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Advances in 21st Century Human Settlements

Le Thi Thu Huong

George M. Pomeroy Editors

AUC 2019
Proceedings of the 15th International
Asian Urbanization Conference, Vietnam
Advances in 21st Century Human Settlements

Series Editor
Bharat Dahiya, College of Interdisciplinary Studies, Thammasat University,
Bangkok, Thailand

Editorial Board
Andrew Kirby, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA
Erhard Friedberg, Sciences Po-Paris, France
Rana P. B. Singh, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Kongjian Yu, Peking University, Beijing, China
Mohamed El Sioufi, Monash University, Australia
Tim Campbell, Woodrow Wilson Center, USA
Yoshitsugu Hayashi, Chubu University, Kasugai, Japan
Xuemei Bai, Australian National University, Australia
Dagmar Haase, Humboldt University, Germany
Indexed by SCOPUS
This Series focuses on the entire spectrum of human settlements – from rural to
urban, in different regions of the world, with questions such as: What factors cause
and guide the process of change in human settlements from rural to urban in
character, from hamlets and villages to towns, cities and megacities? Is this process
different across time and space, how and why? Is there a future for rural life? Is it
possible or not to have industrial development in rural settlements, and how? Why
does ‘urban shrinkage’ occur? Are the rural areas urbanizing or is that urban areas
are undergoing ‘ruralisation’ (in form of underserviced slums)? What are the
challenges faced by ‘mega urban regions’, and how they can be/are being
addressed? What drives economic dynamism in human settlements? Is the
urban-based economic growth paradigm the only answer to the quest for
sustainable development, or is there an urgent need to balance between economic
growth on one hand and ecosystem restoration and conservation on the other – for
the future sustainability of human habitats? How and what new technology is
helping to achieve sustainable development in human settlements? What sort of
changes in the current planning, management and governance of human settlements
are needed to face the changing environment including the climate and increasing
disaster risks? What is the uniqueness of the new ‘socio-cultural spaces’ that
emerge in human settlements, and how they change over time? As rural settlements
become urban, are the new ‘urban spaces’ resulting in the loss of rural life and
‘socio-cultural spaces’? What is leading the preservation of rural ‘socio-cultural
spaces’ within the urbanizing world, and how? What is the emerging nature of the
rural-urban interface, and what factors influence it? What are the emerging
perspectives that help understand the human-environment-culture complex through
the study of human settlements and the related ecosystems, and how do they
transform our understanding of cultural landscapes and ‘waterscapes’ in the 21st
Century? What else is and/or likely to be new vis-à-vis human settlements – now
and in the future? The Series, therefore, welcomes contributions with fresh
cognitive perspectives to understand the new and emerging realities of the 21st
Century human settlements. Such perspectives will include a multidisciplinary
analysis, constituting of the demographic, spatio-economic, environmental, tech-
nological, and planning, management and governance lenses.
If you are interested in submitting a proposal for this series, please contact the
Series Editor, or the Publishing Editor:
Bharat Dahiya ([email protected]) or
Loyola D’Silva ([email protected])

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13196

Le Thi Thu Huong George M. Pomeroy
•

Editors

AUC 2019
Proceedings of the 15th International Asian
Urbanization Conference, Vietnam

123
Editors
Le Thi Thu Huong George M. Pomeroy
Faculty of Engineering Department of Geography-Earth Science
Vietnamese-German University (VGU) Shippensburg University
Binh Duong, Vietnam Shippensburg, PA, USA

ISSN 2198-2546 ISSN 2198-2554 (electronic)

Advances in 21st Century Human Settlements
ISBN 978-981-15-5607-4 ISBN 978-981-15-5608-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5608-1
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
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the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Organization

