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Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering

P. M. Pandey
Pradeep Kumar
Vikas Sharma Editors

Advances in
Production
and Industrial
Engineering
Select Proceedings of ICETMIE 2019
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering

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P. M. Pandey Pradeep Kumar
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Advances in Production
and Industrial Engineering
Select Proceedings of ICETMIE 2019

123
Editors
P. M. Pandey Pradeep Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
New Delhi, Delhi, India Roorkee, India

Vikas Sharma
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The NorthCap University
Gurgaon, India

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-15-5518-3 ISBN 978-981-15-5519-0 (eBook)
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Preface

We would like to thank the authors for taking their precious time to submit
manuscript as per the quality parameters required in this book, Advances in
Production and Industrial Engineering.
All the accepted manuscripts were presented in ICETMIE 2019. ICETMIE is a
biennial International conference which aims to provide a platform for academi-
cians and practitioners to explore emerging technologies in the field of Mechanical
and Industrial Engineering and further to contribute and disseminate their experi-
ence and research work for the purpose of exploring solutions to the global chal-
lenges. This conference provided an opportunity for researchers to learn about the
latest developments and emerging trends in mechanical and industrial engineering
through scientific information interchange between researchers, developers, engi-
neers, students and practitioners in this field.
The purpose of this book is to provide the details of the latest advancements in
research and developments of various advanced machining processes such as
additive manufacturing processes, application of alloys/composite techniques,
composites, ceramics, and polymers/processing. This book will be useful for
industrial experts, entrepreneurs, university professors, and research scholars.

New Delhi, India P. M. Pandey

Roorkee, India Pradeep Kumar
Gurgaon, India Vikas Sharma

v
Contents

Effect of Angular Orientation of Continuous Fibers on the Extensional

Properties of Carbon Fiber Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Joginder Singh and M. R. Tyagi
Simulation of Nanowires on c-Si Surface for Reflectance
Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Arka Bera, Sourav Nag, and Arjyajyoti Goswami
Investigation of Surface Roughness of Miniature Spur Gears
Fabricated Using WEDM by RSM Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Vyom Singh, Abhishek Patel, Ashish Goyal, Anand Pandey,
Ravikant Gupta, and Rahul Goyal
Multi-objective Analysis of Nd-YAG Laser Welding on Dissimilar
Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Dhruv Bhatt, Ashish Goyal, and Vyom Singh
Fabrication and Tensile Testing of DHAK Fiber Reinforced Polyester
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Partha Pratim Das, Gorrepati Srinivasa Rao, Eswara Krishna Mussada,
Gadudasu Babu Rao, Bhupendra Prakash Sharma,
and Umesh Kumar Vates
Determination of Safety Stock in Divergent Supply Chains
with Non-stationary Demand Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
A. M. Ranjith and V. Madhusudanan Pillai
Solving Unequal Area Facility Layout Problems with Flexible Bay
Structure by Simulated Annealing Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Irappa Basappa Hunagund, V. Madhusudanan Pillai, and U. N. Kempaiah

vii
viii Contents

Mechanical Characterization of Polycarbonate-Graphene Oxide

(PCG) Nanocomposite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Jaskaran Singh, Suneev Anil Bansal, and Amrinder Pal Singh
Comparative Experimental Analysis of Machining Parameters
for Inconel 825 on Cryogenic Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Shivaji Vithal Bhivsane and Arvind L. Chel
Optimizing Gas Injection Stir Casting Process Parameters
for Improving the Ultimate Tensile Strength of Hybrid
Mg/(SiCp + Al2O3p + Grp) Through Taguchi Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Jaspreet Hira, Alakesh Manna, Pushpinder Kumar, and Rohit Singla
Microstructural Characterization of Aluminium Alloy 6061 Powder
Deposit Made by Friction Stir Based Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . 137
Akash Mukhopadhyay and Probir Saha
Service Quality—A Case Study on Selected Hotels in Goa . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Vallabh S. Prabhu Gaunker and Rajesh S. Prabhu Gaonkar
Influence of Nozzle Distance on Tool–Chip Interface Temperature
Using Minimum Quantity Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Gurpreet Singh, Vivek Aggarwal, Sehijpal Singh, and Ajay Kumar
Investigation of Kerf Characteristics Using Abrasive Water Jet
Cutting of Floor Tile: A Preliminary Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Ramesh Chand, Vishal Gupta, N. K. Batra, and M. P. Garg
Effects of Process Parameters on Surface Roughness, Dimensional
Accuracy and Printing Time in 3D Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Rajat Jain, Shivansh Nauriyal, Vishal Gupta, and Kanwaljit Singh Khas
Optimization of Process Parameters on MRR During Face Milling
of Rolled Steel (AISI1040) Using Taguchi Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Kulwinder Singh, Anoop Kumar Singh, and K. D. Chattopadhyay
A New Permanent Magnet Type Magnetorheological Finishing
Tool for External Cylindrical Surfaces Having Different Outer
Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Ajay Singh Rana, Talwinder Singh Bedi, and Vishwas Grover
Influence of Nanoparticle Addition (TiO2) on Microstructural
Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welded
AA6061-T6 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Tanvir Singh, S. K. Tiwari, and D. K. Shukla
An Analysis on the Advanced Research in Additive
Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Gautam Chandra Karar, Ratnesh Kumar, and Somnath Chattopadhyaya
Contents ix

