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Applied Analysis of Composite
Media
Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites
Science and Engineering

Applied Analysis of
Composite Media
Analytical and Computational Results
for Materials Scientists and Engineers

Piotr Drygaś
Department of Mathematical Analysis
University of Rzeszow
Rzeszow, Poland
Simon Gluzman
Toronto, ON, Canada
Vladimir Mityushev
Institute of Computer Science
Pedagogical University of Cracow
Krakow, Poland
Wojciech Nawalaniec
Institute of Computer Science
Pedagogical University of Cracow
Krakow, Poland
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
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To those who “live not by bread alone”
Contents

Biography xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii
Nomenclature xix

1 Introduction to computational methods and theory of composites 1

1.1 Traditional approaches 1
1.1.1 Self-consistent methods 2
1.1.2 Series method 4
1.1.3 Getting from traditional approach to neoclassical illustrated by
example 4
1.2 Mathematical foundations of constructive homogenization 7
1.2.1 Different approaches to heterogeneity in material sciences and
in statistical mechanics 7
1.2.2 Random geometry of composites 8
1.2.3 The method of structural sums 10
1.2.4 Random homogenization and ergodicity 13
1.3 Asymptotic methods. Critical index 17
1.3.1 Method of self-similar renormalization 20
1.3.2 Critical index. Direct methods 27
1.3.3 Critical indices from self-similar root approximants. Examples 37
1.3.4 Factor approximants and critical index. Example 47
1.3.5 Additive self-similar approximants and DLog additive
recursive approximants 51

2 Algorithms, computations and structural information 57

2.1 Computing in modern computational sciences 57
2.2 Symbolic representations of coefficients for the effective
conductivity 57
2.2.1 Algorithm 1: Express Aq in terms of structural sums 58
2.2.2 Algorithm 2: Reduction of dependent structural sums in Aq 63
2.3 Algorithms for computing structural sums 67
2.3.1 Simplified formulas for epp and e2222 67
2.3.2 Calculation of multidimensional discrete chain convolutions of
functions 68
2.3.3 Efficient computation of structural sums 70
2.3.4 Computing structural sums of a given order 74
2.3.5 Convolutions of functions in case of elastic composites 78
viii Contents

2.4 Symbolic calculations for systems of functional equations 80

2.4.1 Indefinite symbolic sums 80
2.4.2 Symbolic representation of successive approximations 81
2.4.3 Application to the 3D effective conductivity 81
2.5 Structural information and structural features vector 82
2.5.1 Pattern recognition and feature vectors 83
2.5.2 From computational science to information processing 83
2.5.3 Structural information 84
2.5.4 Construction of structural features vector 86
2.5.5 Structural information in three-dimensional space 88
2.6 Classification and analysis of random structures 89
2.6.1 Circular inclusions 90
2.6.2 Non-circular inclusions 94
2.6.3 Irregularity of random structures and data visualization 95
2.7 The Python package for computing structural sums and the effective
conductivity 101

3 Elasticity of hexagonal array of cylinders 103

3.1 Method of functional equations for elastic problems 103
3.1.1 Local field. Analytical approximate formulas 110
3.1.2 Cluster approach to elasticity problem 113
3.1.3 Rayleigh’s and Maxwell’s approaches 118
3.2 General formula for the effective shear and bulk moduli 120
3.3 Effective shear modulus for perfectly rigid inclusions embedded into
matrix 123
3.3.1 Modified Padé approximations 124
3.3.2 Additive approximants 125
3.3.3 Perfectly rigid inclusions. DLog additive approximants 127
3.3.4 Effective viscosity of 2D suspension 130
3.4 Effective shear modulus for soft fibers 131
3.4.1 Shear modulus in critical regime for arbitrary ν  134
3.4.2 DLog additive approximants for soft fibers 138
3.5 Method of contrast expansion for elastic incompressible composites 140
3.5.1 Method of Schwarz 140
3.5.2 Method of functional equations 143
3.5.3 Method of successive approximations in contrast parameter 144
3.5.4 Second order approximation 146
3.5.5 Third order approximation 148
3.5.6 Numerical simulations 153
3.6 Practice of asymptotic methods 156
3.6.1 Glass-resin composite 157
3.6.2 Comparison with numerical FEM results 163
3.6.3 Boron-aluminum composite 165
3.6.4 Boron-epoxy composite 167
Contents ix

