Received: 23 July 2023 Accepted: 6 December 2023

DOI: 10.1002/pchj.728

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Confounding analysis with gaming aspects in predicting

psychological distress of esports players

Soon Li Lee | Cai Lian Tam

Department of Psychology, Jeffrey Cheah School of Abstract

Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University
Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
This research aimed to explore the interplay between the central and peripheral aspects of
gaming and their correlation with internet gaming disorder (IGD) in predicting indicators
Correspondence of psychological distress. The study proposed that the core and peripheral characteristics
Soon Li Lee, Department of Psychology, Monash of gaming serve as confounding variables affecting the direct relationship between IGD
University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia.
Email: [email protected]
and psychological distress. Employing a longitudinal design spanning two distinct time-
frames, the research involved 100 esports players from Malaysia, all of whom had partici-
Funding information pated in at least one official tournament. The outcomes revealed that both the core and
Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health peripheral attributes of gaming significantly predicted stress, anxiety, and depression.
Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Grant/Award However, IGD exhibited a significant predictive association only with stress. Notably, the
Number: ECR-000036
study also detected the confounding effects of core and peripheral characteristics in the
direct link between IGD and stress. These results imply that core and peripheral gaming
traits should be interpreted as individual differences that amplify susceptibility to IGD
and its associated psychological distress indicators. Moreover, the findings suggested that
IGD might not be a prominent concern for esports players, potentially due to their train-
ing in performance management as athletes. The paper explores further implications stem-
ming from these findings.

KEYWORDS
confounding analysis, esports, internet gaming disorder, psychological distress

INTRODUCTION shown a higher prevalence in Southeast Asia (Chia

et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2022), which has drawn significant
In the recent fifth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical public attention and concern in the affected regions
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric (Chandy, 2019; The Star, 2021).
Association [APA], 2013), internet gaming disorder (IGD) was The introduction of IGD has prompted subsequent empir-
introduced as a provisional diagnosis pending further research ical investigations aiming to prove its concerning effects on
(Petry & O’Brien, 2013; Pontes & Griffiths, 2014). IGD is various samples, including schoolchildren, deemed vulnera-
characterized by the persistent use of the internet for online ble by various stakeholders (Chen et al., 2021; Chen, Chen,
gaming, causing significant distress or impairment over a nine- Hou, et al., 2022), school teachers (Chen, Chen, Gamble,
month period (APA, 2013). Recognizing the need for robust et al., 2022), esports players with high gaming intensity and
research, various screening tools have been developed, such as proficiency (e.g., B
anyai et al., 2020), and individuals mis-
those proposed by Pontes and Griffiths (2015). The World using substances (Chen, Chang, Chang, et al., 2022). To
Health Organization (WHO, 2018a) has also acknowledged shed light on this aspect, researchers have moved beyond
the consistent research findings regarding IGD and identi- cross-sectional design, employing a longitudinal approach to
fied it as a potential clinical concern. Consequently, “gam- illustrate the conceptual relationship between problematic
ing disorder” was included as a provisional term in the 11th gaming and various psychological outcomes (e.g., Chang
Revision of the International Classification of Diseases et al., 2022). These empirical findings have revealed that the
(ICD-11; WHO, 2018b). Empirically, gaming disorder has fixation on gaming activities is induced by certain internal

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work
is properly cited.
© 2024 The Authors. PsyCh Journal published by Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.

PsyCh Journal. 2024;13:541–551. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pchj 541

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542 GAMING ASPECTS AND ESPORTS PLAYERS