Fabrication and Characterisation of Aluminium Matrix Composite

(Al 2024) Reinforced with Zircon Sand and Flyash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Laxmikant Swain, Rabinarayan Sethi, A. K. Chaubey, and Silani Sahoo
Novel Technology on Recovery of Ceramic Materials from Partially
Lateritised Khondalite Rocks-A Bauxite Mining Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Ranjita Swain, Sunita Routray, and R. Bhima Rao
A Study on Heavy Mineral Distribution Pattern Along Brahmagiri
Coast of Odisha, India and Its Beneficiation to Recover Industrial
Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Sunita Routray, Ranjita Swain, and R. Bhima Rao
Webometric Study of Lean Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Kritika Karwasra, Devesh Kumar, Gunjan Soni, and Surya Prakash
Investigation of the Criticality of Flux Leakage of a Magnetizer
Assembly of a MFL Tool for Oil and Gas Pipelines Inspection . . . . . . . 323
Surya Prakash, Bhuvanesh Kumar Sharma, Chandra Prakash,
Shubham Saini, Vikas, and Ankur Sharma
DIC Correlation with Analysis Under Impact of Fiber Metal
Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
S. K. Abhishek, G. Sunil Kumar, and R. Ramesh Kumar
Evaluation of Tensile Strength Behaviour of Friction Stir Welding
Joints of Aluminium Alloy with Interlayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Avtar Singh, Vinod Kumar, and Neel Kanth Grover
Effect of Machining Parameters and MQL Parameter on Material
Removal Rate in Milling of Aluminium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Kamaljeet Singh, Anoop Kumar Singh, and K. D. Chattopadhyay
Influence of Cutting Force and Drilling Temperature on Glass Hole
Surface Integrity During Rotary Ultrasonic Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Ankit Sharma, Atul Babbar, Vivek Jain, and Dheeraj Gupta
Analysis on Development of Beeswax as Phase Change Material
for Thermal Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Durgesh Kumar Mishra, Sumit Bhowmik, and Krishna Murari Pandey
Evaluation of Material Handling Using MCDM Techniques:
A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Pardeep Kumar Verma, Raman Kumar, and Gyanendra Singh Goindi
Application of Machine Learning Technique for Demand Forecasting:
A Case Study of the Manufacturing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Arvind Jayant, Anshul Agarwal, and Vaibhav Gupta
x Contents

A Robust Hybrid Multi-criteria Decision-Making Approach

for Selection of Third-Party Reverse Logistics Service Provider . . . . . . 423
Arvind Jayant, Shweta Singh, and Tanmay Walke
Effect of Power Level on the Processing of Ni-Based Casting
Through Microwave Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Gurjot Singh, Dinesh, Sarbjeet Kaushal, and Satnam Singh
Optimization of Input Parameters for CNC Turning of SS304:
A Grey Relational Analysis and Response Surface Methodology
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Anmol Bhatia, Mayank Juneja, and Nikhil Juneja
About the Editors

Dr. P. M. Pandey is currently professor at the Department of Mechanical

Engineering, IIT Delhi. He obtained his B.Tech. from HBTI, Kanpur and M.Tech.
and Ph.D. from Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. His major areas of research
interests include Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing and Tooling, CAD/CAM,
Non-traditional Machining and Finishing, FEA of Manufacturing Processes,
Biomedical application of 3D Printing. He has published 149 research papers in
respected international journals and more than 45 papers in International and
National Conferences. Dr. Pandey is currently editor-in-chief and authors of many
well renowned books. He has more than 4008 citations with h-index: 30.

