tasks:

9 Task A - turbulence modelling of sediment laden flow: turbulence damping and turbulence
production (internal waves) in concentrated suspensions.
9 Task B - flocculation: floc model development.
9 Task C - CBS dynamics: generalised entrainment model and generation and properties of
CBS.
9 Task D - Bed dynamics: bed strength model and erosion / entrainment model.
9 Task E - Parameterisation, the implementation of the process models in the schematic
estuary and the two test cases.
9 Task F - Set-up and management of the data base.
Summaries on Task A through E arepresented in the following sections of these Proceedings
and detailed results are presented in a number of papers elsewhere in the Proceedings.

CONCLUSIONS OF THE COSINUS PROJECT

The objective of the research programme was to establish well validated physical and
mathematical descriptions of the behaviour and fate of concentrated near-bed suspensions
(CBS or "fluid mud") and their interaction with the water and the sediment bed.
An experimental programme has been set up to obtain missing data on floc formation, the
formation of mud beds and CBS and the influence of floc structure and turbulence on these
processes.
Different processes have been studied in detail: turbulence damping in sediment laden flow;
turbulence production due to internal waves in concentrated suspensions; flocculation;
generation, properties and entrainment of CBS; bed strength development and erosion of mud
beds.
The detailed process models have been parameterised to obtain relatively simple
formulations which can be plugged into currently used 3D and 2DH engineering models.
The performance of the improved models has been tested by application of the models to a
schematic estuary for which 2DV solutions with the detailed research models were used as a
reference. The models have been applied and tested in three real estuaries (Tamar in U.K.,
Loire in France and Weser in Germany).
All data have been stored in a data base, which is accessible to the public.
It is felt that great progress has been made in the physically based description of cohesive
sediment dynamics with respect to amongst others the formulation of turbulence damping
functions; the modelling of the rheology of CBS, incl. consolidation; the modelling of
flocculation and the modelling of erosion and entrainment of CBS.
Engineering software tools have been improved to enable better predictions of mud
dynamics for the benefit of estuarine an coastal managers.
Partners of the COSINUS project:

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, co-ordinator

DHI, Lyngby, Denmark
HR Wallingford, U.K.
Laboratoire Nationales d'Hydraulique, Paris, France
LEGI, Grenoble, France
Oxford University, Oxford, U.K.
Technische Universiteit Delft, Delft, the Netherlands
Universit~it Hannover, Hannover, Germany
University of Plymouth, Plymouth, U.K.
WL I Delft Hydraulics, Delft, the Netherlands
Chapter 1"

COSINUS task A through D summaries

This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Fine SedimentDynamicsin the Marine Environment
J.C. Winterwerp and C. Kranenburg(Editors)
9 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Interaction of suspended cohesive sediment and turbulence

E.A. Toorman a, A.W. Bruens b, C. Kranenburg b and J.C. Winterwerp b'e

a Hydraulics Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,

Kasteelpark Arenberg 40, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium.
b Hydromechanics Section, Civil Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology,
PO Box 5048, NL-2600 GA Delft, the Netherlands
e Delt~ Hydraulics, PO Box 177, NL-2600 MH Delft, the Netherlands

This paper describes the work done in the COSINUS project, carried out within the
framework of the European MAST3 research programme, on the interaction between
suspended (cohesive) sediment and turbulence, with particular emphasis on its modelling.
Specific attention is given to the modelling of buoyancy damping effects and turbulence
production due to internal waves. Finally, some experimental results are presented on the
effect of advected turbulence to the entrainment of fluid mud.

