Jordan University of Science and Technology
Department of Civil Engineering
CE-703 Civil Engineering Seminar
Systematic Literature Review
Durability of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Bars in Seawater Sea Sand Concrete:
Done by: Baha Obeidat 173714
Supervised by: Dr. Waseem Barham
Abstract
The depletion of freshwater and river sand resources, combined with increasing coastal
infrastructure demands, has necessitated the exploration of seawater and sea sand concrete
(SWSSC) as sustainable alternatives. However, the corrosive nature of SWSSC environments
severely limits the application of traditional steel reinforcement. Fiber reinforced polymer
(FRP) bars have emerged as promising alternatives due to their superior corrosion
resistance. This systematic literature review analyzes 32 peer-reviewed studies published
between 2015-2025 to comprehensively evaluate the durability performance of FRP bars in
SWSSC environments. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search was conducted
across multiple databases including Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. The review
examines three primary FRP types: glass (GFRP), carbon (CFRP), and basalt (BFRP) fiber
reinforced polymers. Key findings reveal that CFRP demonstrates superior marine durability
with minimal degradation, while GFRP shows moderate vulnerability with 30-55% strength
reduction under alkaline exposure. BFRP exhibits intermediate performance, maintaining
>60% original strength after extended alkaline exposure. Critical research gaps include
insufficient long-term field validation data, inadequate standardized testing protocols for
marine environments, and limited understanding of multi-scale degradation mechanisms.
The review identifies urgent needs for validated accelerated testing methods,
comprehensive field monitoring programs, and advanced predictive modeling approaches.
These findings provide essential guidance for engineers and researchers developing
sustainable marine infrastructure using FRP-reinforced SWSSC systems.
Keywords:
Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP), Seawater sea sand concrete (SWSSC), Durability, Marine
environment, Systematic review, Corrosion resistance, GFRP, BFRP, CFRP
1. Introduction
Global population growth projecting 9.7 billion by 2050 places unprecedented demands on
infrastructure development, particularly in coastal and island regions where freshwater and
river sand resources are increasingly scarce (United Nations, 2019). The construction
industry's reliance on these diminishing natural resources, combined with rising sea levels
necessitating expanded coastal infrastructure, has created an urgent need for sustainable
alternatives. Seawater and sea sand concrete (SWSSC) represents a viable solution, offering
mechanical performance comparable to conventional concrete while utilizing abundant
marine resources (Ahmed et al., 2020).
However, the aggressive chemical environment of SWSSC, characterized by high chloride
concentrations and alkalinity, severely compromises traditional steel reinforcement through
accelerated corrosion processes. This limitation has driven extensive research into fiber
reinforced polymer (FRP) bars as corrosion-resistant alternatives. FRP composites,
comprising glass (GFRP), carbon (CFRP), and basalt (BFRP) fibers embedded in polymer
matrices, offer exceptional strength-to-weight ratios, non-magnetic properties, and superior
corrosion resistance compared to steel (Wang et al., 2018).
Despite promising laboratory results, significant knowledge gaps persist regarding the long-
term durability of FRP bars in SWSSC environments. Current research lacks comprehensive
field validation data, standardized testing protocols for marine conditions, and validated
predictive models for service life estimation. These limitations impede widespread adoption
of FRP-SWSSC systems in marine infrastructure applications.
This systematic literature review addresses these critical gaps by providing a
comprehensive analysis of current knowledge, identifying research priorities, and
establishing a foundation for future investigations.
1.1 Research Objectives
This systematic review aims to: (1) Comprehensively evaluate the current state of
knowledge regarding FRP bar durability in SWSSC environments; (2) Identify and analyze
primary degradation mechanisms affecting FRP performance in marine conditions; (3)
Assess the adequacy of existing testing methodologies and standards for marine
applications; (4) Synthesize quantitative performance data across different FRP types and
exposure conditions; (5) Identify critical research gaps and establish priorities for future
investigations; (6) Provide evidence-based recommendations for engineering practice and
design standards.
2. Methodology
2.1 Search Strategy and Information Sources
This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines. A comprehensive search strategy was developed
using Boolean operators and controlled vocabulary terms. The search was conducted across
multiple electronic databases including Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, ASCE Library,
and Google Scholar. The search string combined terms related to: (1) Material types: ("fiber
reinforced polymer" OR "FRP" OR "GFRP" OR "BFRP" OR "CFRP" OR "glass fiber" OR "basalt
fiber" OR "carbon fiber"); (2) Application: ("seawater" OR "sea sand" OR "marine concrete"
OR "SWSSC"); (3) Properties: ("durability" OR "degradation" OR "corrosion" OR "long-term
performance"). The search covered publications from January 2015 to December 2025 to
capture recent developments in this rapidly evolving field.
