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ENTROPY ANALYSIS IN
THERMAL ENGINEERING
SYSTEMS
ENTROPY ANALYSIS IN
THERMAL ENGINEERING
SYSTEMS

YOUSEF HASELI
School of Engineering and Technology
Central Michigan University
Mt Pleasant, MI, USA
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Dedication

Dedicated to the memory of my Father,

Tahmaseb Haseli
Preface

It was about two centuries ago that Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot, a French
military engineer, presented an influential treatise. Although remained
unappreciated for a decade, it provided a profound basis for investigations
of his successors and the advancement of the Science of Thermodynamics.
Carnot’s research on the theory of heat engines was itself founded upon the
caloric theory, empirical findings of his predecessors, and philosophical rea-
soning. The invalidity of the notion of heat as an indestructible matter had
become obvious among the pioneers by the mid-19th century. There were
compelling experimental evidences supporting the equivalence of heat and
work, the first main principle of the Mechanical Theory of Heat, according
to which heat can be produced by expenditure of work and vice versa.
Unlike the first main principle whose statement and formulation can
readily be understood by a student of an average intelligence, concepts like
entropy originated from the second main principle of the Mechanical
Theory of Heat appear to be challenging, perhaps, for everyone who has
undertaken an introductory class on the subject. Such concepts are invented
through a formulation of the second law of Thermodynamics. However, the
analytical formulation of the second law is not a mere expression of the
experimental observations—that heat cannot be converted completely into
work, or heat cannot spontaneously transfer from a cooler to a warmer body.
It involves a hypothetical concept, reversibility, which may only be realized
in an imaginary process; which may be regarded as a preliminary source of
difficulty in understanding the entropy-related concepts.
Today, after over 150 years of invention of entropy by Clausius, still
there remain confusions surrounding the concept of entropy and the
phenomenon of entropy increase. One may find a variety of interpretations
or descriptions for entropy such as arrow of time, measure of disorder, chaos,
wastefulness, and energy dispersal. On the other hand, some argue that
understanding of entropy is only possible through statistical mechanics.
The first question may cross a curious mind is: Why is not there a universally
agreed interpretation for entropy yet? It has a simple definition dS ¼ dQ/T, a
differential of S (entropy) is equal to the differential of Q (heat) divided by T
(temperature of body). The explanation given by Clausius as the inventor of
entropy is that S represents the transformational content of a body like U that
denotes its (internal) energy content. All we know nowadays about Clausius

xi
xii Preface

is his inequality with no adequate mention of what he meant by entropy and

how he discovered it.
Despite entropy remains as a gray area (it is not as clear as many other
concepts deduced from natural laws), today entropy-based analysis has fre-
quently been employed as a design tool in a wide range of applications.
Often, second law-based studies present entropy calculations but without
any constructive use of such calculations. It is natural to ask: What is the goal
of entropy-related calculations? Is entropy generation always an indication
of losses, for instance, in a power cycle, fluidized bed, boiler, hydrogen pro-
duction plant, chemical reaction, condenser? Do we need to be always con-
cerned about the growth of entropy? Are there specific circumstances where
entropy-related calculations may yield meaningful results? The primary
objective of this book is to highlight the limitations of the application of
entropy in engineering and clarify when a second law analysis may lead to
rewarding results.
The journey of the present book begins with an overview of the funda-
mental thermodynamic concepts in the opening chapter. It is then followed
by a brief historical sketch of Thermodynamics in Chapter 2, which illumi-
nates its evolution as well as the contributions of many ingenious men to the
advancement of the subject during the 19th century. More importantly, a
careful examination of several sources reveals that the tutorial method of
the second law and entropy could be much easier had it followed the same
path as it was discovered and presented by the founders. The current method
of teaching the second law, inherited not from the original founders but
those authors who developed first textbooks on Thermodynamics in the late
19th and early 20th century, skips important steps, for instance the role of the
ideal gas law in the investigation of Carnot, Thomson, and Clausius.
A detailed discussion on the shortcomings of the common tutorial
method of entropy is presented in Chapter 3. Specifically, the demonstration
technique of the Carnot’s corollaries that rests on philosophical reasoning is
shown to suffer from certain issues. The common derivation method of
Carnot efficiency and introduction of the absolute temperature scale with-
out a proper background is critically reviewed. A simple but effective
method is then proposed to ease understanding the connection between
the chain of concepts like Carnot efficiency, entropy, reversibility, and
absolute temperature. The discussion will advance in Chapter 4 where
the main task is to clarify the phenomenon of entropy increase and to show
the direct connection between the phenomena of heat transfer and entropy
generation.
Preface xiii