KEY WORDS
turbulence modulation, sediment-turbulence interaction, laminarisation, internal waves,
entrainment, modelling

I. INTRODUCTION

The presence of suspended particles in turbulent flow alters the eddy viscosity distribution
over the water depth as turbulent energy is dissipated by buoyancy destruction. One of the
consequences is a significant apparent bottom friction (or drag) reduction. This has important
implications for the transport of cohesive sediment by flowing water, in particular for the
estimation of advective transport and the entrainment rate. Sediment-turbulence interaction
has been studied as part of the MAST3 "COS1NUS" project with the help of numerical models
using Prandtl mixing-length (PML) and k-e turbulence closures, as these presently are the
turbulence models used for applied modelling of cohesive sediment transport problems. The
present paper investigates how the sediment-turbulence interaction can be modelled properly.
The basic approach applies to any type of suspended particles, i.e. also non-cohesive sediment.
Differences occur at the level of form of the turbulence modulation correction factor,
introduced in Section 3.1, which for fine (e.g. cohesive) particles cause damping (see Section
2.1).
First, a brief overview is presented of available experimental evidence and the proposed
mechanisms that contribute to the modulation of turbulence. The following three sections deal
with modelling aspects and strategies respectively on buoyancy damping, possible subsequent
laminarisation of the flow and possible internal waves at the lutocline. In a last section before
the conclusions, results are discussed on the entrainment of a dense layer by shear turbulence
generated upstream.

2. SEDIMENT-TURBULENCE INTERACTIONS

Literature reviews have been carried out by Winterwerp (1999), focusing on the occurrence
and behaviour of concentrated benthic suspensions, and by Toorman (2000b), focusing on the
modelling of sediment-turbulence interactions.

2.1. Experimental observations

The fact that suspended particles modify the turbulence characteristics in shear flows is
known from experiments for many years. Many velocity and concentration profile data in
sediment-laden flows in flume experiments can be found in the literature (e.g. Vanoni, 1946;
Einstein and Chien, 1955; Lyn, 1987). With an increase in the ratio Crows~u* (where Cm is the
depth-averaged mean concentration, a measure of the sediment load, ws the particle settling
velocity and uo the shear velocity) such flows show an increasingly significant deviation from
the traditional log-velocity law for clear water. It was surmised quite early that the presence of
suspended particles suppresses turbulent fluctuations and that the deviation can be accounted
for by reducing the value of the von Karman parameter to. Subsequently, Coleman (1981)
made a different analysis of experimental velocity profiles. He claimed that the deviations can
be accounted for by considering a wake component in the velocity profile. Correcting for this
wake effect, one can keep the value of ~cconstant. His analysis shows several weaknesses and
has been opposed by various researchers. Further details can be found in literature reviews by
Winterwerp (1999) and Toorman (2000b). The discussion on whether or not the von Karman
parameter decreases with increasing stratification is still not closed. The results presented
below are meant to provide some new insights.
Experimental data on direct measurement of turbulence modulation by suspended particles
are scarce. Nearly all experiments are with non-cohesive particles, and the majority is
restricted to pipe flows. Size dependence is observed, i.e., (near-wall) turbulence is found to
be attenuated by fine particles (i.e., for particle sizes smaller than about 10% of the length
scale of the energy containing eddies or the integral length scale), but enhanced by coarse
particles (Gore and Crowe, 1989). Relative movement of fluid and particles has been
measured by Best et al. (1997). Cellino and Graf (1999) recently published the first
comprehensive data set for open-channel flow experiments with fine sand in which the
fluctuations of all the velocity components and the concentration have been measured.
Attempts are currently being undertaken to obtain similar data for cohesive sediments (e.g.,
Crapper et al., 2000; Crapper and Bruce, 2002).

2.2 Turbulence modulation mechanisms

Various processes are believed to contribute to the modulation of turbulent fluctuations by
suspended particles (e.g. Rocabado, 1999). The most important mechanism is the damping by
buoyancy forces, i.e., a mechanism in which gravity opposes upward fluctuations of the
particles and, in stable stratification (Op/Oz < 0, with p the suspension bulk density and z the
vertical distance from the bottom), downward fluctuations are hindered by higher
concentrations of particles below. Buoyancy effects can already be significant at very low
concentrations.
Furthermore, the presence of particles in a fluid increases the bulk viscosity of the mixture,
which in turn enhances the viscous dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy. At high
concentrations, turbulence may be dissipated by interaction between the particles, which may
manifest as an additional increase in the suspension viscosity. Generally, the suspension
viscosity can be semi-empirically expressed as a power law function of the concentration.