2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Inclusion criteria encompassed: (1) Peer-reviewed journal articles and conference
proceedings; (2) Studies investigating FRP bar durability in seawater or sea sand concrete
environments; (3) Research published in English between 2015-2025; (4) Experimental,
numerical, or field studies providing quantitative data; (5) Studies examining GFRP, BFRP,
or CFRP materials. Exclusion criteria included: (1) Review articles without original data; (2)
Studies focusing solely on steel reinforcement; (3) Research not related to marine or chloride
environments; (4) Book chapters, patents, and non-peer-reviewed publications; (5) Studies
examining only FRP sheets or wrapping applications.
2.3 Data Extraction and Quality Assessment
Data extraction was performed using standardized forms capturing: study characteristics
(authors, year, location, study type), material properties (FRP type, fiber content, resin
system, surface treatment), experimental conditions (exposure environment, temperature,
duration, loading conditions), testing methods (standards used, sample sizes, measurement
techniques), and outcomes (mechanical properties, degradation rates, failure modes).
Quality assessment employed a modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale adapted for engineering
studies, evaluating study design quality (0-3 points), specimen preparation standards (0-2
points), and testing methodology rigor (0-3 points). Studies scoring ≥6 points were classified
as high quality, 4-5 points as moderate quality, and <4 points as low quality.
3. Results
3.1 Study Selection and Characteristics
The initial search yielded 1,247 potentially relevant articles. After removing duplicates
(n=298), 949 articles underwent title and abstract screening, resulting in 156 articles for
full-text evaluation. Following application of inclusion/exclusion criteria, 32 studies met the
criteria for final inclusion. The selected studies comprised 28 experimental investigations, 3
numerical modeling studies, and 1 field monitoring program. Geographically, research
originated from 15 countries, with China (n=12), Canada (n=6), Australia (n=4), and the
United States (n=3) representing the largest contributors. Publication years ranged from
2015 to 2025, with increasing research intensity observed after 2018.
3.2 FRP Material Performance in Marine Environments
3.2.1 Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Performance
GFRP bars demonstrated variable performance depending on exposure conditions and
surface treatments. In alkaline environments simulating concrete pore solutions (pH 13-14),
GFRP exhibited significant degradation with tensile strength reductions ranging from 15-
55% after 180 days exposure at 60°C (Lu et al., 2021). The primary degradation mechanism
involved hydroxyl ion attack on glass fibers, leading to calcium and sodium leaching from
fiber surfaces. Surface enhancement treatments, particularly sand coating and helical
wrapping, improved durability performance by 20-35% compared to smooth bars. Bond
strength retention in seawater environments showed superior performance, with sand-
coated GFRP maintaining 95% original strength after 600 days at 55°C (Zhang et al., 2020).
However, combined alkaline-chloride exposure created more severe degradation than
individual environmental factors.
3.2.2 Basalt Fiber Reinforced Polymer (BFRP) Performance
BFRP demonstrated intermediate durability performance between GFRP and CFRP systems.
Tensile strength retention after alkaline exposure (pH 13.5, 55°C, 84 days) ranged from 60-
75%, with vinyl ester resin systems outperforming epoxy matrices by 10-15% (Wang et al.,
2018). The mineral composition of basalt fibers, particularly their higher silica content
compared to glass fibers, contributed to improved chemical resistance. However, BFRP
showed greater susceptibility to elevated temperatures, with accelerated degradation
observed above 60°C. Interlaminar shear strength proved more vulnerable than tensile
properties, with reductions of 25-40% under identical exposure conditions. Surface
treatments significantly influenced performance, with ribbed and sand-coated surfaces
showing superior bond retention compared to smooth configurations.
3.2.3 Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Performance
CFRP exhibited superior durability performance across all tested marine environments,
demonstrating minimal degradation even under severe exposure conditions. Tensile
strength retention exceeded 90% after 12 months seawater immersion at 60°C, with some
studies reporting no measurable degradation (Guo et al., 2018). The chemical inertness of
carbon fibers to alkaline and chloride environments, combined with their thermal stability,
resulted in exceptional long-term performance. However, CFRP applications remained
limited due to significantly higher costs compared to GFRP and BFRP alternatives. Bond
performance showed excellent retention, with interfacial shear strength maintaining >95%
original values after extended marine exposure.