Organizing Committee

1. Chairman of Local Organizing Committee: Dr. Ha Thuc Vien, Vietnamese-

German University, Vietnam.
2. Vice-Chairman of Local Organizing Committee: Assoc. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Pham
Van Song, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam.
3. Member of Local Organizing Committee:
• Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hieu, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. La Vinh Trung, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. Le Thi Thu Huong, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. Pham Thai Son, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. Vu Anh Tuan, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. Nguyen Viet Long, BECAMEX IDC Corp., Vietnam.
4. Conference Secretariat:
• Dr. La Vinh Trung, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Ms. Tran Thuan Anh, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• M.Sc. Nguyen Thi Hoai, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• M.Sc. Tran Hoang Nam, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• M.Sc. Kieu Thi Le, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam.
5. Scientific Board:
• Prof. Dr. George Pomeroy, Professor, Shippensburg University, United State
• Prof. Dr. Debnath Mookherjee, Professor Emeritus, Western Washington
University, United States
• Prof. Dr. Braj Raj Kumar Sinha, Banaras Hindu University, India
• Assoc. Prof. Dr. Le Anh Duc, Ho Chi Minh City College of Construction,
Vietnam
• Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rini Rachmawati, Gadjah Madah University, Indonesia

v
vi Organization

• Assoc. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Pham Van Song, Vietnamese-German University,

Vietnam
• Dr. Diganta Das, National Institute of Education of Singapore, Singapore
• Dr. Le Thi Thu Huong, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. Pham Thai Son, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hieu, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. Vu Anh Tuan, Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam
• Dr. Le Thi Hong Na, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam
• Dr. Ngo Le Minh, Ton Duc Thang University, Vietnam
• Dr. Nguyen Luu Bao Doan, Ho Chi Minh City University of Economics,
Vietnam.

Sponsors

1. Becamex IDC Corp.

2. Technical University of Darmstadt
3. Shippensburg University
4. SEANNET (Southeast Asia Neighborhoods Network)
5. Groups of the American Association of Geographers.
6. ASHUI.COM (Architecture/Sustainability/Housing/Urban Initiatives/Interior Vietnam)
7. Vietcombank
8. IAB (Weimar institute of Applied Construction Research)
9. VGU association of friends and supporters
10. Vietnam airlines.
Organization vii
viii Organization
Preface

Although cities, metropolitan areas, megapolitan regions, and urban areas con-
stantly undergo transformations, one may argue, particularly with respect to issues
of climate change, that we are truly at a critical juncture, and thus the conference
theme “Urban Futures: Critical Transformations in Asian Cities” is especially
appropriate. One year ago, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
issued a 700-page report warning that we have just 12 years to make a massive and
unprecedented change in the ways we live in order to limit global warming to more
moderate levels and to prevent the most devasting impacts. Given this, we are truly
at a critical pivot point in terms of how, as urbanists, city planners, urban managers,
and scholars, we societally consume and manage resources. There are dire impli-
cations for how we mitigate and adapt to climate change. Other transformations are
be reaching critical junctures, too. For example, revolutions in computing tech-
nologies and programming are enabling “smart cities” as we have only imagined.
Also, income polarization brought on through globalization has implications for
housing affordability. Across these and other issues, planners must make pivotal
choices with long-range implications. Indeed, demographically, it has been roughly
three years since Asia crossed the psychological threshold of having more people