Chapter 5 presents a comparative assessment of the efficiency of common

heat engines. The chief goal is to illuminate that determination of the most
efficient engine is contingent on specific assumptions. For example, the Car-
not engine along with the Stirling and Ericsson engines are said to possess the
highest efficiency among all heat engines subject to an assumption that the
highest and the lowest temperatures are the same for all the engines. If, how-
ever, the engines are constrained to experience the same degree of compres-
sion, the Carnot engine is no longer the most efficient design.
Our investigation continues by applying entropy analysis to simple and
advanced power cycles. The objective is to show that entropy production
may become equivalent to an efficiency loss under specific conditions.
We will see in Chapter 6 that in endoreversible heat engines, a class of the-
oretical heat engines which experience external irreversibility only, the
thermal efficiency happens to inversely correlate with the entropy produc-
tion. Nevertheless, in practice, engines do also experience internal irrevers-
ibilities. It will be shown in Chapter 7 that a design based on minimum
entropy production rate in irreversible engines operating in closed cycles
is not equivalent to either of maximum power and maximum efficiency de-
signs. The three designs may, however, become identical if, for instance, the
thermal energy supplied to an irreversible engine operating between a heat
source and a heat sink, or the power output is treated as a fixed parameter.
In Chapter 8, we investigate the applicability of a second law-based anal-
ysis in conventional thermal power plants such as gas turbine and combined
gas/steam cycles, which are usually driven by fuel combustion. In this chap-
ter, the concept of specific entropy generation (SEG) is introduced, a new
parameter that measures the entropy production of a power cycle per unit
of fuel burned. It will be shown that SEG unconditionally correlates with the
inverse of the cycle efficiency, and it can be viewed as a measure of efficiency
losses in combustion-driven power generating systems. An application of
the SEG concept to typical thermal power plants is explored.
An investigation on the application of entropy analysis to fuel cells is
presented in Chapter 9. The primary objective is to show that the theoretical
efficiency of a fuel cell is not bound by the efficiency of a Carnot cycle oper-
ating between the same low and high temperatures. Chapter 10 examines
possibility of any connection between entropy and chemical equilibrium.
A careful assessment of the Gibbs criterion of equilibrium reveals that the
characterization of a chemical equilibrium by minimum Gibbs function is
simply a postulation without a strong experimental evidence or theoretical
proof. The last chapter explains the exergy concept and describes how it is
xiv Preface

originated by combining the first and the second laws. It is shown that a con-
clusion drawn from an exergy analysis may often be obtained from an
entropy analysis.
It is hoped that this book will help readers to improve their knowledge
and comprehension of the second law-related concepts and to have a clearer
understanding of the applicability area of entropy-based analysis.

Yousef Haseli
Michigan, United States
Acknowledgments

I wish to express my appreciation to the American Society of Mechanical

Engineering (ASME) for permission to use my articles published in the
Journal of Energy Resources Technology Vol. 140, paper No. 032002,
Vol. 141, paper No. 014501, and the Proceedings of IMECE 2018, paper
No. 86510 in this book. I am deeply grateful to the staff at Elsevier, Maria
Convey (acquisition editor), Joanna Collett (editorial project manager),
and Selvaraj Raviraj (production project manager) for their assistance
and guidance throughout the preparation of this book.
Over the years, I have had useful and joyful discussions with a number
of people. I would like to thank, in particular, Professor Peter Salamon of
San Diego State University, Professor Bjarne Andresen from the University
of Copenhagen, Dr. Katherine Hornbostel of Pittsburgh University, and
Professor Brian Elmegaard of Technical University of Denmark. I am eter-
nally grateful to Professor Adrian Bejan whose pioneering work and
influential articles on the subject have been inspiring.
I would like to acknowledge with gratitude the research support of
Central Michigan University over the past two years.
Finally, I am indebted to my family for being patient and understanding
while I devoted time to preparation of this book.