predispositions, such as the existing fear of the infectious Star, 2021). To address this conflict, policymakers have initi-
disease COVID-19 (Chen et al., 2021). However, given the ated a long-term plan focused on public education for preven-
longitudinal nature of the design, the findings have illus- tion purposes and the implementation of suitable interventions
trated the complex interplay between problematic gaming (Ministry of Youth and Sports, n.d.). The incorrect conceptu-
and psychological outcomes. While it is expected for indi- alization of gaming disorder could have adverse consequences
vidual differences to induce susceptibility to problematic in various areas (Aarseth et al., 2017; Ji et al., 2022). Empirical
gaming, as shown in previous studies (e.g., Chen investigations also yield conflicting findings, outlining both the
et al., 2021), one longitudinal finding indicated the possibil- detrimental (e.g., Lin et al., 2019) and adaptive aspects of gam-
ity for problematic gaming to consolidate the saliency of an ing (e.g., Halbrook et al., 2019). Recognizing the need to safe-
internal predisposition, such as self-stigma (Chen, Chang, guard the welfare of esports players, this research was
Chang, et al., 2022). Further examination revealed that self- conducted to explore the conceptual link between excessive
stigma did not significantly predict problematic gaming gaming and psychological distress.
(Chen, Chang, Chang, et al., 2022), contradicting estab- Empirically, esports players demonstrate significantly higher
lished findings on internal predispositions as factors that motivation in gaming compared to their regular gaming counter-
induce problematic gaming. In general, problematic gaming parts (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020; Martončik, 2015).
induces susceptibility to psychological distress (e.g., Chang This heightened involvement increases their vulnerability to psy-
et al., 2022; Chen, Chen, Gamble, et al., 2022). However, chiatric concerns (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020). Notably,
these relationships may be conditional upon the situational empirical findings indicate that the relationship between IGD
context. As indicated previously, individuals with high levels and psychiatric concerns is indistinguishable between esports
of fear of COVID-19 are more likely to sustain unregulated and regular players (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020). This
gaming behavior (Chen et al., 2021). Hence, it is sensible to finding might seem counterintuitive since esports players, who
expect the enhanced effect of problematic gaming on psy- spend more time gaming than regular players, would be expected
chological distress during the period of the pandemic. How- to have a higher risk of developing IGD. However, a possible
ever, during the peak period of COVID-19, a decline in explanation is that the duration of gaming alone is not a reliable
gaming time was observed among schoolchildren (Chen indicator of pathological gaming (Kir
aly et al., 2017; Vuorre
et al., 2021), possibly due to the shift to online learning, et al., 2022). Alternatively, it can be interpreted that prolonged
which dictated the time spent using technology (Chen, gaming, both for esports players and regular gamers, diminishes
Chen, Hou, et al., 2022). This shift may have reduced the the capacity for a healthy lifestyle, rendering them both suscepti-
saliency of the effect of problematic gaming on psychological dis- ble to poor health outcomes (Chan et al., 2022). Consequently,
tress. Altogether, these longitudinal studies imply the need to con- policymakers must gain a comprehensive understanding of the
sider the complex interplay between problematic gaming and primary stakeholders in this flourishing industry. This research
psychological variables. It is also imperative to consider the specifically targets esports players, who are integral to the indus-
characteristics of the sample involved, such as schoolchildren try’s success. Examining the underlying theoretical rationales for
who have been distracted from prolonged gaming IGD, this research aligns with the call for further investigation in
(e.g., Chen, Chen, Hou, et al., 2022). Hence, this research this area (APA, 2013) to better serve the esports community
focuses on esports players who are highly motivated in gam- (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b).
ing (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020; Martončik, 2015), The Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form
which may be a cause of their susceptibility to psychiatric (IGDS9-SF; Pontes & Griffiths, 2015) serves as a measure
concerns (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020). for evaluating the severity of the tentative diagnosis of IGD
The surge in the popularity of esports, also known as com- outlined by the APA (2013). The proposed criteria for IGD
petitive video gaming (Hamari & Sjöblom, 2017), has raised include saliency, withdrawal, tolerance, relapse, conflict, and
considerable concern among dedicated players, especially those problematic outcomes, mirroring those for the Gaming
engaged in competitive gaming. As of 2022, it was estimated Addiction Scale (GAS; Lemmens et al., 2009). Additionally,
that the total esports audience reached 532 million, and this IGD criteria include the loss of interest in previous hobbies
figure is expected to steadily increase annually, potentially sur- and a tendency to conceal the amount of gaming. The inter-
passing 640 million in the upcoming years (Newzoo, 2022). changeability of the terms “excessive gaming” and “internet
This burgeoning industry has been recognized for its lucrative gaming disorder” in empirical studies (Jain & Jain, 2021;
revenue streams (e.g., Newzoo, 2022) and substantial earnings Lin et al., 2019; Monacis et al., 2016; Rapinda et al., 2021;
(e.g., Esports Earning, 2022), making it an enticing career Severo et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2020; Yen et al., 2019) has
prospect for tech-savvy young adults (B
anyai et al., 2019a, blurred the conceptual differences between these two indica-
2019b). Given their competitive nature, professional esports tors of problematic gaming. Both excessive gaming and IGD
players adhere to strict training requirements similar to tradi- are empirically linked to psychological distress. To prevent
tional athletes (Taylor, 2012), necessitating more time spent the pathologization of normal behavior (Brunborg
on gaming than casual players (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b). et al., 2013, 2015; Charlton & Danforth, 2007), further
However, there is a notable conflict, as the profession’s poten- research on the tentative diagnosis of IGD is crucial
tial for attractive income poses risks to the well-being of players (APA, 2013). This research can help clarify distinctions and
who undergo intensive training (e.g., Chandy, 2019; The better inform the community and relevant stakeholders.
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PsyCh JOURNAL 543