3. MODELLING OF BUOYANCY DAMPING

The application of the Prandtl mixing-length (PML) and the k-6 turbulence models in
stratified flow conditions has been studied extensively at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
(Toorman, 1999, 2000). More complex models, such as the Reynolds stress model (e.g.
Galland et al., 1997), are not considered as they do not perform any better by lack of proper
calibration data in the case of sediment-laden flows (Toorman, 2000b).

3.1. PML turbulence modelling

The Prandtl mixing length model is based on the hypothesis that the mixing length • in
simple near-wall shear flow is proportional to the distance from the bottom. Combining this
with the stress balance leads to the well-known logarithmic velocity profile. This result has
been confirmed by numerous experiments. Considering the equilibrium stress balance over the
entire water column in open-channel flow leads to a parabolic eddy viscosity distribution
(Toorman, 2000b). However, this is only valid for homogeneous fluids.
The modelling of turbulence damping by buoyancy effects is done by modulating the clear
water eddy viscosity v0 and eddy diffusivity (or mixing coefficient) K0 with damping factors.
The momentum damping factor can be defined as Fm = v//v0 (with vt the actual eddy viscosity)
and the mixing damping function as Fs = KJKo (with Ks the actual eddy diffusivity) (e.g. Munk
and Anderson, 1948). It is generally assumed that the eddy diffusivity is proportional to the
eddy viscosity, i.e., Ks = vt/~, where ~ is called the turbulent Schmidt number.
In order to account for the buoyancy effect, the PML has to be corrected with the damping
function, i.e., Fm = t~/~0,with ~ the actual, buoyancy-corrected mixing length and ~0 the mixing
length in non-stratified conditions (Toorman, 2000c, 2002). Subsequently, the correct velocity
gradient is written as:

OU u,
- ~ (1)
Oz FmXZ

and the corresponding eddy viscosity distribution for open-channel flow is given by:

(2)

where tr is the von Karman constant (= 0.41), u. is the shear velocity, z is the distance from the
bottom and h is the water depth. As the basic assumptions are only valid in the vicinity of a
10

wall, real eddy viscosity profiles in steady open-channel flow deviate slightly from the ideal
parabolic profile, in particular in the upper half of the water column (Nezu and Nakagawa,
1993).

3.2. k-e turbulence modelling

As the PML model cannot account for the history of turbulence and is only valid for simple
shear flows, a more complex turbulence model is preferred in applied sediment transport
modelling whenever possible. At present, the k-6 turbulence model seems to be the best
compromise between computational cost and complexity, in particular with regard to coastal
and estuarine engineering applications.
This model solves the conservation of turbulent kinetic energy k:

~~ + U s ~ =
at #x s Oxs
(v+ vt )
cr k -~s
~
+P+G-6 (3)

and its dissipation rate e:.

06
at
06
s Oxs
a (
Oxs +v,)
c r % ,) 7-7-,
061+ 1 (f~c,P + c3G- f2c26) (4)

where U is the mean velocity, t is the time, xj are the components of the co-ordinate vector, v
is the kinematic viscosity of the suspension, vt = fu cu k2/6 is the eddy viscosity, Tt = k/6 is the
(high-Reynolds number) turbulence time scale, P is the shear production and G the buoyancy
term. The last two are respectively defined as:

Iau, aujlau,
P:Vt ~Xj "{"OXi'J-~xj (5)

G - g v, @ (6)
p a s Oz

with g the gravity constant. The remaining coefficients have been determined semi-empirically
(e.g. Rodi, 1980). The value of c3 in stable stratified shear flows is generally somewhere in the
range of 0-0.3 (Rodi, 1980). Here we will adopt c3 = 0. The factors f~, fi and j~ are correction
functions for the low-Reynolds number formulation (see Section 4); their value is 1 for the
standard high-Reynolds number form.
This model assumes isotropic turbulence and is only valid for high-Reynolds number flows.
In stable stratification by suspended sediments, i.e., increasing concentration with depth,
which usually is the case in natural waters, the buoyancy term is negative, i.e., turbulence is
destroyed as gravity works against the turbulent fluctuations. As the turbulent Schmidt number
appears in the buoyancy term, empiricism is still required in this model. Finally, the wall
boundary conditions of the k-6 model are based on the assumption of equilibrium in the near-
wall layer and on the PML model as the bridging function to provide the missing information
 11

from the wall boundary layer, which is not resolved by the k-6 model as the corresponding
equations are not valid at a solid boundary (e.g., Toorman, 2000c). These boundary conditions
introduce further dependence on empirical damping functions, as shown in the following
section.