Yousef Haseli

xv
 CHAPTER ONE

Fundamental concepts

1.1 Thermodynamic properties

In many branches of science, property refers to the condition and
characteristic of a substance under study. The properties of matter are cat-
egorized as mechanical, physical, thermal, etc. The examples include elastic-
ity, yield strength, hardness (mechanical properties); density, melting point,
viscosity (physical properties); thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity,
specific heat (thermal properties).
In thermodynamics, properties describe the state or condition of a sub-
stance. The basic properties frequently used in thermodynamic calculations
are temperature, pressure, specific enthalpy, specific internal energy, specific
volume, and specific entropy. The thermodynamic properties depend solely
on the state of a given system or substance. They are independent of the path
or process through which the system is brought to that state.
Some of these properties can directly be measured like temperature and
pressure, whereas some properties are unmeasurable such as specific internal
energy and entropy, which are determined using the measurable ones. Fur-
thermore, the unmeasurable properties of two different substances may dif-
fer at identical pressure and temperature. For example, the specific enthalpy
of air at 1 atm and 298 K is different from the specific enthalpy of water at the
same pressure and temperature.
The properties of a wide range of common substances can nowadays be
found in standard textbooks, web-based software, and commercial software
packages. In thermodynamics, the state of system is said to be fixed if two
independent properties are known. The other properties can then be deter-
mined at the given state with the use of a software or thermodynamic tables.
Note that the two independent properties could be any pair of pressure,
temperature, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, and entropy.
To determine properties required in thermodynamic problems, the
author has found the engineering equation solver (EES) software [1] as a use-
ful tool. A limited free online version of the software is, at the time of writing

Entropy Analysis in Thermal Engineering Systems © 2020 Elsevier Inc. 1

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2 Entropy Analysis in Thermal Engineering Systems

this book, also available [2]. EES has been the primary tool for calculating the
properties and modeling of most systems discussed in the present book. This
will be reiterated in the forthcoming chapters where appropriate.

1.2 Conservation of mass

The principle of mass conservation states that matter is neither created
nor destroyed. This principle like many physics laws is empirical; that is, its
validity rests on experimental observations. In every process, it is necessary to
obey the law of mass conservation. The total amount of matter in a given
process is fixed, but it may change from one form to another. For example,
consider condensation of steam. In this process, water is initially in gas phase,
but then it undergoes a condensation process. At the final state, water is in
liquid phase. The conservation of mass requires that the mass of water at its
initial state (steam) be equal to the mass of liquid water.
Mass is also conserved in chemical reactions. For example, consider
oxidation of hydrogen. The product of reaction is water. The reactants
(O2 and H2) no longer exist after the reaction and a new product (H2O)
is formed. The conservation of mass requires that the sum of the masses
of oxygen and hydrogen be equal to the mass of water. In general, the total
mass of reactants should equal the total mass of products in a chemical reac-
tion in accordance with the law of mass conservation.
In mathematical form, the conservation of mass applied to an open sys-
tem undergoing a steady-state process with n inlet and m outlet ports is writ-
ten as follows.
X
n X
m
m_ i ¼ m_ j (1.1)
i¼1 j¼1

where m_ denotes mass flow per unit of time, or mass flowrate.