While empirical evidence consistently links IGD to various problem (Brunborg et al., 2013, 2015; Charlton &
indicators of psychological distress (Gonz
alez-Bueso et al., 2018), Danforth, 2007)—to the existing indicators of intense gam-
it is crucial to approach these findings with a critical perspec- ing escalates active gaming to gaming addiction. Theoreti-
tive. Notably, a relevant study found a significant link between cally, healthy players often engage in the peripheral
IGD and stress, but no significant association with depression characteristics (saliency, mood modification, and tolerance),
and anxiety (Jaafar et al., 2021). These inconsistencies while pathological players frequently exhibit the core character-
underscore the ongoing challenge of interpreting the cumula- istics (Brunborg et al., 2013, 2015; Charlton & Danforth,
tive findings and highlight the need to address confli- 2007). Thus, estimated scores for peripheral features can indi-
cting views regarding the validity of IGD as a clinical concern cate engagement levels, while scores for core features reflect the
(e.g., Aarseth et al., 2017). Recent attempts to understand degree of gaming addiction (Brunborg et al., 2015). Recent
IGD suggest that it may result from certain vulnerabilities findings suggest that core characteristics better reflect under-
(Rapinda et al., 2021), addressing identified issues in the litera- lying addictive tendencies, while peripheral symptoms are
ture, such as the lack of consolidated theories and longitudinal context-dependent (Snodgrass et al., 2019). The former core
designs (Rosendo-Rios et al., 2022). These limitations are tied characteristics are grounded in neurobiological processes, while
to concerns about the directionality of the findings. Without a the latter peripheral characteristics involve learned patterns of
clear theoretical perspective, interpreting the proposed concep- thoughts and practices common in a given context (Snodgrass
tual relationship between IGD and associated clinical concerns et al., 2019). From this perspective, both core and peripheral
becomes challenging. IGD, previously linked to mental health features increase susceptibility to addictive gaming, and the
issues (Gonz
alez-Bueso et al., 2018), might either be the cause neurological processes of gaming are linked to expectations
or the outcome of these concerns. The findings are inconsis- about gaming, expressed symptoms, and unique contextual
tent, as demonstrated in research by Jaafar et al. (2021), and experiences (Snodgrass et al., 2019).
longitudinal studies have not provided a clear direction for Fundamentally, gaming can be viewed as a form of adap-
these effects. For instance, while excessive gaming heightens tive coping (e.g., André et al., 2020), challenging the prevailing
the risk of clinical issues, the vulnerabilities stemming from idea that extended gaming is inherently maladaptive
excessive gaming do not appear to increase susceptibility to fur- (e.g., Chan et al., 2022) and opposing interpretations that link
ther problematic gaming (e.g., Chang et al., 2022). This con- it directly to IGD (e.g., Jain & Jain, 2021). This shift in con-
tradicts previous findings regarding predispositions as ceptualizing gaming behavior highlights its intricate nature and
vulnerability factors for IGD (e.g., Chen et al., 2021). The the complexities embedded within proposed theoretical frame-
absence of a strong theoretical framework adds complexity to works. Oversimplifying the outcomes of these constructs may
this issue, as it fails to provide a clear direction for the proposed introduce bias, influencing interpretations of their implica-
connections between gaming and psychological outcomes. tions, particularly in the rapidly expanding gaming industry.
Therefore, the current literature needs further development to Moreover, disregarding the potential positive aspects of gaming
consider the possibility that IGD might evolve into an obsolete risks unfairly labeling normal gaming behavior as pathological
diagnosis (Aarseth et al., 2017; Ji et al., 2022). (Brunborg et al., 2013, 2015; Charlton & Danforth, 2007).
Recent developments suggest that the GAS (Lemmens Presently, there is uncertainty surrounding the defined
et al., 2009) is best represented by a two-factor model conceptual terms of IGD and the core as well as peripheral
(Brunborg et al., 2015), highlighting the intricate nature of the characteristics associated with gaming. As previously men-
conceptual construct of addictive gaming. These two factors, tioned, these attributes could be viewed as individual differences
identified as core and peripheral criteria for gaming addiction that potentially heighten susceptibility to IGD (e.g., Snodgrass
(Charlton, 2002), shed light on the nuances of intense gaming. et al., 2019). Hence, the prominence of these features plays a piv-
The peripheral criteria, encompassing high saliency, mood otal role in determining the prominence of IGD. Considering
modification, and tolerance, reflect the intensity of gaming these characteristics as factors that augment vulnerability to IGD
(Charlton, 2002). However, the impact of intense gaming seems a more rational approach rather than assuming their equiva-
remains unclear. Recent findings propose that feelings of lone- lence. This overlap raises concerns about “jingle-jangle” fallacies
liness and psychological distress drive players to invest more in (Marsh, 1994). The “jingle” fallacy involves falsely assuming
gaming (André et al., 2020), suggesting the possibility of adap- resemblance between two distinct theoretical constructs
tive gaming. Without a clear indication of causality, it is pla- (Thorndike, 1904), while the “jangle” fallacy entails falsely pre-
usible to interpret excessive gaming as a result or outcome of suming distinctness between two similar theoretical constructs
experienced psychological distress, consistent with many (Kelley, 1927). These fallacies pose significant concerns as they
empirical findings on the maladaptive aspects of excessive cloud the interpretation of the represented theoretical constructs
gaming (e.g., Chan et al., 2022). Nonetheless, existing (Gaylord-Harden et al., 2010; Lee, 2021; Paulhus et al., 2004;
sources indicate the possibility that this form of gaming does Watson et al., 2013). To address this overlap, this research pro-
not necessarily cause complications for players but may poses a solution: employing statistical controls to manage con-
instead be adaptive, aiding them in coping with negative founding variables.
psychological experiences (Brunborg et al., 2013; A confounder serves as a variable that distorts the relation-
Charlton & Danforth, 2007; Vuorre et al., 2022). The addi- ship between two other variables (e.g., MacKinnon
tion of core criteria—withdrawal, relapse, conflict, and et al., 2000). Essentially, it obscures or weakens the direct
 20460260, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pchj.728 by University Of Delhi, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
544 GAMING ASPECTS AND ESPORTS PLAYERS