Dr. Pradeep Kumar is currently a professor at the Department of Mechanical &

Industrial Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. He obtained
Bachelor of Engineering in Industrial Engineering and Master of Engineering in
Production Engineering (Gold Medalist) and Ph.D. Manufacturing and Production
Engineering from University of Roorkee (Now, IIT Roorkee). He also served the
Delhi Technological University as Vice Chancellor. He has been honored as emi-
nent mechanical engineer for his contribution in the field of mechanical engineering
by The Institution of Engineers (India). Dr. Kumar has supervised more than 38 Ph.
D. in the field of industrial and mechanical engineering. He has published several
research papers in reputed international journals and conferences.

Dr. Vikas Sharma is currently assistant professor at the Mechanical Engineering

Department, The NorthCap University, Gurugram, Haryana, India. He graduated in
2007 with a bachelor of mechanical engineering from Kurukshetra University. He
post-graduated in CAD/CAM & Robotics from Thapar University, Patiala 2010.
Dr. Sharma earned a Ph.D., in Laser Machining/Composite Materials from Thapar
University, Patiala in 2017. His general area of research includes Laser Beam
Machining, Optimization Techniques, Composite materials, FEM, Advanced

xi
xii About the Editors

Casting Methods, Additive Manufacturing. He has several peer-reviewed interna-

tional and national journal publications and conference proceedings. Dr. Sharma is
currently reviewer of many renowned journals like Elsevier, Springer, Sage, etc. He
has also published two patents in field of mechanical and bio-mechanical engi-
neering.
Effect of Angular Orientation
of Continuous Fibers on the Extensional
Properties of Carbon Fiber Composites

Joginder Singh and M. R. Tyagi

Abstract The strength of the unidirectional composites depends on factors like

types of the fibers, types of the matrix, the volume fraction of fibers (Vf ), volume
fraction of matrix (Vm ), angle of fibers to the horizontal axis, etc. If the direction
of fiber and the applied force is the same then the angular orientation is 0° and the
composite behaves like an isotropic material. In this condition, if extensional stress is
applied to the composite then predominantly extensional strains are generated. In the
same condition, if shear stress is applied to the composite then predominantly shear
strains are generated. If the direction of fiber and applied stress is not the same then
the composite behaves like an anisotropic material. In this condition, if extensional
stress is applied to the composite then both extensional strains and shear strain are
generated in the same component. In the same condition, if shear stress is applied to
the composite then both shear strains and extensional strains are generated. So, as
the angle of orientation increases, the behavior of composite moves from isotropic
material to anisotropic material. The maximum value of the angle of orientation can
be 90° when the fiber is oriented in the lateral direction. At such orientation, the tensile
strength of the composite depends on matrix and the fibers act as stress concentration
factor (SCF). Therefore, fibers have a negative influence on the tensile strength of the
composite. The elastic behavior of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites (CFRC) was
studied as a function of the angular orientation of the carbon fiber in the composite.
The change in modulus of elasticity, as well as variation of stress and strain with an
increase in the angle of orientation the carbon fiber, were calculated by theoretical
approach. The results of the same are presented here.

Keywords Carbon fibers · Matrix · Volume fraction · Elastic modulus · Strain ·

Stress · Orientation · CFRC

J. Singh (B) · M. R. Tyagi

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, Haryana, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

P. M. Pandey et al. (eds.), Advances in Production and Industrial Engineering,
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5519-0_1
2 J. Singh and M. R. Tyagi