3.3. Determination of the buoyancy damping functions

Traditionally, the damping functions are chosen as simple empirical functions of the
gradient Richardson number Ri, which characterises the degree of stratification, of the form
Fm= (1 + A Ri) "a and Fs = (1 + B Ri) b, where A, B, a and b are empirical parameters, such as
the well-known damping functions (for free turbulence) proposed by Munk and Anderson
(1948).
A distinction needs to be made between damping functions for free turbulence and for wall-
turbulence. Those for wall turbulence are often expressed as a function of the Monin-Obukov
length-scale L = z/Rf (with Rfthe flux Richardson number) and show a stronger decrease with
Ri than the free turbulence damping functions. The empirical coefficients are found as -5 < A
< -10 and a = -1 (Rodi, 1980). One of the reasons for the difference in behaviour is the fact
that in the neighbourhood of the bottom the development of internal waves is reduced and
vertical mixing by internal wave breaking is prevented (Uittenbogaard, 1995a).
As eventually only Fm and ors are used in the models, it is proposed to use a similar
empirical form for the turbulent Schmidt number, i.e.:

= o'0 (1 + ~ Ri) ~ (7)

with o0 the neutral Schmidt number, empirically found to have a value of approximately 0.7
(Turner, 1973), and Gt and 13 empirical constants. Various experimental data for Fm and ~ can
be found in the literature, the majority of which come from fresh-salt water experiments.
When plotted as a function of Ri, the data points show considerable scatter (Fig. 1), suggesting
that a dependence on Ri alone is unsatisfactory. Wall-effects and horizontal gradients may
partially explain the scatter. A best fit can only be proposed for individual data sets.
Furthermore, one can expect that similar data for sediment stratification would show
additional dependence on the ratio ws/u..
Kranenburg (1998) has derived theoretical conditions for the empirical constants. After
correction for consistent implementation of the damping functions (Toorman, 2000b), the
sufficient condition for stability leads to the following condition for the exponents:

l+a-b>O (8)

Equality is obtained in the case of the existence of a critical flux Richardson number Rf~ at
which turbulence is completely damped (i.e., total turbulence collapse). The condition 1 + a -
b = 0 is fulfilled for the Munk-Anderson damping functions and yields the same asymptotic
behaviour for large Ri as the theoretically derived turbulent Schmidt number relationship by
Ellison (1957), given by:

(1 - Rf)2 (9)
o- =o- 0 1 - R f / R f ~
12

(see also Turner, 1973) and is shown in figure 1. This relation can be converted into a 3rd
degree relation between the Schmidt number and Ri. Comparison with the various data sets
suggests that the value of Rf~ is case dependent and can vary widely over an order of
magnitude (Fig. 1). For 0.5 < Rfc < 0.9 this formulation reaches a local minimum of ~ , as
seems to be found in some experiments (i.e. Webster, 1964; Shiono et al., 2000). These
observations indicate that there must be other parameters which control the Schmidt number.
Notice that the ratio w/u. does not play a role in these data as they are all (except the Schultz
ground data) for non-buoyant stratification (i.e., w~ = 0, as no particles are involved).
The condition 1 + a - b = 0 implies that fl = 1 in eq.(7). However, the existence of a critical
Rf~ for turbulence collapse causes numerical problems near the free surface in some cases.
This is most clearly illustrated with a 1DV case, where the free surface stress-free boundary
condition reduces to OU/igz = 0, resulting in a very large Ri. Consequently, the damping at the
free surface is over-predicted, compared to reality (wherein the physical free surface boundary
conditions are more complicated), in particular for the k-e model, making it impossible to mix
the sediment up to the surface at very high u.. Therefore it is advised to take fl < 1, e.g. fl =
0.8 as in the proposed curve in fig.1 (Toorman, 2000c). The problem can be overcome by
generalising the definition of the Richardson number to include diffusion, following Ivey and
Imberger (1991) (Toorman, 2000c, 2002). The latter solution seems to be the better one, as it
is physically based, but requires further research.