If the system undergoes an unsteady (transient) process, the conservation
of mass is expressed as
X
n X
m
Δmsys ¼ mi  mj (1.2)
i¼1 j¼1

Eq. (1.2) states that in a transient process taking place over a given time
period, t, the net change in the mass of the system, Δmsys, is equal to the
sum of the masses entering the system through n inlet port minus the
sum of the masses leaving the system through m outlet ports.
Fundamental concepts 3

1.3 Conservation of energy

The principle of energy conservation states that energy is neither cre-
ated nor destroyed. It may transform from one type to another. Like the mass
conservation principle, the validity of the conservation of energy relies on
experimental observations; thus, it is an empirical law. No experiment
has violated the principle of energy conservation yet. The common forms
of energy include thermal, electrical, chemical, mechanical, kinetic, and
potential. It may also be stated that the sum of all kinds of energy is constant.
X
Ek ¼ constant (1.3)
k

where E denotes energy and subscript k refers to the different types of energy.
Many engineering applications involve transformation of energy
between two or three types only. For instance, in dynamics problems, the
conservation of energy accounts for two types of energy, i.e., kinetic and
potential (in some cases frictional work), neglecting the effect of other forms
like chemical, thermal, or electrical. In chemical reactions, the conservation
of energy includes thermal and chemical energies, and the effect of other
forms of energy is ignored. In most thermodynamic problems, the principle
of energy conservation applied to nonreactive systems accounts for thermal
and mechanical energies.

1.4 First law of thermodynamics

The two main laws of thermodynamics formulated in 19th century
were first introduced as the main principles of the Mechanical Theory of
Heat. The first law is indeed an expression of the energy conservation prin-
ciple that accounts for transformation of energy in the form of heat and
work. The first law, in the words of Clausius [3], is the principle of the
equivalence of heat and work.
The mathematical expression of the first law applied to a closed system
with a fixed quantity of mass can be written as follows.

ΔU ¼ Q  W (1.4)
where U is the internal energy, Q is the amount of heat transferred to the
system, and W denotes the work done by the system on its surrounding.
4 Entropy Analysis in Thermal Engineering Systems

Eq. (1.4) states that the change in the internal energy of a closed system in
a thermodynamic process equals the heat received by the system from an
external source minus the work performed by the system. Note that the sign
convention used in Eq. (1.4)—and throughout this book—is that the heat
transferred to the system is positive and the heat transferred from the system
to its surrounding is negative. Further, the work performed by the system on
its surrounding is negative, whereas the work done on the system is positive.
The differential form of the first law applied to a closed system is

dU ¼ δQ  δW (1.5)

where d is an exact differential, whereas δ denotes an inexact differential.

The first law equation for an open system (control volume) undergoing a
steady-state process, which can exchange mass with its surroundings through
n inlet and m outlet ports, obeys

X
m X
n
Q_  W_ ¼ m_ j hj  m_ i hi + ΔE_ ke + ΔE_ pe (1.6)
j¼1 i¼1

where Q_ denotes the rate of heat transfer, W_ is the power (rate of work), h is
the specific enthalpy, ΔE_ ke denotes the difference between the kinetic ener-
gies of the outflows and inflows, and ΔE_ pe accounts for the difference
between the potential energies of the outflows and inflows.
In many thermodynamic applications, the effects of kinetic energy and
potential energy are neglected. Eq. (1.6) then reduces to

X
m X
n
Q_  W_ ¼ m_ j hj  m_ i hi (1.7)
j¼1 i¼1

For an open system undergoing a transient process over a finite time, the first
law equation reads

X
m X
n
QW ¼ mj hj  mi hi + ΔU (1.8)
j¼1 i¼1

In the case of no inlet flow (mi ¼ 0) and no outlet flow (mj ¼ 0), Eq. (1.8)
reduces to Eq. (1.4). For an adiabatic process (Q ¼ 0) and in the absence
of work, the change in the energy of the system depends solely on the out-
going and incoming enthalpy flows.
Fundamental concepts 5