1 Introduction

In every field of engineering, people are working on various methods to save energy,
so that global warming can be reduced. Materials to be used in engineering parts play
a very crucial role in that sense. Initially, parts were developed from steel and other
heavy metal materials. Researches were conducted in material science to reduce
density. Then, Aluminum was discovered and no doubt density was reduced very
much. And its uses increased everywhere like aerospace, automobile, heating, venti-
lation, and air conditioning (HVAC), etc. Even then further reduction was required
for human welfare. Aluminum Metal Foam came into existence. By this material,
density was reduced further without compromising the strength and other require-
ments [1]. Research is a journey, it’s not a destination. High technology materials
came into existence i.e., composites. Composites are not new because it had been
used by many countries for bow and arrow years ago. But composites like glass fiber,
carbon fibers, etc. were new for engineering application point of view. Initially, its
application was limited in aerospace and biomedical. Now optimization is also going
on in this field also [2]. Yang et al. [3] studied how composite strength and Elastic
Modulus effect if fiber alignment was not proper. Similarly, the angular orientation
of fiber with material axes also affects the composite mechanical properties but that
was not discussed in the paper. S. Kumar et al. [4] conducted an experiment on a
single composite but using different fibers at the same time and varying the fiber
orientation for the evaluation of bending and tensile properties. According to them,
elongation was maximum at 45° and lowest at 30°. Elastic modulus was maximum
at 30°. Hang et al. [5] studied the composite’s specimen with various widths ranging
from 10 to 40 mm. They observed the delamination in the specimen after the thick-
ness of 20 mm. Naresh et al. [6] worked on shear strength and flexural properties for
carbon epoxy and glass epoxy. They observed that flexural strength and modulus are
highest at fiber orientation of 0° for both the composites. Sahin et al. [7] found the
observation between fiber orientation and dry behavior. The weight of the composite
was affected by the factors of speed and load and not by the fiber orientation. Routray
et al. [8] performed the experiment with basalt fibers by varying the fiber orientation
and thickness to check the Modulus of Elasticity, load, and stress. They got that
composite gave the better result at 0° than 90° for the discussed properties. They also
found that the production technology of Basalt is much simpler than Glass fibers.
Hossain et al. [9] developed the jute fiber with epoxy resin using the technique of
vacuum bagging and characterized by tensile tests at different fiber orientations i.e.,
0°, 45°, and 90°. They found that the tensile strength of the composite is very sensi-
tive to the tensile strength of jute fibers and defects in jute fibers. Wu et al. [10]
studied the hybrid composite by the combination of carbon and glass fiber. They
revealed that tensile strength increases as carbon fibers increases but there is very
little change in compressive strength. Tensile fracture strain and compressive frac-
ture strain decreases as the carbon fiber increases. Rahmani et al. [11] confirmed the
relation between elastic modulus and fiber orientation of multiple layers of carbon
Effect of Angular Orientation of Continuous Fibers … 3

fiber composites. They confirmed that for tensile strength of composite fiber orien-
tation is the most enhancing parameters. Defects like bond line defects, microvoids
and porosity minimize the mechanical properties. Cordin et al. [12] developed the
biobased lyocell-reinforced polypropylene composite at various fiber orientations.
They got a pattern between the elastic modulus and fiber orientation with the help
of the rule of mixtures and the result was as per the expectation. But they modified
the rule of mixtures of elastic modulus by improving the contribution of reinforcing
fibers.
In this study, the calculation of the Unidirectional Composite was conducted to
know the effect of the angular orientation of continuous fibers on the Elastic properties
of carbon fiber in unidirectional composites. As the fiber orientation changes, there is
a change in Elastic properties like Elastic Modulus, Shear Modulus, Poisson’s Ratio,
etc. Here only Elastic Modulus, Stress, and Strain at different angles with material
are discussed.

2 Basic Properties of Carbon Fiber and Epoxy Resin

Materials can be of different types like isotropic, special orthotropic, generally

orthotropic, and anisotropic. As the forces acting on these materials, they show
different behavior. In isotropic materials, the extensional stresses result in predomi-
nantly extensional strains whereas shear stresses induce shear strains. The nature of
stress–strain relationships for various materials is summarized in Table 1 [13].

Table 1 Types of stress and

Type of materials Stresses Strains developed
strain developed in different
induced
materials
Isotropic Extensional Extensional strains
stresses
Isotropic Shear stresses Shear strains
Special Orthotropic Extensional Extensional strains
Lamina stresses
Special Orthotropic Shear stresses Shear strains
Lamina
Generally Orthotropic Extensional Extensional Strains
Lamina stresses And Shear Strains
Generally Orthotropic Shear stresses Extensional strains
Lamina and shear strains
Anisotropic Extensional Extensional strains
STRESSES and shear strains
Anisotropic Shear stresses Extensional strains
and shear strains
4 J. Singh and M. R. Tyagi

Table 2 Basic properties of carbon fiber and cast epoxy resin

S. no. Type of properties Symbols Values
1 Elastic modulus of fiber Ef 350,000 N/mm2
2 Tensile strength of fiber σuf 2100 N/mm2
3 Shear modulus of fiber Gf 13,000 N/mm2
4 Shear strength of fiber τf 23 N/mm2
5 Poisson’s ratio of fiber νf 0.20
6 Elastic modulus of epoxy Em 3500 N/mm2
7 Tensile strength of cast epoxy resin σum 130 N/mm2
8 Shear modulus of epoxy Gm 2000 N/mm2
9 Shear strength of epoxy τm 6.33 N/mm2
10 Poisson’s ratio of epoxy νm 0.35

In composite, fiber orientations to x-axis decide the type of material and the
stresses and strains will be developed in the composite. A Unidirectional Composite
has two main constituents i.e., Carbon Fiber and Epoxy. These constituents have
so many different properties. Every engineering or non-engineering application has
different requirements. Some applications even required thermal and electrical prop-
erties. For the model being used here in this study, the required properties are shown
in Table 2 [14].