10-

wl
f:::ii : ! ! !! !I !? : i! i! !
ir

0.1

' = '' '~' ~ X' ~X ''~ , ,~j , w , , A ,~N== ~, ,,~1

~ i ~ iiii i i , i iiiij i i i ~ iii i. i i i illl

- - proposal
0.01 -t--
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Ri
x O d d & R o d g e r (1978) 9 Schultz g r o u n d 9 Raners f j o r d
o Rohr (1985) * Ellison & Turner (1960) 9 Kattegat
Ellison (1957): Rfc = 0.08 . . . . . . M u n k & Anderson (1948) o Shiono et al. (2000)
A W e b s t e r (1964) .... Ellison (1957): Rfc = 0.8 --- proposal

Figure 1. Experimental data for the inverse normalised Schmidt number cr0/~
(=Fs/Fm) as a function of the gradient Richardson number and a few proposed
closure relationships. Schultz ground and Raners fjord data from (Munk and
Anderson, 1948); Kattegat data from (EUison and Turner, 1960).
 13

The lack of accurate data is one of the major problems which prevents us from proposing a
better solution. It is hoped that with the progress in computer capacities, data from numerical
experiments with direct numerical simulations (DNS) of sediment-laden flows at realistic
scales will become available and will help understand the trends in the experimental data and
their possible dependency on other parameters.
In addition to experimental data, the solution of the k-e. model can in principle also be used
to determine the damping function Fm by numerical experiments because the buoyancy effect
is accounted for by the term G in the k-equation (Toorman, 2000c). Unfortunately, the results
(Toorman, 2000c) depend on the choice of the Schmidt number closure, for which no definite
solution exists. Nevertheless, they suggest a linear dependence of the form Fm= 1 - cRi for
small Ri (Ri < 0.1, with c an empirical parameter), similar to the Monin-Obukov relation
(Rodi, 1980). Another problem with these experiments is the deviations found near the free
surface, where the boundary conditions for the k-~ model are not well established; hence these
numerical data are required to be discarded.
Toorman (1999) theoretically found that for the critical flux Richardson number RJ~ at
which the vertical gradient aRjTdz = 0, the momentum damping function reaches the value
Fm(Rfo) = o's(Rfo)ws/x'u.. As this value depends on the Schmidt number for the same condition,
the exact value is not known.
The key to progress seems to be in finding the proper closure for the turbulent Schmidt
number. The collected pieces of the puzzle presented above are still insufficient to propose a
solution which provides the desired accuracy.

3.4. Consistent bottom boundary treatment

Traditionally, numerical models employ so-called wall functions for the determination of
the conditions at solid walls, such as the bed. However, they do not account for the effect of
turbulence damping. This leads to significant over-estimations of the bottom shear stress or u..
A simple numerical test is the verification of the shear velocity for open-channel flow driven
by a constant pressure gradient, for which theoretical value is u. = (p-1 h dp/dx)l/2. The velocity
gradient as expressed by eq.(1) is used to calculate u. For the k-e. model, a more accurate
estimation can be done using the stress balance (Toorman, 2000c, 2002). Hence it is advised
that the velocity gradient in the wall node is directly estimated from the computed velocity
profile in the grid cell adjacent to the wall, employing simple interpolation functions.
For the bottom boundary conditions of the momentum equations, the velocity in the near-
wall node needs to be determined. Integration of eq.(1) yields the velocity profile in the wall
layer, introducing an additional integral term to the logarithmic profile due to Fro. However,
the damping function is generally not known as a function ofz. It is then proposed to write the
velocity profile as:

U = u-:-"
ln(~Z 1
/~' ~02' o
(10)

where z0 is the roughness height of the bed and a the apparent roughness correction factor,
which is related to the damping function by (Toorman, 2000e):
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