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Engineering Mathematics
for Semesters III and IV
 About the Authors

C B Gupta is presently working as Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Birla Institute of Technology
and Science, Pilani (Rajasthan). With over 25 years of teaching and research experience, he is a recipient
of numerous awards like the Shiksha Rattan Puraskar 2011, Best Citizens of India Award 2011, Glory of
India Award 2013, and Mother Teresa Award 2013. He was listed in Marquis’ Who’s Who in Science and
Technology in the World 2010 and 2013, and in top 100 scientists of the world in 2012. He obtained his
master’s degree in Mathematical Statistics and PhD in Operations Research from Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra. His fields of specialization are Applied Statistics, Optimization, and Operations Research. A
number of students have submitted their thesis/dissertations on these topics under his supervision. He has
published a large number of research papers on these topics in peer-reviewed national and international
journals of repute. He has authored/co-authored 12 books on Probability and Statistics, Quantitative
Methods, Optimization in Operations Research, Advance Discrete Mathematics, Engineering Mathematics
I–III, Advanced Mathematics, and the like. He is also on the editorial board and a reviewer of many national
and international journals. Dr. Gupta is a member of various academic and management committees of many
institutes/universities. He has participated in more than 30 national and international conferences in which
he has delivered invited talks and chaired technical sessions. He has been a member of Rajasthan Board of
School Education, Ajmer, and also a member of various committees of RPSC Ajmer, UPSC, New Delhi, and
AICTE, New Delhi.

S R Singh is presently working as an Associate Professor in the Department of Mathematics at Chaudhary

Charan Singh University, Meerut (Uttar Pradesh) and has an experience of 20 years in academics and research.
His areas of specialization are Inventory Control, Supply-Chain Management, and Fuzzy Set Theory. He has
attended various seminars/conferences. Fifteen students have been awarded PhD under his supervision. He
has published more than hundred research papers in reputed national and international journals. His research
papers have been published in International Journal of System Sciences, Asia Pacific Journal of Operational
Research, Control and Cybernetics, Opsearch, International Journal of Operational Research, Fuzzy Sets
and Systems, and International Journal of Operations and Quantitative Management. He has authored/co-
authored nine books.

Mukesh Kumar is presently working as an Associate Professor in the Department of Mathematics

at Graphic Era University, Dehradun (Uttarakhand). He received an MPhil in Mathematics from Indian
Institute of Technology, Roorkee, and PhD in Mathematics from HNB Garhwal Central University, Srinagar,
Uttarakhand. He has academic experience of more than 12 years. His fields of specialization are Inventory
Control, Supply Chain Management, Operations Research and Applied Mathematics. He has published
numerous research papers in national and international reputed journals. He is also on the editorial board
and reviewer of many national and international journals and have authored two books on mathematics.
Engineering Mathematics
for Semesters III and IV

C B Gupta
Professor
Department of Mathematics
Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS)
Pilani, Rajasthan

S R Singh
Associate Professor
Department of Mathematics
Chaudhary Charan Singh University
Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

Mukesh Kumar
Associate Professor
Department of Mathematics
Graphic Era University
Dehradun, Uttarakhand

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Engineering Mathematics for Semesters III and IV
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 Contents

Preface xvii

1. Fourier Transforms 1.1–1.64

1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Fourier Integral Theorem 1.2
1.3 Fourier Integral in Complex Form 1.4
1.4 Fourier Transform 1.8
1.5 Fourier Cosine and Sine Transforms 1.9
1.6 Properties of Fourier Transform 1.24
1.7 Parseval’s Theorem 1.29
1.8 Fourier Transform of Some Basic Functions 1.32
1.9 Discrete Fourier Transform 1.36
Exercise 1.1 1.41
Answers 1.44
1.10 Finite Fourier Transform 1.45
1.11 Inverse Finite Fourier Transform 1.45
Exercise 1.2 1.46
Answers 1.47
Exercise 1.3 1.56
Answers 1.56
Summary 1.57
Objective Type Questions 1.62
Answers 1.64