3 Specimen Specification

Orthotropic materials can be of two types i.e., Specially Orthotropic Material and
Generally Orthotropic Material. In Special Orthotropic Condition, load on the
composite is aligned with fibers. It means there will be no angle between the fibers
and the load. In Generally Orthotropic Condition, load is not aligned with the fibers.
It means there will be an angle between the fibers and the load. This is also known
as Off-Axis Loading Condition. Here the focus is on Off-Axis Loading Condition
[15].

3.1 X-Section Area of the Specimen of Unidirectional

Composite

The geometry of the specimens was taken as per the ASTM E8M standard. The
same design is also selected while tested for the specimen of steel. Accordingly, the
X-Section area of the Unidirectional Composite specimen, with dimensions in mm,
is shown in Fig. 1.
Effect of Angular Orientation of Continuous Fibers … 5

Fig. 1 X-Section of the

unidirectional composite

So, X-Sectional Area of Unidirectional Composite

Ac = 12.68 × 4 = 50.72 mm2

3.2 Volume Fraction of Carbon Fiber and Epoxy

The volume fraction of Carbon Fiber and Epoxy is an important factor for the strength
of the composite. It has been found that almost the entire load on a Unidirectional
Composite is carried by carbon fibers if the volume fraction of the fiber is 0.5.
Therefore, the volume fraction of fiber is taken i.e., 0.5 neglecting the presence of
voids. Volume fractions can be calculated as

Vf + Vm = 1 (1)

where, Vf —Volume Fraction of Fiber and Vm —Volume Fraction of Matrix

So, Vf = Vm = 0.5.
X-Sectional Area of the Carbon Fiber and the Matrix was calculated as

Af = Vf × Ac (2)

Am = Vm × Ac (3)

Thus,

Af = 25.36 mm2 and Am = 25.36 mm2

Since the values of the volume Fraction of the Fiber and the Matrix are the same.
The values for X-Sectional Areas of Carbon Fiber and Matrix are also the same.
6 J. Singh and M. R. Tyagi

Fig. 2 Load carried by the unidirectional composite

3.3 Load (Force) Applied on the Unidirectional Composite

and Orientation of the Fibers

The load is applied on Unidirectional Composite only in X-direction as shown in

Fig. 2. In the present study, 45400 N loads have been considered. This is the maximum
load before failure on a test specimen of steel in the tensile test on the Universal
Testing Machine (UTM) [16]. The orientation of the fibers is denoted by ‘8,’ the angle
between the line of action of the applied force and the direction of the orientation of
the carbon fiber in the composite. In the present study, the orientation varied from 0
to 90 degrees in the steps of 5°.
Load carried by the Unidirectional Composite in X-Direction = Pc = 45400 N.

4 Basic Calculations

4.1 Load Carried by the Fibers and Matrix (Pf and Pm )

The applied load on the composite is shared by the fibers and matrix. The relation
between the load shared by the Composite, Fibers, and Matrix can be expressed as

Pc = Pf + Pm (4)

The ratio of loads is given by the following relation in terms of Elastic Moduli
and Volume Fractions.
Ef
Pf Em
= (5)
Pc Ef
Em
+ Vm
Vf

So, from Eqs. (4) and (5),

Pf = 44950.495 N and, Pm = 449.505 N as all other parameter values are known.
Effect of Angular Orientation of Continuous Fibers … 7

4.2 Stresses in Fibers and Matrix (σ f and σ m )

Stresses in Fibers and Matrix can be calculated with the formula of stress, force, and
area.

Stress in Fibers = σf = Load Carried by Fibers/Area of Fibers

= Pf /Af
= 4495.495/25.36
σf = 1772.496 N/mm2

Stress in Matrix = σm = Load Carried by Matrix/Area of Matrix

= Pm /Am
= 449.505/25.36
σm = 17.725 N/mm2

4.3 Stresses in the Longitudinal Direction

of the Unidirectional Composite (σ L )

This is the stress when the direction of load and fibers are same. Stress in the
Longitudinal Direction of the Composite can be calculated as

σL = σf Vf + σm Vm (6)

So, σL = 895.11 N/mm2 .