ix
x Preface

living in urban areas than not. The conference theme then is as fitting for this time
as for any other.
Another critical transformation is reflected by changes in this conference series
itself. The initial conference was organized in 1985, by four Asianists, each with a
focus on cities, urbanization, and planning, at the University of Akron, in the
United States. On the heels of that successful conference, a conference series slowly
evolved under the leadership of Dr. Ashok K. Dutt, with increasing regularity and
in a variety of venues. That first conference, along with one in London (1997) and
Athens, Georgia, USA (2003), was organized in venues that were obviously not
Asian, were less accessible, whether in terms of cost or distance, to Asian based
scholars and practitioners. Indeed, early on, participation for many modestly
resourced individuals—notably those most directly engaged in studying, planning,
and living in Asian cities—was prohibitively costly, thus effectively shutting out
those scholars and practitioners who perhaps had both the most to contribute and
the most to gain from the participation in the conference. In a sense, the conference
series itself has undergone a “critical transformation,” that leaves it incredibly
accessible to scholars from a wide variety of institutions and geographic settings,
and in effect, participation has been democratized. The efforts of incredibly capable
local organizers in easily reachable venues and a modest, multiple tier registration
systems have been instrumental in this transformation to a conference series that
features and mixes both “bottom up” grass-roots scholarly participation from a wide
range of institutions with respected expert participants from across the globe.
The mission of this conference and earlier iterations of the Asian Urbanization
Conference series is to promote the “exchange of views and experiences on cities,
metropolitan areas, urbanization, and closely related social, economic, political, and
environmental issues in the Asian context” and to facilitate a “dialog that shares
research, planning, and problem-solving.”
This 15th Asian Urbanization Conference 2019, attracted more than 240
abstracts, 104 full papers, among which 45 and 36 full papers have been selected to
publish in the SCOPUS-indexed conference proceedings and edited book volume
accordingly after rigorous peer review process.

Shippensburg, USA Prof. Dr. George M. Pomeroy

Contents

Climate Change and Urban Resilience

Climate Change and Cities in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . 3
Thi Hong Hanh Vu and Thanh Hai Truong
Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise Response Solutions for Can Gio
District, Ho Chi Minh City: Potential to Adapt Ideas from Selected
Developed Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Le Minh Ngo and Hai Yen Hoang
Understanding the Implications of Urban Heat Island Effects
on Household Energy Consumption and Public Health in Southeast
Asian Cities: Evidence from Thailand and Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Sigit D. Arifwidodo, Panitat Ratanawichit, and Orana Chandrasiri
The Need for Understanding Disaster Risk for Resilient
City Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Mumita Tanjeela and Md. Anisur Rahman
Architectural Solutions with Regards to Climate Change for the Rural
Housing of Vinh Long Province, Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Le Thi Hong Na, Dang Hai Dang, and Nguyen Dang Hoang Nhat Truong
Application of Artificial Intelligence to Assist in Mapping
for Flood-Prone Areas in the Bantul Regency, Yogyakarta . . . . . . . . . . 61
Aditya Wisnugraha Sugiyarto and Achmad Ramadhanna’il Rasjava
Urban Vegetable Gardening Brings Greening to Slum Environment
and Helps Mitigate Climate Change Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Siddharth Agarwal, Shabnam Verma, Neeraj Verma,
Kailash Vishvakarma, and Kanupriya Kothiwal

xi
xii Contents

Inclusive, Implementable Urban Governance, and Sustainable

Urban Finance
Collaborative Approach for Resource Mobilization Transformation
in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Hieu Nguyen Ngoc and Dao Tran Quang
Governance Characteristics of Dhaka City for Ensuring
Implementation of Land Use Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Musfera Jahan
Urban Planning in Vietnam: Why Gender Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Phuoc Dinh Le and Huyen Minh Do
Slum Children-Youth Groups Demonstrate Zest, Collective
Confidence and Tenacity to Improve Access to Education
and Self-development Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Siddharth Agarwal, Shabnam Verma, Kanupriya Kothiwal, Neeraj Verma,
and Kailash Vishvakarma
On the Use of Data Envelopment Analysis to Improve Performance
Efficiency of Governmental Management in Big Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Hai Dung Dinh and Khoi Minh Le

Smart and Green Mobility

A Transportation Optimization Model for Solving the Single
Delivery Truck Routing Problem with the Alldifferent Constraint
in MS Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Hai Dung Dinh
An Elicitation Study on Potential Users’ Salient Beliefs
of Using Future City Light Rail Transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Simon Dertha Tarigan, Reynaldo Siahaan, and Oloheta Gulo
A Study of Intended Unsafe Pedestrian Crossing Behaviors
at Signalized Intersections in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Xuan Can Vuong, Rui-Fang Mou, Trong Thuat Vu, and Thi An Nguyen
The Impact of E-Mobility on Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in
Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
An Minh Ngoc and Khuat Viet Hung
Policies and Measures to Create Efficient and Low-Carbon Transport
in Urban Area: Case Study in Hochiminh City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Vu Trong Tich and An Minh Ngoc
Motorcycles in a Long-Term Perspective: Case of Ho Chi
Minh City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Thanh Tu Nguyen
Contents xiii