impact of a predictor on an outcome. A basic confounder’s TABLE 1 Participants’ demographics.

conceptual model resembles a simple mediation model but Demographic N (%)
with a reversed pathway from the predictor to the designated
Age
mediator (MacKinnon et al., 2000). Wysocki et al. (2022)
have outlined several conceptual models for confounders, with 18–30 80 (80%)
two pertinent ones being the confounder and the collider. The 31–43 17 (17%)
collider model suggests a direct effect of the predictor on both 44–56 3 (3%)
the confounder and the outcome, as well as an effect of the Gender
outcome on the confounder, but this has less relevance Male 95% (95)
in the current context. The confounder model, akin to Female 5 (5%)
MacKinnon et al.’s (2000) description, is more pertinent here.
Employment status
It proposes direct effects of the confounder on the predictor
Full time 52 (52%)
and the outcome, along with a direct effect of the predictor on
the outcome. Crucially, the confounder predates the predictor Part time 12 (12%)
and has links to the outcome (MacKinnon et al., 2000). Unemployed 36 (36%)
Considering this, the core and peripheral characteristics Marital status
described by Snodgrass et al. (2019) seem to fulfill the criteria Married 18 (18%)
of being confounders to the direct effect of IGD on indicators Single 82 (82%)
of psychological distress. Therefore, the significant association Education level
observed between IGD and psychological distress indicators
Primary education 1 (1%)
(e.g., Rapinda et al., 2021) might potentially mask the effects
Secondary education 17 (17%)
of these characteristics. Consequently, prematurely classifying
IGD as a disorder could undermine understanding the true ori- Tertiary education 80 (80%)
gins of the adverse effects of unregulated gaming. Not relevant 2 (2%)
This study endeavors to build upon current literature, Monthly income
which primarily delves into illustrating the impact of gaming RM 500–RM 1000 34 (34%)
aspects on psychological outcomes (e.g., Chen, Chen, Gamble, RM 1001–RM 2000 15 (15%)
et al., 2022). It seeks to prolong the longitudinal perspective RM 2001–RM 3000 16 (16%)
by shedding light on how the overlap of these gaming aspects
RM 3001–RM 4000 13 (13%)
might cloud their connection with psychological outcomes. By
RM 4001–RM 5000 4 (4%)
utilizing longitudinal data from a sample of esports players in
Malaysia—an underrepresented demographic in current RM 5001 and above 12 (12%)
research—this paper aims to examine whether the core and Unwilling to disclose 6 (6%)
peripheral characteristics identified by Snodgrass et al. (2019) Ethnicity
distorted the direct relationship between IGD and indicators of Malay 70 (70%)
psychological distress. Apart from its academic significance, Chinese 16 (16%)
this research is pertinent for industry stakeholders, including Indian 5 (5%)
esports players, and governing bodies.
Non-Muslim natives 6 (6%)
Muslim natives 3 (3%)

METHOD Abbreviation: RM, Ringgit Malaysia (currency used in Malaysia).