4.4 Elastic Modulus of Unidirectional Composite

in Longitudinal Direction (EL )

As per the rule of mixture, Elastic Modulus of Unidirectional Composite in

Longitudinal Direction can be calculated as

EL = Ef Vf + Em Vm (7)

So, EL = 350000 × 0.5 + 3500 × 0.5 = 176750 N/mm2 .

8 J. Singh and M. R. Tyagi

4.5 Halpin–Tsai Equations for Elastic Modulus

of Unidirectional Composite in Transverse Direction (eT )

Elastic Modulus of Unidirectional Composite in Transverse Direction can be

calculated with the help of Halpin–Tsai Equations [17]. It can be calculated as

ET 1 + ξ η Vf
= (8)
Em 1 − η Vf

where
Ef
Em
−1
η= (9)
Ef
Em
+ξ

where
ξ Zeta
η Iota

ξ (Zeta) is a measure of reinforcement and depends on the loading condition, packing

geometry, and fiber geometry. The value of Zeta ‘ξ’ can be taken 2 for fiber with
circular or square x-sections as per the Tsai and Halpin. Fibers used here are circular
as shown in Fig. 1. The value of ‘η’ (Iota) can be obtained from Eq. (9) as all other
values are known.

η = 0.97

So, from Eq. (3), Elastic Modulus of Composite in Transverse Direction was
obtained as

ET = 13400 N/mm2

4.6 Stresses in the Transverse Direction of the Unidirectional

Composite (σ T )

This is the stress when the load is perpendicular to the direction of fibers. Stress in
the Transverse Direction of the Unidirectional Composite can be calculated as
σT σf σm
= Vf + Vm (10)
ET Ef Em

So, σT = 67.86 N/mm2 .

Effect of Angular Orientation of Continuous Fibers … 9

4.7 Halpin–Tsai Equations for in-Plane Shear Modulus

of a Unidirectional Composite (GLT )

As the direction of the load and the fibers are not aligned, shear stress will generate.
Therefore, In-plane Shear Modulus of a Unidirectional Composite can be calculated
as
GLT 1 + ξ η Vf
= (11)
Gm 1 − η Vf

where
Gf
Gm
−1
η= (12)
Gf
Gm
+ξ

The value of Zeta ‘ξ’ can be taken 1 for In-Plane Shear Modulus of a Unidirectional
Composite as per the Tsai–Halpin [18]. The value of ‘η’ (Iota) can be obtained from
Eq. (12) as all other values are known.

η = 0.73

So, from Eq. (5), In-plane shear modulus of a Unidirectional Composite was
obtained as

GLT = 4315.79 N/mm2

4.8 Major and Minor Poisson’s Ratio of a Unidirectional

Composite (ν LT and ν LT )

For the In-plane loading of a Unidirectional Composite, two Poisson Ratios can be
defined i.e., Major Poisson’s Ratio and Minor Poisson’s Ratio. As per the rule of
mixture, Major Poisson’s Ratio can be calculated as

ν L T = ν f Vf + νm Vm (13)

So, ν L T = 0.275
Minor Poisson Ratio can be calculated from the relation given below
νLT νTL
= (14)
EL ET

So, νT L = 0.021.
10 J. Singh and M. R. Tyagi

4.9 Strain in L and T Direction of a Unidirectional

Composite (pL and pT )

The strain in L Direction of a Unidirectional Composite can be calculated as

σL σT
L = − νT L (15)
EL ET

So, L = 0.0051.
The strain in T Direction of a Unidirectional Composite can be calculated as
σT σL
T = − νLT (16)
ET EL

So, T = 0.0037.

4.10 In-plane Shear Stress and Shear Strain

of a Unidirectional Composite (τ LT and γ LT )

In-plane Shear Stress of a Unidirectional Composite can be calculated as

τLT τf τm
= Vf + Vm (17)
GLT Gf Gm

So, τLT = 10.648 N/mm2 .

In-plane Shear Strain of a Unidirectional Composite can be calculated as
τLT
γLT = (18)
GLT

So, γLT = 0.00247.