Transformations in Land Management

GIS and Fuzzy Logic Approach for Providing Land Value
Information: A Case Study in Hanoi City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Quang Cuong Doan
A Study on the Ecological Balance Capacity of Hanoi
Green Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Quynh Chi Le, Dinh Viet Hoang, Van Tuyen Nguyen, and Quoc Thai Tran

Livable and Smart Cities

Digital Addressing of Historical City Morphology: The Case
of Lalitpur City in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Krishna Prasad Poudel and Suresh Shrestha
Migration: An Element of Smart Livable Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Braj Raj Kumar Sinha and Priyanka Thakur
Management of Public Space Towards Livable City: The Case
of Hanoi, and Lessons from Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Nguyen Lien Huong
Smart Cities: Progress and Challenge in Establishing
Liveable Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Rini Rachmawati
Studying Urban Expansion and Landscape Surrounding Monuments
for Conservation the World Cultural Heritage in Hue City—View
from GIS and Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Thi Dieu Dinh and Van Manh Pham
Challenges in Developing and Implementing Smart City
in Palangka Raya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Fikri Rafif Suprayitna, Latifah Asri Munawaroh, Mustafa Al Azmi,
Aidha Imtinan Besari, and Rini Rachmawati
Online Real Time (ORT) Waste Management Through “Si Detektif
Sampah” Application in Implementing Smart City in Palangka
Raya City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Haddad Al Rasyid Sukawan, Bias Osean Ali, I Made Arya Widhyastana,
and Rini Rachmawati
Utilization of Human Resources Management Information System
(SIMPEG) Application to Support E-Government in the BKPP
at Palangka Raya Municipality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Puja Dania Almira, Bergita Gusti Lipu, Aditya Widya Pradipta,
and Rini Rachmawati
xiv Contents

Evaluation of Urbanites’ Perception About Livable City Using

Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP): A Case Study of Dhaka City . . . . . 367
Raisa Sultana and Afrida Asad

Integrated Planning and Development

Urban Migrant Labor: Public Spaces and Social Integration
(Review on Studies in Vietnam) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Pham Quynh Huong, Hoang Vu Linh Chi, Nguyen Tuan Minh,
Luong Thuy Duong, Do Thi Ngan, and Phan Thi Song Thuong
ReStructuring Urban Space of Hanoi City on the Basis of Urban Mass
Transit Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Nguyen Thi Thanh Mai and Nguyen Thi Mai Chi

Urban Slums and Affordable Housing

Informality in the Southern City; An Enquiry into Informal
Practices in Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Ruhamah Thejus
Upgrading Slums in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Braj Raj Kumar Sinha
Status of Elementary Educational Facilities in Slums Across Different
States of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Prabhakar Nishad and Braj Raj Kumar Sinha
Concept, Status, and Progress of Affordable Housing
in Urban India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Braj Raj Kumar Sinha and Prabhakar Nishad
Slums, Squatter Settlements and Affordable Housing in the Dhaka
Metropolitan Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Nurul Islam Nazem and Shahana Sultana
Evaluation of the Residential Satisfaction in Affordable Housing
for Low-Income People and Its Social Impact on Urban Planning
in Hanoi, Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Trinh Thi Kieu Trang and Bui Ngoc Tu
Intergenerational Perspective on Right to the City in Relation
to Changing Nature of Social Contracts in the Slums
of South Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Swagata Basu and Gloria Kuzur
Contents xv