Participants
31 May 2022. The study’s recruitment was facilitated through
This longitudinal study involved adults (aged 18 years and the survey company’s website, where individuals interested and
above) in Malaysia who are active esports players, having taken meeting specific criteria (Malaysian citizenship, age 18 and
part in at least one official esports tournament. A group of above, and participation in at least one official esports tourna-
100 esports players in Malaysia volunteered to participate in ment) were invited to participate in the survey. These partici-
this longitudinal research, comprising data collected at two dis- pants have given their consent to take part in this research,
tinct time points. Table 1 provides an overview of the demo- which includes subsequent follow-up survey. Following a
graphic characteristics of these participants. three-month interval, the same cohort of 100 esports players
was contacted for a follow-up survey, which occurred between
31 August 31, and 31 October 2022. It is worth emphasizing
Procedure that this longitudinal research effectively retained the participa-
tion of these esports players for the follow-up survey. As a
The initial data collection phase took place over the course of token of appreciation for their involvement, each participant
1 month, starting from 3 April 2022, and concluding on received RM10 (
$2.28), upon completing each phase of data
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PsyCh JOURNAL 545

collection. Furthermore, it is important to underscore that the such as asking participants about thoughts like spending the
research received ethical approval from Monash University entire day playing games over the last 6 months. Respondents
Human Ethics Committee (Project ID: 31775), ensuring that it rated these items on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (never)
adhered to established ethical research guidelines and standards. to 5 (very often). The initial three items contributed to forming
the core construct, while the remaining four items contributed
to defining the peripheral construct, aligning with the structure
Statistical analysis outlined by Brunborg et al. (2015).
The measurement of gaming disorder utilized the
Statistical analysis was conducted with multilevel generalized IGDS9-SF (Pontes & Griffiths, 2015), which includes nine
structured component analysis (GSCA; see Hwang items. For example: “Have you experienced increased irritabil-
et al., 2007). This choice of analysis considered how the ity, anxiety, or sadness when attempting to cut down or stop
observed effects may differ across different timeframes by gaming?” Participants rated these items on a scale of 1 (never)
allowing both loadings and path coefficients to vary across to 5 (very often).
time. Hence, this analysis portrays the changes in the examined The Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale 21 (DASS-21;
relationships that occur over time. GSCA involves three sub- Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) was used to assess depression,
models, including the measurement, structural, and weighted anxiety, and stress. This scale comprises 21 items, with seven
relation models. The measurement model describes the rela- items each reflecting the respective subscales for depression
tionships between the components and their respective indica- (e.g., “I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at
tors, the structural model specifies the relationships between all”), anxiety (e.g., “I felt I was close to panic”), and stress
the components, and the weighted relation model defines com- (e.g., “I found it hard to wind down”). Participants rated these
ponents as weighted sums of their indicators. This procedure items on a four-point scale ranging from 0 (Did not apply to me
incorporates these sub-models into a single model. This statisti- at all) to 3 (Applied to me very much or most of the time).
cal method provides details on model fit, such as the explana-
tory power of components and indicators (e.g., FIT and
AFIT). The GSCA models posited disordered gaming as the RESULTS
predictor of the indicators of psychological distress, while
the core and peripheral components were posited as the inter- The first step involved examining the confounding models,
vening variables. Empirical findings indicate that this statistical where all weights and item loadings were found to be statistically
method has no convergence issue with small samples (Jung significant, barring two items within the IGDS9-SF. These two
et al., 2018). To determine the statistical significance of the items were removed, and the significance persisted across the
parameter estimates, the critical ratios (the parameter estimates remaining items. Subsequent models were then constructed to
divided by their standard error) were used to determine the sig- explore the direct influence of IGD and its core and peripheral
nificance of the parameter estimates (Hwang et al., 2007). A characteristics on indicators of psychological distress. Further
parameter estimate is assumed to be statistically significant at details, including reliability estimates and the estimated weights
0.05 alpha level if the critical ratio is greater than 2 (Hwang and loadings, are presented in the Supporting Information.
et al., 2007). The effect size of the estimated pathways was Table 2 provides an overview of the outcomes from the
indicated by f 2, in which the values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 GSCA models concerning stress as the outcome variable.
were considered small, medium, and large, respectively The average estimated direct impact of IGD on stress was
(Cohen, 1988). found to be statistically significant. Additionally, the non-
Four GSCA models were estimated for each indicator of significance of the random effect suggests a consistent esti-
psychological distress. Three of these models depict the direct mated direct effect over a 3-month time span. Similarly, the
effect of the gaming aspects on the indicators of psychological direct effects of both core and peripheral characteristics on
distress, and the last model depicts the confounding effects of stress were significant. The estimated random effects also lacked
the core and peripheral characteristics on the direct effect significance, indicating consistent effects across the observed time
of IGD and the indicator of psychological distress. The ratio- interval. Despite IGD losing significance in predicting stress
nale behind isolating these outcomes is to provide a clear and according to the confounding model, the core and peripheral
distinct demonstration of the confounding impact on each spe- characteristics maintained their predictive significance. Notably,
cific indicator of psychological distress. the core characteristic emerged as the most influential predictor
for stress. Furthermore, the estimated random effects reaffirmed
the consistency of these effects throughout the research timeframe.
Measures Figure 1 illustrates the confounding model’s structure with stress
as the outcome variable.
The respondents’ demographic details, encompassing age, gen- Table 3 summarizes the findings derived from the GSCA
der, and ethnicity, were gathered for descriptive analysis models focusing on depression as the outcome. The average
purposes. estimated direct effect of IGD on depression did not reach sta-
Gaming addiction was measured using the GAS composed tistical significance. However, both the core and peripheral
by Lemmens et al. (2009). This scale comprises seven items, characteristics exhibited significant direct effects. Furthermore,
 20460260, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pchj.728 by University Of Delhi, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
546 GAMING ASPECTS AND ESPORTS PLAYERS

TABLE 2 Summary of the GSCA models predicting stress.