5 Results and Discussion

Off-Axis load applied on Unidirectional Composite. Therefore, extensional stress

developed the extensional strain and shear strain. Similarly, shear stress developed the
shear strain and extensional strain also. Here only extensional properties considered
i.e., ‘Ex, ’ ‘px, ’ and ‘σx. ’
Effect of Angular Orientation of Continuous Fibers … 11

5.1 Elastic Modulus of the Unidirectional Composite

in X-Direction as Fiber Orientation Varies from 0° to 90°
(Ex )

Elastic Modulus of a Unidirectional Composite in X-Direction can be calculated as

 
1 cos4 θ sin4 θ 1 1 2νLT
= + + − sin2 2θ (19)
Ex EL ET 4 GLT EL

The calculated value of ‘Ex ’ is shown in Table 3. The graph between the Elastic
Modulus and Fiber Orientation of a Unidirectional Composite is shown in Fig. 3.

Table 3 Elastic modulus, strains, and stresses of unidirectional composite at various angles
Fiber orientation (8, Elastic modulus in Strain in X-direction Stress in X-direction
Degree) X-direction (Ex , (px ) (σx , N/mm2 )
N/mm2 )
0 176,750 (HV) 0.00496 (HV) 876.4 (HV)
5 136,993 0.00473 648.6
10 82,818 0.00450 372.5
15 51,158 0.00426 217.7
20 34,429 0.00402 138.2
25 25,167 0.00378 95.2
30 19,721 0.00357 70.4
35 16,370 0.00338 55.3
40 14,263 0.00321 45.8
45 12,950 0.00308 39.9
50 12,182 0.00299 36.4
55 11,810 0.00294 34.7
60 11,738 (LV) 0.00293 (LV) 34.3 (LV)
65 11,895 0.00296 35.2
70 12,213 0.00303 37.0
75 12,614 0.00314 39.6
80 13,007 0.00329 42.8
85 13,294 0.00347 46.1
90 13,400 0.00367 49.2
HV—Highest Value, LV—Lowest Value
12 J. Singh and M. R. Tyagi

Fig. 3 Graph between the elastic modulus and fiber orientation of a unidirectional composite

5.2 Strains of the Unidirectional Composite in X-Direction

as Fiber Orientation Varies from 0° to 90° (px )

Strain is nothing but change in length upon original length. So it is a unit less entity.
Strain of the Unidirectional Composite in X-Direction is dependent on ‘pL, ’ ‘pT, ’
‘γLT, ’ and fiber orientation [19]. It can be calculated as

x =  L cos2 θ + εT sin2 θ − γ L T sin θ cos θ (20)

The calculated values of ‘px ’ are shown in Table 3. The graph between the Strain
and Fiber Orientation of the Unidirectional Composite is shown in Fig. 4.

5.3 Stresses of the Unidirectional Composite in X-Direction

as Fiber Orientation Varies from 0° to 90° (σ x )

Stresses of the Unidirectional Composite in X-Direction can be calculated as

σx
Ex = (21)
x
Effect of Angular Orientation of Continuous Fibers … 13

Fig. 4 Graph between the strain and fiber orientation of the unidirectional composite

The value of ‘σx ’ can be obtained from Eq. (21) as Elastic Modulus and Strain
values are calculated in Sects. 5.1 and 5.2. The calculated values of ‘σx ’ calculated
are shown in Table 3 [20]. The graph between the Stress and Fiber Orientation of the
Unidirectional Composite is shown in Fig. 5.

5.4 Discussion

• As the fiber orientation increases from 0° to 90°, the Elastic Modulus of Unidi-
rectional Composite decreases rapidly from 0° to 20° and then it decreases slowly
up to 60°. After that, it becomes stable from 60° to 90°. Its highest value is at 0°
i.e., 176,750 N/mm2 and the lowest value is at 60° i.e., 11,738 N/mm2 .
• As the fiber orientation increases from 0° to 90°, strain induces in Unidirectional
Composite. Strain decreases slowly from 0° to 60° and again increases up to 90°.
Its highest value is at 0° i.e., 0.00496 and the lowest value is at 60° i.e., 0.00293.
• As the fiber orientation increases from 0° to 90°, Stress induces in the Unidirec-
tional Composite. Stresses of Unidirectional Composite decrease rapidly from 0°
to 20° and then it decreases slowly up to 60°. After that, it becomes stable from
60° to 90°. Its highest value is at 0° i.e., 876.4 N/mm2 and the lowest value is at
60° i.e., 34.3 N/mm2 .
14 J. Singh and M. R. Tyagi

Fig. 5 Graph between the stress and fiber orientation of the unidirectional composite

6 Conclusion

• Elastic Modulus, Strain, and Stress have the highest values at 90° of Fiber Orien-
tation i.e., at Longitudinal Direction. That is why Special Orthotropic Materials
are more preferred for engineering applications Generally Orthotropic Materials.
• Elastic Modulus, Strain, and Stress have the lowest values at 60° of Fiber
Orientation, not at 90°.
• Elastic Modulus, Strain, and Stress decreases from 0° to 60° and again starts
increases from 60° to 90° of Fiber Orientation.
• This property can be utilized to optimize the carbon fiber reinforced composites
for obtaining desired properties for specific engineering applications.