Urban Renewal and Redevelopment

From Welfare to Participation—The Changing Narratives of Slum
Rehabilitation and Housing for the Urban Poor in Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Ushosee Pal
Information Economy, Employment Vulnerability,
and the Emergence of New Urban Marginality in Dhaka City,
Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Rasel Hussain
Breakthrough to Promote the Urban Economy of Vietnam Urban
System in the Forthcoming Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Quoc Toan Nguyen and Thi Nhu Dao
Research Proposal for Orientation for Urban Opening Planning Area
in Ha Dong District, Ha Noi City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Vu Khac Hung and Tran Van Tuan
Comparative Study of the Patterns and Characteristics Urban
Morphology of the Old City, Bengkulu, and Singapore
that Has Relation to Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Fitrianty Wardhani and Samsul Bahri
Climate Change and Urban Resilience
Climate Change and Cities
in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Thi Hong Hanh Vu and Thanh Hai Truong

Abstract Climate change is not simply an environmental problem but also

an impacting development across the globe. It strongly impacts the Mekong Delta
region in Vietnam. Like many other deltas in the world, the Mekong Delta has strong
water-based characteristics, where the living environment is strongly influenced by
water, and thus consequently suffers the worst impacts of climate change and sea-
level rise according to different projections. Having important roles in the economic
development, food security and natural ecology of Vietnam, this delta has been
received plenty of international, national and local attentions to seek ways to insu-
late it from the impacts of climate change, to strengthen the roles, and to maximize its
potentials. The research considers integrated relationships of three components (1)
city scale, (2) city morphology and (3) impacts of climate change. This is to under-
stand how different urban morphological classifications and scales/grades rationally
affected by climate change, focusing on the flood and salinity impacts resulted by
average projected future energy-related CO2 emissions scenario. From those above
analytical bases, the research proposes groups of climate change adaptabilities for
the Mekong region and classified cities within, from spatial planning strategies, water
management and more detailed structural and non-structural solutions.

Keywords Mekong delta · Vietnam · Climate change · Sea-level rise · Salinity ·

Flood · Adaptation

T. H. H. Vu (B) · T. H. Truong
University of Architecture Hochiminh City (UAH), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
e-mail: [email protected]
T. H. Truong
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 3

L. T. T. Huong and G. M. Pomeroy (eds.), AUC 2019, Advances in 21st Century
Human Settlements, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5608-1_1
4 T. H. H. Vu and T. H. Truong

1 Introduction

The Mekong Delta of Vietnam is located in the lower Mekong Basin, covers a flat
land of around 9.3 million hectares and is 1m above sea level on average. This water-
dominated land is highly affected by tides and annual seasonal salinity with an area
of 1.7 million hectares of saline soils, which affect both aquaculture and agriculture.
The water-based social, cultural and economic characteristics of the majority of local
communities, therefore, are highly affected by climate change, projecting the most
vulnerable area in Vietnam and worldwide (Fig. 1).
To propose appropriate adaptations to climate change, at the city scale in the
Mekong Delta, two components are investigated including (1) the cities and (2)
impacts of climate change. Regarding the cities, in relationship with the adapt-
ability, the analysis of aspects regarding scale and morphological characters are
highly recommended because of the following reasons:
– First, there has been much research on the adaptations a place to climate change,
among which, adaptive land uses are especially crucial (Vu 2018; Perthuis 2019).
Unfortunately, the focus has been more on agriculture and aquaculture lands rather
than urban lands, where the loss of life is expectedly higher in any case of envi-
ronmental emergencies (Vu and Le 2016). Urban form is the visual expression
of physical structure, land uses, housing, transport infrastructure, greenery, agri-
cultural lands and the ecological network, etc. (Shen and Kawa 2013), therefore,
directly influences its adaptability to climatic stress (Lilai 2019).
In fact, the urban form helps defining the spatial morphology of a place (Vu et al.
2019). Ian Bentley suggested different morphological layers of an urban space,
according to different lifecycles or periodic transformations of each element that
may vary from centuries to decades. However, the understanding of these layers
needs an interdisciplinary approach and involvements (Bentley 2013) (Fig. 2).
At different extents of analysis, selective elements are considered, mainly due to
their measurability (Vu et al. 2019; Bentley 2013; Hoang 2017):

Fig. 1 Diagram shows 3 terrain areas of the Mekong delta, Vietnam (Source SIWRP, 2016)
Climate Change and Cities in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam 5