4 Random elastic composites with circular inclusions 171

4.1 Introduction 171
4.2 Method of functional equations for local fields 171
4.3 Averaged fields in composites and effective shear modulus 176
4.4 Identical circular inclusions 180
4.5 Numerical examples 183
4.5.1 Symmetric location of inclusions with equal radii 183
4.5.2 Random location of inclusions with equal radii 185
4.5.3 Symmetric location of inclusions with different radii 187
4.5.4 Random location of inclusions with different radii 189
4.6 Critical index for the viscosity of 2D random suspension 190
4.7 Critical behavior of random holes 192

5 Effective conductivity of fibrous composites with cracks on interface 195

5.1 Deterministic and random cracks on interface 195
5.2 Boundary value problem 197
5.3 Maxwell’s approach 201

6 Effective conductivity of a random suspension of highly conducting

spherical particles 205
6.1 Introduction 205
6.2 General formula for highly conducting spheres 207
6.2.1 Statement of the problem 207
6.2.2 High conducting inclusions 209
6.3 Modified Dirichlet problem 211
6.3.1 Finite number of inclusions 211
6.3.2 Computation of undetermined constants 216
6.4 Averaged conductivity 218
6.5 Effective conductivity 220
6.6 Numerical results for random composite 225
6.7 Foams 230
6.8 Slits, platelets 232

7 Permeability of porous media 237

7.1 Models of critical permeability 237
7.2 Permeability of regular arrays 239
7.2.1 Transverse permeability. Square array 239
7.2.2 Transverse permeability. Hexagonal array 241
7.2.3 Longitudinal permeability. Square array 242
7.3 3D periodic arrays of spherical obstacles 244
7.3.1 BCC and SC lattices of spherical obstacles 244
7.3.2 Formula for FCC lattice 247
7.4 Permeability in wavy-walled channels 249
7.4.1 Symmetric sinusoidal two-dimensional channel. Breakdown of
lubrication approximation 252
x Contents

7.4.2 Symmetric sinusoidal two-dimensional channel. Breakdown

continued 254
7.4.3 Parallel sinusoidal two-dimensional channel. Novel critical
index 257
7.4.4 Symmetric sinusoidal three-dimensional channel. Two-fluid
model 260

8 Simple fluids, suspensions and selected random systems 265

8.1 Compressibility factor of hard-sphere and hard-disk fluids. Index
function 265
8.2 “Sticky” rods and disks. Mapping to Janus swimmers 278
8.3 3D elasticity, or high-frequency viscosity. Critical index 284
8.3.1 Modification with iterated roots. Condition imposed on
thresholds 286
8.3.2 Condition imposed on the critical index 287
8.3.3 Conditions imposed on the amplitude 288
8.3.4 Minimal derivative condition 289
8.4 Diffusion coefficients 292
8.5 Non-local diffusion 296
8.6 Sedimentation. Particle mobility 303
8.7 Polymer coil in 2D and 3D 307
8.8 Factor approximants and critical index for the viscosity of a 3D
suspension 311

Appendix 317
A.1 Equations of viscous flow and elasticity 317
A.2 Eisenstein’s series 319
A.3 Eisenstein–Natanzon–Filshtinsky series 321
A.4 Cluster approach and its limitations 323
A.5 Mathematical pseudo-language, transformation rule sequences and
rule-based programming 329
A.6 Implementations in mathematica 329
A.6.1 Implementation of computations of coefficients Aq 329
A.6.2 Implementation of mirror terms reduction 330