1.5 Second law of thermodynamics

The second law is based on the observations that thermodynamic pro-
cesses proceed spontaneously in certain directions. It is an empirical law as
no experimental observation has violated its validity yet. A well-known
statement of the second law credited to Clausius says that heat cannot be
transferred from a cooler body to a warmer body without an external effect.
Based on the observations in nature, the spontaneous heat transfer process
takes place in one direction only: from a hot region to a cold region. An
engineering application of the Clausius statement of the second law is refrig-
erator. To maintain the inside of a refrigerator cool, heat should be trans-
ferred from the interior part of the refrigerator to the surrounding with
the use of a compressor (i.e., the external effect).
Another well-known statement of the second law is credited to Lord
Kelvin (William Thomson) and Max Plank, which says that it is impossible
to construct an engine, which receives heat and converts it all to work. In
other words, the efficiency of a heat engine may never reach 100%. Any
attempt made in the past by engineers or inventors to violate the Kelvin-
Planck statement of the second law was unsuccessful. Indeed, earlier than
Clausius, Kelvin, and Plank, Sadi Carnot had understood the second law
[4]. As an engineer, Carnot’s main goal was to design an engine that would
produce a maximum work from a given quantity of heat. His efforts led to
the invention of an engine that would operate on a cycle consisting of two
isothermal and two adiabatic processes.
The Carnot cycle played an important role in formulation of the second
law by Thomson and Clausius, which led to the introduction of entropy by
the latter as a new thermodynamic property. Clausius showed that in a
reversible process, the change in the entropy of a system, S, is related to
an infinitesimal heat transfer δQ by the following relation.
 
δQ
dS ¼ (1.9)
T rev
where T denotes the absolute temperature of the system and has units of
Kelvin.
Eq. (1.9) is the analytical formulation of the second law in differential
form. It explicitly shows that the change in entropy depends solely on the
amount of heat transfer and temperature. To calculate the entropy difference
between two states of a system, Eq. (1.9) is integrated along a reversible path.
6 Entropy Analysis in Thermal Engineering Systems

Z 2 
δQ
S2  S1 ¼ (1.10)
1 T rev

Either of Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10) is the quantitative definition of entropy [5].
For example, the amount of heat required to evaporate 1 kg of water at 100°
C is 2256 kJ. The change in the entropy of 1 kg of saturated liquid water
undergoing an evaporation process at 100°C is calculated as follows.
Z 2 
δQ Q 2256 ðkJÞ
S 2  S1 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 6:046 kJ=K
1 T rev T 373:15ðKÞ
where S1 is the entropy of liquid water and S2 denotes the entropy of water
vapor at 100°C. The specific entropy of saturated liquid water at 100°C is
1.307 kJ/kg K. So, the entropy of 1 kg of saturated water vapor is determined
as
S2 ¼ ð1 kgÞð1:307 kJ=kg KÞ + 6:046 ¼ 7:353 kJ=K
This result can be verified using thermodynamic tables or a property soft-
ware. In the example, the water temperature was constant throughout
the process. Often, the temperature varies along the process and the integral
in Eq. (1.10) is evaluated using analytical or numerical integration tech-
niques. For instance, the change in the entropy of 1 kg of water at atmo-
spheric pressure whose temperature increases from 20°C to 60°C is
determined as follows.
Use δQ ¼ mcpdT in Eq. (1.10) and perform integration between 293.15
and 333.15 K assuming a specific heat of 4.18 kJ/kg K for water. The change
in the entropy of the water is thus obtained as
Z T2
mcp dT T2 333:15
S2  S1 ¼ ¼ mc p ln ¼ ð1Þð4:18Þ ln ¼ 0:535 kJ=K
T1 T T1 293:15
A subtle but important note from the preceding two examples is that the
change in the entropy of a system (e.g., water in the above examples) is
determined assuming that the heat transfer takes place reversibly. It should also
be noted that we used Eq. (1.10) to determine the change in the entropy of
water only without regard to the heat source as the immediate surrounding
of the system.
In a like manner, one may also calculate the change in the entropy of the
surrounding that provided heat to the water—see Section 1.7. Moreover, it
can be deduced from Eq. (1.10) that the entropy of system will increase if it
Fundamental concepts 7

receives heat, and the system entropy will decrease if it loses heat [6]. In the
latter case, the change in the system entropy will be negative contrary to the
former where the entropy change is positive, as demonstrated in the above
examples.