Fig. 2 Morphological layers of a settlement (Bentley 2013)

– Regional scale: Natural system (blue and green fields) in relationship with the
built fabric (brown field), including the roads that are instrumental to the expansion
of the built fabric over time;
– City scale: Natural system at greater scale, public linkage system including the
circulations (road/street) and open spaces. These networks define the urban struc-
ture, from which different land uses are planned: agricultural, industrial, protective
and preserved green areas, the CBD, the outskirts, etc.
– Fragment scale: The urban form of an area including the street network, block
plots and building masses. At this scale, the natural system and public linkages are
seen in more detail and in terms of relationships with social-economic activities;
– Sample scale: Groups of buildings or smaller areas of a fragment-scale size. This
is equivalent to a neighbourhood or a residential unit where not only architecture
forms and characteristics but also social-economic activities of a community even
of the individual that contributes to the image of the place are analysed (Fig. 3).
Second, climate change impacts are scale- and context-specific and cities are likely
to bear some of the greatest costs (Anton et al. 2012); and city’s scale clearly effects
6 T. H. H. Vu and T. H. Truong

Plots

Blocks,
built up
area

Street Crucial roles in protect-

network ing it people and urban
functions; strategic
linking roads must be
secured

The blue Highly relevant to the

and water/flood: positions,
green form, flow, capacity in
system relationship with the
built-up areas

Fig. 3 An example of a fragment scale–sample scale morphology (Vu and Thai 2019) (a study at
Xuyen Tam canal, Binh Thanh District, HCMC)

of adaptive capacity, however, has been neglected in the climate change literature,
and the bulk of the academic literature has been on agriculture and rural impacts
(Paterson 2017). Scale is recently becoming recognized as a principle characteristic
that shapes resilience disaster losses and the governance of disaster risk (Paterson
2017). City scale, in this paper, concerns of the built area(s) and its relationships
with two morphological layers mentioned above: blue–green system and road–street
network.
The research approach is as the following Fig. 4.
From the above approach, the research is to analyse (Section 1) the cities (scale and
morphologies) and (Section 2) the impacts of climate change, focusing on flooding
and salinization, and to pro-pose adaptive solutions (Section 3).

2 The Mekong Delta and Its Cities: The Scales

and Morphologies

2.1 The Cities and Scales

The Mekong Delta has over 150 cities (2012), classified in different scales/grades
according to Urban Planning Law, from grade 1 (Cần Thơ), grade 2 (one to two in each
Climate Change and Cities in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam 7

Fig. 4 Research approach (Vu 2018; Perthuis 2019)

province, except Can Tho), grades 3, 4, 5 and unclassified. The classification is based
on the scale of population, roles of the city within its province and region/national
wide, inner and outer sources for development. There is a tendency of urban upscaling
based on its projections of population growth, potential and strategic roles; however,
the projections are not always right and not reflect its dynamics including climate
change (Shen and Kawa 2013) (Table 1).

Table 1 Classifications of cities/towns in the Mekong Delta (Source Statistic Division, 2012) (Vu
et al. 2019)
Categories / Grades Name Number
Central government Cần Thơ 01
Large cities City (Grade I )
Grade II City Mỹ Tho, Long Xuyên, Rạch Giá 03

Cà Mau, Sóc Trăng, Cao Lãnh, Vĩnh 11

Long, Bạc Liêu, Tân An, Bến Tre,
Grade III City
Trà Vinh, Sa Đéc, Châu Đốc, Vị
Medium cit- Thanh
ies/towns Town: Hồng Ngự, Kiến Tường, Vĩnh 08
Châu, Bình Minh
Grade IV Town
Provincial Town (Thị xã): Tân Châu,
Ngã Bảy, Hà Tiên, Gò Công
Grade V 129
Small towns
Un- classified

Total 152
8 T. H. H. Vu and T. H. Truong

2.2 The Cities—The Morphologies

The research analysed 152 cities in the Mekong Delta, trying to classify them into
groups of morphological similarities according to three morphological elements and
their spatial relationships: the blue–green system, the roads (national and provincial
trunk roads) and (3) the built-up areas. The research was able to identify 11 different
types as showed in Fig. 5. Among which, the majority are cities with water take
up nearly 90%. And, the most popular is the M7 with 61 cities including Can Tho
(Fig. 7) shows the ratio of different morphology—classified cities in the Mekong
Delta, Vietnam. The actual list of cities along with scale and morphological characters
is produced (however, not included in this paper) (Fig. 6).