Between Random
2
Path (f ) estimate SE CR estimate SE CR

Model 1a (FIT = 0.31)

IGD ! Stress (0.04) 0.20 0.07 2.90 0.08 0.12 0.67
Model 2a (FIT = 0.38)
Peripheral ! Stress (0.07) 0.27 0.08 3.31 0.13 0.15 0.85
Model 3a (FIT = 0.37)
Core ! Stress (0.12) 0.33 0.07 4.53 0.13 0.15 0.86
Model 4a (FIT = 0.34)
Peripheral ! IGD (0.16) 0.37 0.07 5.13 0.04 0.09 0.41
Core ! IGD (0.12) 0.33 0.09 3.71 0.07 0.12 0.62
IGD ! Stress (0.00) 0.01 0.11 0.09 0.01 0.13 0.10
Peripheral ! Stress (0.03) 0.17 0.10 1.80 0.11 0.16 0.73
Core ! Stress (0.08) 0.28 0.09 2.96 0.12 0.16 0.75
Abbreviations: CR, critical ratio; GSCA, generalized structured component analysis; IGD, internet gaming disorder.

but now depicted as negative, although this change did not

achieve statistical significance. Nonetheless, the positive direct
effects of core and peripheral characteristics on anxiety
remained significant. Furthermore, the estimated random
effects affirmed the consistency of these effects across the
research period. Figure 3 illustrates the structure of the con-
founding model concerning anxiety as the outcome variable.

DISCUSSION
This paper investigated whether the core and peripheral charac-
F I G U R E 1 Confounding model in predicting stress. *significant; IGD, teristics outlined by Snodgrass et al. (2019) have influenced
internet gaming disorder. the direct impact of IGD on indicators of psychological dis-
tress. Therefore, this focus represents a significant expansion of
the current literature, which predominantly explores the
the estimated random effects did not show significance, sug- impact of these gaming aspects on psychological outcomes
gesting consistent direct effects across the observed time span. (e.g., Chen, Chen, Gamble, et al., 2022). By delving into dis-
In the confounding model, a noticeable shift appeared in the tinct aspects of psychological distress, this research extends
IGD–depression relationship, previously positive but now prior studies on the correlation between intense gaming and
depicted as negative, although this alteration lacked statistical psychological distress (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020). It
significance. Conversely, the positive direct impacts of core and also addresses conceptual gaps by examining theories with lon-
peripheral characteristics on depression remained statistically gitudinal designs (Rosendo-Rios et al., 2022).
significant. Additionally, the estimated random effects vali- This longitudinal study aims to address concerns by untan-
dated the consistent nature of these impacts throughout the gling the conceptual differences between gaming disorder and
study period. Figure 2 illustrates the structure of the confound- fundamental gaming features in predicting various indicators
ing model concerning depression as the outcome variable. of psychological distress. The findings indicate the confound-
Table 4 presents the findings from the GSCA models ing effects of core and peripheral characteristics on the direct
focused on anxiety as the outcome variable. Similar to depres- relationship between IGD and stress. Similarly, these character-
sion and stress, the direct impact of IGD on anxiety did not istics confound the direct relationship between IGD and
yield statistical significance. Conversely, the direct effects of depression as well as anxiety, altering the direction of these
both core and peripheral characteristics were statistically signifi- direct effects. The longitudinal design offers diverse perspec-
cant. Moreover, the estimated random effects demonstrated tives by showcasing the stability of the confounding model and
consistency across the observed time interval, lacking signifi- the direct effects over time.
cance. Within the confounding model, an apparent alteration The results supported the connection between IGD and
emerged in the IGD–anxiety relationship, previously positive stress, aligning with prior research (Wong et al., 2020; Yen
 20460260, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pchj.728 by University Of Delhi, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
PsyCh JOURNAL 547

TABLE 3 Summary of the GSCA models predicting depression.