References 333
Index 349
Biography

The authors belong to the research scientific group www.materialica.plus

Piotr Drygaś, is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sci-
ences at the University of Rzeszow. He is interested in Boundary Value Problems,
describing conductivity of fibrous composites with non ideal contact, and 2D elastic
composites of random structure with ideal contact between matrix and inclusions.
Simon Gluzman, PhD, is presently an Independent Researcher (Toronto, Canada)
and formerly a Research Associate at PSU, and Researcher at UCLA. He is interested
in algebraic renormalization method and theory of random and regular composites.
Main achievement is development of novel, analytical Post-Padé techniques for re-
summation of a divergent series, such as root, factor, additive and corrected Padé
approximants. They are proven to achieve high accuracy in calculation of critical prop-
erties in a variety of physical and material science problems, see also S. Gluzman,
V. Mityushev, W. Nawalaniec, Computational Analysis of Structured Media, Elsevier,
2017.
Vladimir Mityushev is Professor at the Institute of Computer Science of the Peda-
gogical University of Kraków, Poland. His academic and scientific activity is based
on interdisciplinary international research devoted to applied mathematics and com-
puter simulations. His main mathematical result is complete solution to the scalar
Riemann–Hilbert problem for an arbitrary multiply connected domain. This result in-
cludes, for instance, the Schwarz–Christoffel mapping of multiply connected domains
bounded by polygons onto circular domains, Poincaré series for the classical Schottky
groups and other objects of the classical complex analysis constructed in other works
in particular cases. The main scientific achievements of the group headed by VM con-
cern application of the Riemann–Hilbert problem and of the generalized alternating
method of Schwarz to 2D random composites and porous media, analytical formulas
for the effective properties of regular and random composites, a constructive theory
of RVE, pattern formation, and the collective behavior of bacteria. The developed ap-
proach revises the known analytical formulas and precisely answers the question how
to determine macroscopic properties of random media.
xii Biography

Wojciech Nawalaniec is Assistant Professor at the Institute of Computer Science of

the Pedagogical University of Kraków, Poland. WN is interested in simulation, classi-
fication and analysis of random structures. Also interested in application of symbolic-
numerical calculations and machine learning to computational materials science. WN
also develops algorithms and software modules providing solutions to scientific prob-
lems tackled by the Materialica+ Research Group.
Preface

In words of Sergei Prokofiev we define neoclassicism: “I thought that if Haydn were

alive today he would compose just as he did before, but at the same time would include
something new in his manner of composition. It seemed to me that had Haydn lived
to our day he would have retained his own style while accepting something of the new
at the same time. That was the kind of symphony I wanted to write, a symphony in
classical style.”
Classical theory of composites amounts to the celebrated Maxwell formula, also
known as Clausius–Mossotti approximation. Actually, all modern self-consistent
methods (SCM) perform elaborated variations on the theme, and are justified rigor-
ously only for dilute composites when interactions among inclusions are neglected. In
the same time, exact and high-order formulas for special regular composites which go
beyond SCM were derived.
Let matrix conductivity be normalized to unity and σ denote the conductivity of
inclusions. Introduce the contrast parameter  = σσ −1
+1 . For many years it was thought
that Maxwell’s and Clausius–Mossotti approximation for the effective conductivity of
2D (3D) composites

1 + f
σe = + O(f 2 ) (1)
1 − f

can be systematically and rigorously extended to higher orders in f by taking into ac-
count interactions between pairs of spheres, triplets of spheres, and so on. However, it
was recently demonstrated (Gluzman et al., 2017, Mityushev et al., 2018b, Mityushev,
2018) that the field around a finite cluster of inclusions can yield a correct formula for
the effective conductivity only for non-interacting clusters. Rigorous justification of
this fact is given in Appendix A.4 of the present book, based on the paper (Mityushev,
2018). The higher order term(s) can be properly found only after a subtle study of the
conditionally convergent series.
The hard experimental evidence accumulated by material scientists and engineers
begs for a constructive theory of random composites with explicit account for the
geometry. The geometry is, de facto, another important structural parameter. As dis-
cussed in Nielsen (2005), “In itself the large number of completely different empirical
stiffness expressions suggested for porous materials clearly indicates a need for a more
rational research on composite properties versus composite geometry. . . Change of ge-
ometry will influence any mechanical/physical behavior of composites. Stiffness and
viscoelasticity (creep and relaxation) will change. Shrinkage and eigenstress-strain
(such as hydro-thermal properties, and heat conductivity are other examples of ma-
terials behavior, which will change with geometry. In order to cope rationally with
xiv Preface