3 The Mekong Delta and Its Cities: The Impacts of Climate

Change

According to the projection by IPCC, in the Mekong Delta, every 100 cm in sea-level
rise results in more than 1 million people losing their houses and land. Areas within
a hundred kilometres from the coast will be flooded and become saline, with urban
infrastructure being heavily affected (20% national and 27% provincial roads).

Fig. 5 Distributions of provincial cities in the Mekong Delta (Vu et al. 2019)
Climate Change and Cities in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam 9

M1: city at one side of M10: islet with Pro- M10: islets with M2: linear along M3: fish-bone alike
the water and National vincial Road crossing National/Provincial National/Provin- with National/Pro-
Road, with mountain by Roads aside cial Roads vincial Roads

M4: city at sea- M5: city at sea- M6: city at water M7: city at wa- M8: linear M9: linear
front/river’s mouth front/river’s mouth intersections with ter intersec- water with water with
with Provincial with Provincial Provincial Road tions with Na- National/Pro- National/Pro-
Road at aside Road crossing by crossing by tional/Provin- vincial Road vincial Road
cial Road aside crossing by at aside

Fig. 6 Eleven different morphologies of cities in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam (Vu et al. 2019). Note
The number of cities in each morphological category is on the top right corner

Fig. 7 The ratio (left) and spatial distribution (right) of cities by morphologies in the Mekong
Delta, Vietnam (Vu et al. 2019)

Among impacts, it is clear that Flooding and Salinization are strongly affecting
aqua- and agricultural activities in the region, and it is measurable as well. There-
fore, the research based on the analytical data projected by the Southern Institute of
Water Resources Research on flooding and salinization for the Mekong Delta using
the average climate change scenario developed criteria for the impact evaluations
(Tables 2, 3 and Figs. 8, 9).
According to the criteria set out above, the research overlaid two impacts and was
able to come up with five zones as following:
10 T. H. H. Vu and T. H. Truong

Table 2 Classifications of cities/towns in the Mekong Delta (Source Vu et al, 2019)

Less Average Highly
Flood (mm) <1.5 1.5–2.5 >2.5
Salinity (g/l) 0–4 4–16 >16

Table 3 Projection of flood and salinity for cities in the Mekong Delta (Source Vu H and Le T,
2016)
Province City Flood (m) Salinity
(g/l)
1 An Giang Chau Doc > 3.0 0-1.0
Long Xuyen 2.5 – 3.0 0-1.0
2 Dong Thap Cao Lanh 2.5 – 3.0 0-1.0
Sa Dec 2.0 – 2.5 0-1.0
3 Vinh Long Vinh Long 2.0 – 2.5 0-1.0
4 Can Tho Can Tho 2.0 – 2.5 0-1.0
5 Hâu Giang Vi Thanh 1.0-1.5 0-1.0
6 Kiên Giang Rach Gia 1.0-1.5 16.0-24.0
7 Ca Mau Ca Mau 1.0-1.5 16.0-24.0
8 Bac Lieu Bac Lieu 1.0-1.5 16.0-24.0
9 Soc Trang Soc Trang 1.5-2.0 6.0-16.0
10 Tra Vinh Tra Vinh 2.0 – 2.5 6.0-16.0
11 Ben Tre Ben Tre 1.5-2.0 6.0-16.0
12 Tiến Giang My Tho 1.5-2.0 4.0-6.0
13 Long An Tan An 2.0 – 2.5 4.0-6.0