Between Random
2
Path (f ) estimate SE CR estimate SE CR

Model 1b (FIT = 0.33)

IGD ! Depression (0.02) 0.13 0.09 1.46 0.01 0.10 0.13
Model 2b (FIT = 0.41)
Peripheral ! Depression (0.10) 0.30 0.08 3.95 0.09 0.13 0.66
Model 3b (FIT = 0.39)
Core ! Depression (0.12) 0.33 0.08 4.37 0.14 0.16 0.86
Model 4b (FIT = 0.35)
Peripheral ! IGD (0.15) 0.37 0.07 5.12 0.04 0.10 0.40
Core ! IGD (0.12) 0.33 0.09 3.66 0.07 0.12 0.61
IGD ! Depression (0.01) 0.09 0.12 0.76 0.07 0.17 0.45
Peripheral ! Depression (0.08) 0.27 0.10 2.61 0.09 0.15 0.58
Core ! Depression (0.07) 0.26 0.09 2.74 0.19 0.20 0.96
Abbreviations: CR, critical ratio; GSCA, generalized structured component analysis; IGD, internet gaming disorder.

power for stress (Yen et al., 2019). Hence, a plausible interpre-

tation emerges: problematic gaming is predominantly linked to
depressive states (Chang et al., 2022), aligning with the emo-
tional regulation aspect of IGD (APA, 2013). The contradic-
tory finding can be explained by the type of sample used in
this research. This study focused on competitive, professional
esports players, differing from participants in prior research
(e.g., Yen et al., 2019). These esports players might possess
enhanced control over critical psychological processes relevant
to sports performance, such as precompetitive emotional states
(Brevers et al., 2020). Hence, despite their prolonged gaming,
they may exhibit lower tendencies toward negative emotions.
F I G U R E 2 Confounding model in predicting depression. *significant; This distinction between esports and regular players contrasts
IGD, internet gaming disorder. with previous findings (B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020).
The absence of regular players in this research points to the
potential for future studies to compare esports and regular
et al., 2019), indicating a link between IGD and heightened players, offering significant insights. However, both core and
stress levels among esports players. However, the obtained peripheral characteristics significantly predicted depression,
findings suggest that the direct impact of IGD on stress is indicating that existing vulnerabilities in unregulated gaming
overshadowed by the influence of the core and peripheral heighten susceptibility to negative emotions among esports
characteristics outlined by Snodgrass et al. (2019). With players. While the measured IGD did not directly correlate
these inherent traits considered, IGD itself appears inconse- with depression, these predispositions might have manifested
quential in stress development. The findings suggest that an differently in gaming aspects or other observable behaviors
underlying neurobiological process (core characteristics), leading to depression.
contributing to susceptibility to prolonged and unregulated The findings did not establish a significant link between
gaming, plays a pivotal role in stress development. While IGD and anxiety among esports players, suggesting that
context-specific vulnerabilities (peripheral characteristics) extended, unregulated gaming did not evoke anxiety in this
hold significance, their influence seems to be lesser com- group. This outcome mirrors the absence of a significant rela-
pared to neurobiological predispositions. tionship found between IGD and depression in this study.
The results diverged from prior findings (Wong This might be explained by the high comorbidity observed
et al., 2020; Yen et al., 2019) by not supporting a connection between depression and anxiety (e.g., Naranjo et al., 2019),
between IGD and depression, suggesting that unregulated, indicating a shared underlying cause for these symptoms
prolonged gaming does not inherently trigger emotional dis- (e.g., Baldwin et al., 2002). This could also be related to
tress in esports players. Interestingly, depression seems to play esports players’ mastery over critical psychological processes rel-
a pivotal role in shaping the severity of IGD; when statistically evant to sports performance (Brevers et al., 2020). Moreover,
accounting for depression, IGD loses its significant predictive both core and peripheral characteristics significantly predicted
 20460260, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pchj.728 by University Of Delhi, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
548 GAMING ASPECTS AND ESPORTS PLAYERS

TABLE 4 Summary of the GSCA models predicting anxiety.

Between Random
2
Path (f ) estimate SE CR estimate SE CR

Model 1c (FIT = 0.31)

IGD ! Anxiety (0.02) 0.13 0.08 1.62 0.08 0.12 0.61
Model 2c (FIT = 0.37)
Peripheral ! Anxiety (0.07) 0.25 0.08 3.24 0.10 0.13 0.72
Model 3c (FIT = 0.36)
Core ! Anxiety (0.06) 0.25 0.08 3.18 0.16 0.17 0.97
Model 4c (FIT = 0.35)
Peripheral ! IGD (0.15) 0.36 0.07 5.10 0.04 0.10 0.40
Core ! IGD (0.13) 0.33 0.09 3.62 0.07 0.12 0.61
IGD ! Anxiety (0.00) 0.03 0.12 0.22 0.07 0.17 0.45
Peripheral ! Anxiety (0.05) 0.22 0.10 2.15 0.09 0.15 0.58
Core ! Anxiety (0.03) 0.2 0.1 2.00 0.19 0.20 0.96
Abbreviations: CR, critical ratio; GSCA, generalized structured component analysis; IGD, internet gaming disorder.