such changes in composite analysis we must increase our freedom to choose other
analytical models than the specific, non-variable ones most often used to day.” Our
new book is dedicated mainly to constructive topics of boundary value problems
and their applications to macroscopic properties of composites and of porous media.
Symbolic-numerical computations are widely used to deduce new formulas important
for engineers and researchers. New formulas for the effective properties are deduced
in the form customized for engineering applications.
The outline of typical exposition is given below for the case of 2D elastic com-
posites. Composites with non-overlapping circular inclusions randomly embedded in
matrix are investigated. Special attention is paid to critical regimes related to the opti-
mal packing of inclusions and to extreme physical constants (rigid and soft inclusions).
Investigation of regular and random structures is based on the general approach of
the RVE (representative volume element) and the corresponding structural sums. The
proposed method yields an effective algorithm in symbolic-numeric form to compute
structural sums as discrete multiple convolutions. In this book, new algorithms are
described systematically, codes or pseudo-codes are given, and complexity of compu-
tations is studied.
We present also modified averaging computational method applied to the local
stresses and deformations. Properly constructed series are reduced to polynomials and
rational functions depending on the concentration of inclusions f . But it is not a final
solution to the problem. Furthermore, these functions are replaced by asymptotically
equivalent expressions. Special methods of resummation suggested in the book and in
(Gluzman et al., 2017), bring accurate and compact formulas for all concentrations.
Accurate analytical formulas for deterministic and random composites and porous
media can be derived employing approximants, when the low-concentration series are
supplemented with information on the high-concentration regime. Typical problems
we encounter are characterized by asymptotic power laws.
Our first book (Gluzman et al., 2017) may be considered as an neoclassical answer
to the question associated to Fig. 0.1, why does James Bond prefer shaken, not stirred
martini with ice? Highly accurate computational analysis of structural media allowed
us to explain the difference between various types of random composite structures. It
is strongly related to the critical exponent s in the asymptotic behavior of the effective
conductivity. In the limiting case of a perfectly conducting inclusions, the effective
conductivity σe is expected to tend to infinity as a power-law, as the concentration of
inclusions f tends to fc = √π , the maximal value in 2D
12

σe (f ) ∼ (fc − f )−s . (2)

The dependence of the index s on the shaken-stirred regime of inclusions is displayed

in Fig. 0.1. Similarly, one can consider different effective properties. Universality of
the mathematical modeling implies that the same equations hold for the electric and
thermal conductivity, magnetic permeability, anti-plane elastic strains and so on.
Scientific classicists are perpetually in search of universal answers to all questions
concerning the transport properties of composite materials, which can be simply ad-
justed to any concrete case. Neoclassical approach includes their classical results as a
Preface xv

Figure 0.1 Why did James Bond prefer shaken, not stirred martini with ice? Because he sensed in martini
the critical exponent s from formula (2). The dependence of s on the degree of disorder measured in steps
of random walk is displayed in the graphics.

limit-case, complements it with another limit case of high-concentration percolating

inclusions, but does not stop here. The problem now is getting shifted towards method-
ology (tool-box), concerned with properly matching the limit-cases. On the way one
should develop a non-universal, structure-dependent expansions, as well as special ap-
proximation methods. From the warm and cosy world where universal answers exist,
we are getting to the cold, unfriendly one. In such world each and every problem of
the theory of composites should be studied in terms of the particular numerical set of
structural sums, the particular large f limit found, and the particular approximation
method carefully selected to receive formula for all f .
We are convinced that to derive a new formula, valid in the whole range of relevant
variables, is not merely a mathematical exercise, or even a matter of convenience. It
provides a fresh insight, since in the majority of cases realistic material sciences prob-
lems correspond neither to weak coupling (or low concentration) regime nor to strong
coupling (high concentration) limit, but to the intermediate range of parameters. Such
regime can be covered by some rather complex formula deduced from asymptotic
regimes. It is quite handy for a scientist to possess a general mathematical toolbox to
derive asymptotic, typically power laws, as well as explicit crossover formulas for a
multitude of processes. Problems discussed in the book can be viewed as asymptoti-
cally classical, but in each of them, a neoclassical twist is supposed to make them more
agreeable to the modern listener. Besides, they are all interesting and hold a promise
in days to come.
Some authors equate an approximate analytical formula with a model. Such an ap-
proach is misleading, since a mathematical modeling involves fundamental governing
equations, complemented by interface and boundary conditions. Different approxi-
mate formulas/solutions for the mathematical model hold under restrictions usually
not discussed by authors. A serious methodological mistake may follow when in-
termediate manipulations are valid only within the precision O(f ), while the final
formula is claimed to work with a higher precision, see an explicit example in Ap-
pendix A.4. In particular, it follows from our investigations that it is impossible to
write a universal higher order formula independent on locations of inclusions. Such
a universal formula holds only for a limited class of composites with non-interacting
xvi Preface