References

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Simulation of Nanowires on c-Si Surface
for Reflectance Reduction

Arka Bera, Sourav Nag, and Arjyajyoti Goswami

Abstract Presence of surface structures has been found to reduce surface

reflectance. Structures like Nanoholes, Nanopyramids, AR coating, etc. have been
found useful for the purpose. In this work, the reflectance of c-Si with nanowires
on its surface is simulated with the aim of reducing its surface reflectance. It is
observed that the presence of Si nanowires on the surface of c-Si reduced the surface
reflectance to 23% as compared to a reflectance of 38% in the case of bare c-Si. The
simulations are based on Fast Fourier Transform and implemented through an online
simulation tool called Stanford Stratified Structure Solver (S4). Results obtained
from simulation are thereafter utilized in development of a mathematical model.

Keywords Surface structuring · Fast Fourier transform simulations · Reflectance

1 Introduction

Between 1992 and 2018, there has been significant growth in the field of Photo-
voltaics. During this era of time, photovoltaics (PV), additionally referred to as solar
PV, has evolved from a distinct segment market of small- scale applications to a
mainstream electricity supply [1]. For several years, Japan and pioneering European
countries progressed in the research. With the improvement in technology, the cost of
solar energy decreased significantly. Programs in several countries were involved in
promoting PV deployment, such as the Energiewende in Germany, the Million Solar
Roofs project in the United States, and China’s 2011 five-year plan for solar energy
production [2]. Since then, the deployment of photovoltaics has gained momentum
on a worldwide scale, with various industries aiming to utilize solar energy as an
alternative to conventional sources of energy. In the early twenty-first century, a

A. Bera (B) · A. Goswami

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Nag
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 17

P. M. Pandey et al. (eds.), Advances in Production and Industrial Engineering,
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5519-0_2
18 A. Bera et al.

market for utility scale plants emerged in addition to rooftop solar panels and other
distributed applications [3]. By 2015, about 30 nations had reached grid parity [4].
Crystalline Silicon (C-Si) is widely used by the photovoltaic industry for making
traditional, conventional, and water-based solar cells. In 2013, conventional crys-
talline silicon technology dominated worldwide photovoltaic production, with multi-
Si finding wider application as opposed to mono-Si, accounting for 54% and 36%t,
respectively. 121 Gigawatts (GW) of crystalline silicon (87%) is included in the
all-time deployed PV capacity (cumulative as of 2013) [5].
Crystalline Silicon generally reduces the reflection by 38%. Here we will be using
Crystalline Silicon nanowires by growing them over the surface of C-Si so that the
reflection reduces more. Silicon is chosen as it is cheap, easily available, and non-
reactive. Alternatively, Indium Tellurium Gallide or Indium Arsenide could be used
for the reduction of surface reflectance.
There are various nano-structures that have been implemented to reduce the
surface reflectance of crystalline silicon. These include structures such as nanopyra-
midal arrays [6], nanohole arrays [7], and nanogratings [8]. There is a need to study
the effect of nanowire parameters on the reflectance reduction from the surface of
c-Si, which is being proposed in this paper. Studies by Van Trinh Pham et al. [9] have
shown an increase in the length of nanowire decreases surface reflectance.
The work studies the influence of Si nanowire parameters in reducing the surface
reflectance of C-Si by means of simulation of Si nanowires on a silicon wafer using S4
method. The work also aims at establishing a co- relation between surface reflectance
and geometrical parameters of nanowires such as diameter and length using Response
Surface Methodology. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 intro-
duces S4 method, including simulation parameters and explains the experimental
methodology. Section 3 shows the results obtained from simulation and determines
the error obtained between the simulation results and the mathematical model.

2 Simulation and Experimental Methodology

The nanowire simulations are geometrically well-defined surface structures

consisting of equidistant, straight and parallel projections on the surface of c-Si.
A nanowire is defined by two main geometrical parameters, namely, radius and
length. Radius of nanowire refers to the distance between center and outer surface
of a single nanowire. The length is the height of the nanowire above the c-Si surface.
The schematic of a nanowire and its different geometrical features are shown in
Fig. 1.
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