3.3 Primary Degradation Mechanisms
Analysis of degradation mechanisms revealed three primary pathways affecting FRP
durability in marine environments. Alkaline attack represented the most severe degradation
mode, with hydroxyl ions (OH⁻) penetrating the polymer matrix and attacking fiber-matrix
interfaces. This process was particularly pronounced in GFRP systems, where calcium
depletion from glass fibers created micro-voids and reduced load transfer capacity. Chloride-
induced degradation operated through different mechanisms, primarily involving moisture
absorption and osmotic pressure development within the polymer matrix. Combined
alkaline-chloride exposure demonstrated synergistic effects, accelerating degradation rates
by 25-40% compared to individual exposures. Temperature elevation followed Arrhenius
relationships, with each 10°C increase approximately doubling degradation rates. Sustained
mechanical loading above 30% ultimate capacity accelerated environmental degradation
through stress-induced micro-cracking and enhanced ionic penetration pathways.
3.4 Testing Methodologies and Standards
Current testing methodologies demonstrated significant variability in protocols and
environmental simulation approaches. ASTM standards (D7205, D7617, D7705) provided
the most comprehensive framework, though gaps existed for marine-specific applications.
Accelerated aging protocols using elevated temperatures (40-80°C) and concentrated
solutions showed poor correlation with field exposure data where available. The Arrhenius
approach for temperature acceleration yielded conservative predictions, potentially
overestimating service life by 50-100%. Microstructural analysis techniques including SEM,
XRD, and FTIR proved essential for understanding degradation mechanisms but remained
underutilized in many studies. Bond testing methodologies varied significantly between
research groups, limiting comparative analysis and meta-analysis potential.
4. Discussion
4.1 Comparative Performance Analysis
The systematic analysis reveals clear performance hierarchies among FRP types in marine
environments. CFRP consistently demonstrated superior durability, maintaining >90%
mechanical properties across all exposure conditions. This exceptional performance stems
from carbon fiber's chemical inertness and thermal stability, making CFRP ideal for critical
marine applications despite higher costs. GFRP showed moderate durability with
performance heavily dependent on resin systems and surface treatments, while BFRP
occupied an intermediate position offering improved cost-effectiveness compared to CFRP
but requiring careful environmental consideration.
4.2 Critical Research Gaps and Limitations
Several critical research gaps limit current understanding and practical implementation.
First, insufficient long-term field validation data constrains confidence in laboratory-based
predictions. Most studies focused on accelerated testing periods ≤2 years, while marine
infrastructure requires 50-100 year service lives. Second, standardized testing protocols for
marine environments remain inadequate, with significant methodological variations
between research groups preventing effective meta-analysis. Third, multi-scale degradation
modeling linking molecular-level processes to structural performance requires
development. Fourth, combined environmental-mechanical loading effects need
comprehensive investigation, as real marine structures experience complex loading
combinations not adequately represented in current research.
4.3 Implications for Engineering Practice
Current findings support the feasibility of FRP-SWSSC systems for marine applications with
appropriate material selection and design considerations. GFRP represents the most
practical option for general marine construction, requiring surface treatments and
conservative design factors to account for environmental degradation. BFRP offers potential
advantages in moderate marine environments with careful attention to temperature
exposure limits. CFRP should be reserved for critical applications where superior durability
justifies higher costs. Design practitioners should apply environmental reduction factors of
0.7-0.8 for GFRP, 0.75-0.85 for BFRP, and 0.9-0.95 for CFRP in marine environments, pending
development of more refined guidelines.
5. Conclusions and Future Research Recommendations
This systematic review provides comprehensive evidence supporting the viability of FRP
bars in SWSSC environments while identifying critical research priorities. Key findings
demonstrate that material selection, environmental exposure conditions, and surface
treatments significantly influence long-term durability. CFRP offers superior performance
but at premium costs, GFRP provides practical solutions with appropriate design
considerations, and BFRP represents a compromise option requiring further investigation.
Priority research recommendations include: (1) Establishing comprehensive field
monitoring programs for existing FRP-SWSSC structures to validate laboratory predictions;
(2) Developing standardized accelerated testing protocols with proven correlation to field
performance; (3) Creating multi-physics degradation models incorporating chemical,
mechanical, and thermal effects; (4) Investigating advanced FRP systems with improved
marine resistance; (5) Developing probabilistic design approaches incorporating
uncertainty in long-term performance; (6) Establishing international standards for FRP-
SWSSC applications in marine environments.
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