inclusions, e.g., for dilute composites and the Hashin-Shtrikman coated sphere assem-
blage (Cherkaev, 2009).
Since Einstein, the transport coefficients in random and regular media are expressed
as expansions in concentration f . Nevertheless, despite persistent efforts of such
outstanding researchers as Batchelor, Bergman, Brady, Jeffrey, Milton, McPhedran,
Torquato, Wajnryb the problem still exists of finding correct numerical coefficients in
expansions. Besides, the validity of such short series is very limited, and their true
value is still remains to be seen.
Let us address the Hashin–Shtrikman bounds and their extensions (Milton, 2002).
The dependence of the effective conductivity of a random composite on f corresponds
to some monotonous curve, drawn between the bounds. Such a curve can be sketched
arbitrarily, and it will correspond to some unspecified distribution of inclusions. Often,
we deal with a uniform distribution corresponding to a stir-casting process described
by the random sequential addition (RSA) model (Kurtyka and Rylko, 2013, 2017).
Thence main theoretical requirement to the geometric model consists not only in writ-
ing a formula, but in a precise description of the geometrical conditions imposed on
deterministic or random locations of inclusions. The rigorous statement and study of
this theoretical problem is necessary for the proper approach to various applied prob-
lems, e.g., stir-casting process.
Our formulas for the effective properties of random composites are derived as
the mathematical expectation of the effective conductivity over the independent and
identically distributed (i.i.d.) non-overlapping inclusions. Even formulas obtained for
uniformly distributed non-overlapping balls are not universal, because the effective
conductivity depends on the protocol of computer simulations or experimental stir-
ring, meaning that the very notion of randomness is non-universal (Torquato, 2002,
Kurtyka and Rylko, 2013, Rylko, 2014, Gluzman et al., 2017).
Some famous formulas turn out to be questionable, in our opinion. The example,
why various not rigorous, popular approaches can be questioned, is given in Chapter
6 based on the paper by Mityushev and Nawalaniec (2019). It is demonstrated that the
classical Jeffrey formula contains wrong f 2 term. See Chapter 6, where the terms f 2
and f 3 are written explicitly! In particular, we demonstrate that the f 3 term depends
on the deterministic and random locations of inclusions. A novel expansion for the
random composite with superconducting (perfect conducting) inclusions is obtained,
see (6.92) on page 226. It leads to a proper estimate for the critical index for supercon-
ductivity. The finding seems to justify the whole body of work on the short series for
effective conductivity, and give a physical meaning to the series as a valuable source
of estimating critical index s.

Piotr Drygaś
Simon Gluzman
Vladimir Mityushev
Wojciech Nawalaniec
Kraków, April 2019
Acknowledgments

PD, VM and WN were partially supported by National Science Centre, Poland, Re-
search Project No. 2016/21/B/ST8/01181.
Nomenclature

Geometry
ak stands for center (complex coordinate) of the disk Dk
ak stands for center of the sphere Dk
BCC means body-centered cubic lattice
D stands for a domain in R2 or in R3 or stands for circular multiply connected
domain
Dk stands for simply connected domain (inclusion) in R2 and in R3 or stands for
circular inclusion in R2 and ball in R3
∂D stands for boundary of D
Ek (z) stands for Eisenstein function of order k
(j )
Em (z) stands for Eisenstein–Natanson–Filshtinsky functions
em1 ,m2 ,m3 ,...,mn stands for structural sum of the multi-order m = (m1 , . . . , mn ) based on the
Eisenstein functions
f ,f ,f ,...,f
ep01 ,p12 ,p23 ,...,pnn stands for structural sum of poly-disperse composite

(j) (j ,...,jq )(l1 ,...,lq )

en ≡ en11,...,nq stands for the elastic structural sum based on the Eisenstein–Natanzon functions
f stands for volume fraction (concentration) of inclusions
F CC means face-centered cubic lattice
H CP means hexagonal close-packed lattice
n = (n1 , n2 ) normal vector to a smooth oriented curve L
n = n1 + in2 complex form of the normal vector n = (n1 , n2 )
Rd stands for the Euclidean space
s = (−n2 , n1 ) tangent vector
SC means simple cubic lattice
Sm stands for Eisenstein–Rayleigh lattice sums
(q)
Sp stands for Natanzon–Filshtinsky lattice sums
U stands for unit disk on plane
ω1 and ω2 stand for the fundamental translation vectors on the complex plane