1.6 Third law of thermodynamics

Eq. (1.10) enables one to calculate the difference in the entropy of a
substance at two different states. To determine the entropy at any state,
Eq. (1.10) needs to be integrated from a reference state, which is defined
using the third law. Known also as the Nernst theorem [7], the third law
says that the entropy of a system at absolute zero temperature is zero [8].
Unlike the first and the second laws, the nature of the third law is not based
on experimental observations; it is rather a postulation.
The entropy of a system at any given state, S, where the temperature is T
is thus obtained by substituting S1 ¼ 0 at T ¼ 0 as the lower limit of the inte-
gral in Eq. (1.10).
Z T 
δQ
S¼ (1.11)
0 T rev
Notice that the integral in both Eqs. (1.10) and (1.11) is taken along a revers-
ible path from any state at zero Kelvin to a state at which the temperature is T.

1.7 Entropy generation

The concept of reversibility introduced by Carnot refers to a process
that spontaneously takes place from state A to state B, and from B to A (i.e.,
in reverse direction) without an external effect. For example, if a quantity of
heat is transferred along a reversible path from a warmer body to a cooler
body, the same quantity of heat could be transferred from the cooler to
the warmer body without a need to an external effect (i.e., power).
Natural processes, as we know, occur in certain directions. To reverse
the direction of a process requires an external force that would not be needed
in the spontaneous direction. In other words, natural processes are irrevers-
ible. The concept of entropy generation is a consequence of the irreversibil-
ity in thermodynamic processes. It was first introduced by Clausius as the
uncompensated transformation who viewed the second law as the principle
of the equivalence of transformations.
8 Entropy Analysis in Thermal Engineering Systems

To alter the entropy of a system would yield a change in the entropy of its
immediate surrounding. Let us consider the second example of Section 1.5.
The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of water from 20°
C to 60°C is Q ¼ mcpΔT ¼ (1)(4.18)(60  20) ¼ 167.2 kJ. Suppose this
amount of heat is supplied from a condensing steam at 100°C. Given the
evaporation enthalpy of 2256 kJ/kg for water at 100°C, about 0.074 kg
steam should be condensed to provide 167.2 kJ heat.
The change in the entropy of the condensing steam at the constant tem-
perature of 100°C is calculated as follows.
167:2
ΔSsteam ¼ S2  S1 ¼ ¼ 0:448 kJ=K
373:15
The negative sign indicates that the heat is extracted from the steam. Thus,
the change in the entropy of the steam is also negative.
If we now consider the net entropy change (of the system and its sur-
rounding), we find
ΔSnet ¼ ΔSwater + ΔSsteam ¼ 0:535  0:448 ¼ 0:087 kJ=K
That is, the process of heating water from 20°C to 60°C where the source of
heat is the steam condensing at 100°C leads to a net increase of 0.087 kJ/K in
entropy. This net entropy increase is referred to as the entropy generation.

1.7.1 Entropy generation in closed systems

The relation for the entropy generation of a system with a fixed mass can
now be presented by generalization of the example that we just discussed
above.
Φ ¼ ΔSsystem + ΔSsurrounding (1.12)
where the change in the entropies of the system and the surrounding can be
evaluated using Eq. (1.10). If the system receives heat from its surrounding,
the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (1.12) yields a positive value,
whereas the second term leads to a negative value. Conversely, if the system
loses heat to its surrounding, the first term yields a negative value and the
second term leads to a positive value. In either case, Eq. (1.12) will always
have a positive quantity.
Eq. (1.12) may be expressed in alternative forms depending on whether
the temperature of the system or surrounding is constant. For example, if
the system receives an amount of heat Q from a heat source (the surrounding)
maintained at a constant temperature, the entropy generation is determined as
Fundamental concepts 9

Q
Φ ¼ S2  S1  (1.13)
Ts
where S2  S1 is the increase in the system entropy and Ts denotes the heat
source temperature.
If the system temperature also remains constant during the process,
Eq. (1.13) becomes

Q Q
Φ¼  (1.14)
Tsys Ts

Eq. (1.14) is indeed a simple explanation for the generation of entropy. As

the heat flows from the surrounding (heat source) to the system, the sur-
rounding temperature should be greater than the system temperature; i.e.,
Tsys < Ts. From this, we have (1/Tsys  1/Ts) > 0. Also, because Q > 0, we
conclude that Q(1/Tsys  1/Ts) > 0, and thus Φ > 0.
It should be remembered that the surrounding of a system is the region at
the vicinity of the boundary of the system, which may have energy interac-
tion (work, heat, or both). If one takes the system and its surrounding as a
new system with no external interactions, the new system can be treated as
an isolated system. Hence,