Fig. 8 Salinity in the Mekong Delta, the existing (2000) and provision 2050 (Source SIWRP, 2012)
Climate Change and Cities in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam 11

Fig. 9 Projected Flood (left) and Salinity (right) in the Mekong Delta by climate change, Provision
2050 (Source Vu H and Le T, 2016)

– Zone I: West coast area, rather highly affected by salinity (only less than the
Eastern side) and slightly affected by flooding. Solutions focus on adaptation to
salinity;
– Zone II: Eastside coastal area, highly affected by salinity, or rather highly affected
by flooding (only less affected than Zone 3 by flood). This zone helps reduce and
protect Zone 4 from salinity. Solutions should focus on adaptations to both Salinity
and Flood;
– Zone III: Freshwater, highly affected by Flooding, without Salinization;
– Zone IV: Freshwater area, average affected by Flooding, slightly affected by
Salinization
– Zone V: Ideal zone, barely affected by Flooding, without Salinization, highly
protected area, suitable for urbanization and development of compact cities.
It shows clearly from the research that:

– Similar impacts might occur in different places, regardless of administrative

borders and distances. In zone V, in the West coast (and a smaller bit of the
far east coast of Ben Tre province), there is an area within Zone 5, whereas zone
V scattered the central core of the whole lower basin of the delta from West coast
to Ho Chi Minh City;
– Areas were heavily flooded due to seasonal flooding (Zone III); there is not much
enlargement of this area by sea-level rise, however, deeper flood, and local people
have been well adapted to it (Fig. 10).
12 T. H. H. Vu and T. H. Truong

III

IV
II
V

Fig. 10 Climate change-impacted zones in the Mekong Delta (left) overlaid with cities’ morpholo-
gies and scale (right) (Source Vu H and Le T, 2016)

4 Adaptive Solutions for Cities in the Mekong Delta

4.1 General Principles

– Respect nature, especially blue and green systems, increase the capacity of water
reservoirs with larger buffer zones to control flooding and protect them from
salinity;
– Integrate morphologies, scale and climate change affective classifications of
cities/groups of cities;
– Reinsure economic development, social security and eco-environment;
– Enhance local distinctiveness (Fig. 11).

4.2 Planning Principles

– Increase water-absorbable areas, integrated hierarchical water release system;

– Connected infrastructure;
– Scattered and nailed with trunk roads, bases of dikes including hard and climate
dikes, provide reliable regional linkages
– North–South road systems are flood-free for the region, sub-regions and cities in
the Mekong Delta.

General models of development for each zone:

• Zone I: Saline eco-cities with fishing farming and exploitation;
• Zone II: Flood-adaptive cities (increase ground floor cotes, dikes);
Climate Change and Cities in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam 13

Fig. 11 Structural (blue) and non-structural (brown) adaptive solutions (Source Vu H et al, 2019)

• Zone III: Inherited and further water-based distinctive cities development

• Zone IV: Freshwater shortage risk: encourage effective water use and collection.
Green cities fostering urban living and garden-based economic development.
• Zone V: Suitable for urbanization and dense development of compact cities with
moderately built fabric, provide spaces for blue and green systems (Fig. 12).

4.3 Adaptive Solutions to 11 Cities’ Morphologies

Principles:
• Based on the existing
• Multi-functional dikes (dikes = central urban lines)
• Compact, give priority to social infrastructure and disaster—protective elements
• Increase absorbable areas, give rooms to the rivers, give green to cities
• Connect the urban system, especially blue and green systems
• Multifunctional national and provincial roads:

– Hard dikes: in cases of urban rear

– Hard dikes integrated with centre urban lines with concentration of social
infrastructure (medical, educational structure and social houses, etc.) in cases
this roads system cut through cities/towns
– Circle dikes: to protect the whole city/town: in the case of small-scale city
14 T. H. H. Vu and T. H. Truong

ZONE I

ZONE II

ZONE III

ZONE IV

Fig. 12 Adaptive spatial organization for different zones (Source Vu H and Le T, 2016)
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