Conductivity
K stands for permeability
s stands for the critical index for superconductivity
t stands for the critical index for conductivity
+ −
 = σ + −σ − stands for contrast parameter between media with the conductivities σ + and σ − ;
σ +σ
for two-phase composites  = σσ −1+1
σ (x) stands for scalar local conductivity
σk is used for conductivity of the kth inclusion
σ is used for conductivity of inclusions of two-phase composites when the conduc-
tivity of matrix is normalized to unity
σe stands for effective conductivity tensor
σe stands for scalar effective conductivity of the macroscopically isotropic compos-
ites when the conductivity of matrix is normalized to unity
ij
σe stands for components of the effective conductivity tensor
xx Nomenclature

Elasticity
G and G1 stand for shear modulus of matrix and inclusions, respectively
k and k1 stand for 2D bulk modulus of matrix and inclusions, respectively
k  , k1 , ν  and ν1 stand for the corresponding 3D elastic constants; the shear modulus is the same
in 2D and 3D
S is the critical index for super-elasticity
T is the critical index for elasticity
ij stand for the components of the strain tensor
κ and κ1 stand for Muskhelishvili’s constant, κ = 3 − 4ν  = 3−ν
1+ν
μ and μ1 stand for shear moduli of incompressible media and of viscosity
μe stand for the effective viscosity
ν and ν1 stand for 2D Poisson’s ratio of matrix and inclusions, respectively
G1 G G1
j stand for contrast parameters 1 = G −1 , 2 =
κ G1 −κ1
, 3 = G −1
G1 G G
G +κ1 κ G1 +1 κ G1 +1
Gm −G Gk
j k,m stand for contrast parameters of multi-phase composites 1k,m = Gk +κk G · Gm ,
2k,m = κG m −κm G G Gm −G G
κGk +G · Gm , 3k,m = κGk +G · Gm , ik,k := ik , where Gm and
k k

κm denote the elastic constants of mth inclusion

σij stand for the components of the stress tensor

Other symbols and abbreviations

1D, 2D, and 3D mean one-, two-, and three- dimensional
A and B stand for the critical amplitudes
A∗ stands for the additive approximants
C stands for the set of complex numbers
C stands for the operator of complex conjugation
Cor ∗ , or Cor∗ stand for Corrected Padé approximant. Sometimes, to avoid confusion, we
write simply Cor
E measures the respective relative error
EMA means effective medium approximations
F∗ stands for the factor approximants
HS means the Hashin–Shtrikman lower and upper bounds
Hα (L) stands for functions Hölder continuous on a simple smooth curve L
Hα (D) ≡ H(D) stands for functions analytic in D and Hölder continuous in its closure
Im means the imaginary part of complex value
LHS and RHS mean the expressions “left-hand side” and “right-hand side” (of an equation),
respectively
H(2,2) Hardy–Sobolev space
PadeApproximant[F [z], n, m] stands for the Padé (n, m)-approximant of the function F (z)
R stands for the set of real numbers
R∗ stands for the root approximants
RA∗ stands for the DLog additive recursive approximants
RCP means random close packing
Re means the real part of complex value
RS means random shaking
RSA means Random Sequential Addition
RVE stands for representative volume element
RW means random walks
SCM means self-consistent methods
T stands for temperature
Z is the compressibility factor
β generally stands for the critical index in application to arbitrary case
κ is the fluid permeability exponent
Nomenclature xxi

ρ stands for particles or cracks geometric density proportional to the number

of elements per cell
℘ (z) stands for the Weierstrass ℘-function
℘j (z) stands for the Natanzon–Filshtinsky functions
ζ (z) stands for the Weierstrass ζ -function
∼ indicates asymptotic equivalence between functions, i.e., indicates that func-
tions are similar, of the same order
 indicates that the two functions are similar or equal asymptotically
≈ is used as “approximately equal to”, indicating that the number is acceptably
close to an exact value
∗ marks self-similar approximants
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Astronomy - Quick Reference
Fall 2023 - Academy

Prepared by: Instructor Miller

Date: August 12, 2025

Abstract 1: Best practices and recommendations

Learning Objective 1: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 6: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 8: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 2: Experimental procedures and results
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 12: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 14: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 3: Experimental procedures and results
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 22: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 27: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 4: Ethical considerations and implications
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 31: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 32: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 33: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 34: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 36: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 38: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 5: Best practices and recommendations
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 41: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 48: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 6: Current trends and future directions
Practice Problem 50: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 51: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 57: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 59: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Discussion 7: Key terms and definitions
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 62: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 63: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 65: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 67: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 8: Historical development and evolution
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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