these traits determines the relevance of IGD. Therefore, theoreti-

cally, these aspects need to exist before IGD can develop. Further-
more, the impacts of the core and peripheral traits on depression
and anxiety appear to function independently from IGD. These
outcomes also suggest the redundancy of IGD when considering
these existing traits. Thus, assuming IGD and these fundamental
traits are equivalent would amount to committing the jingle
fallacy—an erroneous assumption about the similarity of two dis-
tinct theoretical constructs (Thorndike, 1904).
The adaptability of intense gaming to players’ psychologi-
cal well-being lacks evidence, contrasting earlier research find-
ings (André et al., 2020; Johannes et al., 2021). Regarding the
F I G U R E 3 Confounding model in predicting anxiety. *significant; IGD, effects on depression, anxiety, and stress, the peripheral charac-
internet gaming disorder. teristics are better interpreted as context-dependent vulnerabil-
ities to unregulated gaming (Snodgrass et al., 2019).
Consequently, these findings contradict the previous notion
anxiety, indicating that existing vulnerabilities to gaming addic- that peripheral characteristics signify gaming engagement
tion heightened susceptibility to anxiety among esports players. (Brunborg et al., 2013, 2015; Charlton & Danforth, 2007).
This finding aligns with the conceptual links between these Previously, the prominence of core features suggested an inten-
traits and anxiety. However, these traits did not manifest sified form of intense gaming or peripheral features (Charlton,
through IGD. It is plausible that the core and peripheral char- 2002; Charlton & Danforth, 2007). However, the results indi-
acteristics might surface in different aspects of gaming or in cate a need to reassess the conceptual relationship between core
observable behaviors triggering anxiety. and peripheral features, as the latter may not represent leisure
This research tackled the concern of the jingle-jangle fal- gaming or pleasure derived from gaming (Charlton, 2002).
lacy. While IGD indeed correlates significantly with traits that Instead, these findings propose interpreting these features as
elevate susceptibility to addictive gaming, the results of the individual differences signifying vulnerability to problematic
confounding analysis suggest that these conceptual terms might gaming (Snodgrass et al., 2019). Consequently, an esports
operate independently. For instance, in the analysis focusing player could develop IGD suddenly without the necessity for
on stress as the outcome, the traits associated with addictive escalated intense gaming. Moreover, these findings extend to
gaming diminished the significance of IGD’s direct effect on show that these aspects are associated with indicators of psy-
stress. This indicates that once these traits are accounted for, chological distress. Hence, this research offers deeper insights
IGD loses its predictive power regarding stress—a hint at the into core and peripheral characteristics, unlike previous studies
conceptual relationship between these traits and IGD. As pre- that merely described these constructs without exploring their
viously mentioned, the core and peripheral characteristics rep- conceptual relationships with other psychological variables
resent inherent predispositions that heighten the risk of IGD (e.g., Snodgrass et al., 2019). This research significantly con-
(e.g., Snodgrass et al., 2019). This suggests that the presence of tributes to the ongoing debate regarding the diagnosis of IGD
 20460260, 2024, 4, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pchj.728 by University Of Delhi, Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
PsyCh JOURNAL 549

(APA, 2013). Based on the current literature, endorsing IGD influenced the connection between IGD and stress. Once these
as a diagnosable condition would be premature. The measured features were considered, IGD no longer held a significant
IGD did not significantly predict indicators of psychological association with the stress levels of esports players. Addition-
distress, suggesting that IGD itself does not impair the func- ally, the core and peripheral traits notably predicted depression
tioning of current competitive esports players. Instead, it is the and anxiety. Given the lack of significant direct effects of IGD
existing inclinations (e.g., core and peripheral features; on depression and anxiety, the concern regarding IGD may be
Snodgrass et al., 2019) that relate to distress aspects. While vul- premature.
nerabilities are evident, prior research also suggests the exis-
tence of innate features that might act protectively against IGD ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(e.g., Brevers et al., 2020). This aligns with the recommenda- This research was supported by Monash University Malaysia,
tion for further efforts to substantiate the decision to formalize Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences [grant
IGD as a diagnosable condition (APA, 2013). number ECR-000036].
The moderate effect sizes observed suggest that additional
psychological variables might underpin the direct relationships CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
between gaming aspects and psychological distress indicators. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
For instance, the demanding lifestyle of competitive esports
players could intersect with a proclivity for excessive gaming, ETHICS STATEMENT
potentially compromising their psychological well-being Ethics approval was granted by the Monash University Human
(B
anyai et al., 2019a, 2019b). Likewise, inherent deficits, such Ethics Committee (Project ID: 31775).
as lacking characteristics associated with good sportsmanship,
might intensify the link between gaming and psychological dis- OR CID
tress (Brevers et al., 2020). Within this context, the identified Soon Li Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0860-811X
core and peripheral features might have triggered other vulner-
abilities, heightening esports players’ susceptibility to depres- R EFER ENC ES
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