Φ ¼ ΔSsystem > 0 (1.15)

Eq. (1.15) states that for an isolated system whose state changes from 1 to 2,
the entropy at the final state 2 will be higher than that at the initial state 1. For
example, consider a 2-kg block of carbon steel at 90°C that is dropped into a
5-L perfectly insulated container filled with water at 20°C. The system of
block + water is an isolated system, which reaches a thermal equilibrium
once the temperature of the block and the water becomes the same.
The thermal equilibrium temperature can be determined from the first
law equation, i.e., Eq. (1.4). For the system of block + water, we have
   
ΔU ¼ 0 ! ΔUblock + ΔUwater ¼ 0 ! ðmc Þblock Teq  90 + ðmc Þwater Teq  20
¼0

Solving the equation with a specific heat of 0.49 kJ/kg K for the block and
4.18 kJ/kg K for the water yields Teq ¼ 23.14 ° C. The entropy generation
can now be determined using Eqs. (1.15) and (1.10).
10 Entropy Analysis in Thermal Engineering Systems

Z Teq Z Teq
dT dT
Φ ¼ ΔSblock + ΔSwater ¼ ðmc Þblock + ðmc Þwater
90 + 273:15 T 20 + 273:15 T
23:14 + 273:15 23:14 + 273:15
¼ ð2Þð0:49Þ ln + ð5Þð4:18Þ ln
90 + 273:15 20 + 273:15
¼ 0:023 kJ=K

1.7.2 Entropy generation in open systems

For an open system with n inlet and m outlet ports that undergoes a steady-
state operation, the rate of entropy generation is determined using
Eq. (1.16).
X Q_ X
m X
n
_ +
Φ ¼ m_ j sj  m_ i si (1.16)
k
Tk j¼1 i¼1

where the second term on the left-hand side of Eq. (1.16) accounts for the
net change in the entropy of the surroundings [9], and ms
_ is the entropy rate
crossing the system boundary due to the mass flow.
For example, in a nonmixed adiabatic heat exchanger with one hot fluid
and one cold fluid, Eq. (1.16) reduces to
_ ¼ ðm_ h sh, o + m_ c sc, o Þ  ðm_ h sh, i + m_ c sc , i Þ
Φ
(1.17)
¼ m_ c ðsc, o  sc , i Þ + m_ h ðsh, o  sh, i Þ
where the subscripts h, c, i, o denote hot, cold, inlet, and outlet, respectively.

1.8 Combined first and second laws

The first analytical expression for the combined first and second laws
was given by Clausius [3]. It can be obtained by eliminating δQ between
Eqs. (1.5) and (1.9). Hence,
dU ¼ TdS  δW (1.18)
For a compressible fluid, if the work done is due to the fluid pressure only,
the infinitesimal work can be represented by δW ¼ pdV where p represents
the pressure and V the volume, and Eq. (1.18) is rewritten as follows.
dU ¼ TdS  pdV (1.19)
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Psychology - Workbook
Winter 2021 - Department

Prepared by: Researcher Brown

Date: July 28, 2025

Section 1: Case studies and real-world applications

Learning Objective 1: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 7: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 9: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 2: Practical applications and examples
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 11: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 16: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 17: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 19: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 3: Experimental procedures and results
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 25: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 29: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice 4: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 36: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 38: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Part 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 42: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 45: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 47: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 6: Practical applications and examples
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 51: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Module 7: Research findings and conclusions
Example 60: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 65: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 66: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 8: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 73: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 75: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 78: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Chapter 9: Practical applications and examples
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 83: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 83: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 84: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 85: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 89: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 10: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Example 90: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 93: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 95: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 98: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Review 11: Historical development and evolution
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 103: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 104: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 106: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 107: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 107: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 108: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Introduction 12: Experimental procedures and results
Example 110: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 111: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 112: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 112: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 114: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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