2. Z-Transforms 2.1–2.41
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Basic Concept of Sequence 2.1
2.3 Z-Transform 2.4
Exercise 2.1 2.9
Answers 2.9
2.4 The Inverse Z-Transform 2.10
Exercise 2.2 2.13
Answers 2.13
vi Contents

2.5 Properties of the Z-Transform 2.14

2.6 Convolution of Sequences 2.17
2.7 Table of Z-transforms 2.26
2.8 Some Useful Inverse Z-transform 2.28
2.9 Solution of Difference Equations using Z-Transforms 2.28
Exercise 2.3 2.33
Answers 2.33
Exercise (Mixed Problems) 2.34
Answers 2.35
Summary 2.35
Objective Type Questions 2.39
Answers 2.41

3. Complex Variables and Calculus 3.1–3.130

3.1 Complex Number 3.1
3.2 Equality of Complex Numbers 3.1
3.3 Fundamental Operations with Complex Numbers 3.1
3.4 Division of Complex Numbers 3.2
3.5 Modulus of a Complex Number 3.3
3.6 Geometrical Representation of Complex Numbers 3.3
3.7 Polar Form of a Complex Numbers 3.3
3.8 Conjugate Complex Number 3.4
3.9 De Moivre’s Theorem 3.4
3.10 Roots of a Complex Number 3.7
3.11 Euler’s Formula 3.8
3.12 Exponential (or Eulerian) Form of a Complex Number 3.8
3.13 Circular Functions 3.8
3.14 Hyperbolic Functions 3.10
3.15 Real and Imaginary Parts of Circular Function 3.11
3.16 Logarithm of a Complex Number 3.11
Exercise 3.1 3.15
Answers 3.16
3.17 Summation of Trigonometric Series – (C + iS) Method 3.16
3.18 Introduction to Theory of Complex Variables 3.19
3.19 Basic Concepts of the Complex Variable 3.19
3.20 Cauchy–Reimann equations 3.21
3.21 Harmonic and Conjugate Harmonic Functions 3.27
3.22 Method of Constructing Conjugate Function 3.28
3.23 Method of Constructing an Analytic Function or a Regular Function 3.29
3.24 Determination of Velocity Potential and Stream Function 3.38
Exercise 3.2 3.40
Answers 3.41
3.25 Introduction to Complex Integration 3.42
3.26 Line Integral in Complex Plane 3.42
3.27 Complex Function Integrals 3.43
3.28 Properties of Complex Integrals 3.43
 Contents vii

Exercise 3.3 3.50

Answer 3.50
3.29 Cauchy Fundamental Theorem 3.51
3.30 Cauchy’s Theorem 3.51
3.31 Cauchy’s Integral Formula 3.52
3.32 Cauchy Integral Formula for the Derivative of an Analytic Function 3.53
3.33 Cauchy Integral Formula for Higher Order Derivatives 3.54
3.34 Poisson’s Integral Formula 3.54
3.35 Morera’s Theorem (Converse of Cauchy’s Theorem) 3.54
3.36 Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus 3.55
3.37 Cauchy’s Inequality Theorem 3.56
3.38 Liouville’s Theorem 3.56
3.39 Expansion of Analytic Functions as Power Series 3.57
Exercise 3.4 3.73
3.40 Zeros of an Analytic Function 3.73
3.41 Singularities 3.74
Exercise 3.5 3.76
Answer 3.78
3.42 The Calculus of Residues 3.79
3.43 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem 3.80
Exercise 3.6 3.87
Answers 3.88
3.44 Evaluation of Real Definite Integrals 3.88

3.45 Improper Real Integrals of the Form f ( z ) dz 3.94

3.46 Improper Integrals with Poles on the Real Axis 3.97

Exercise 3.7 3.98
3.47 Conformal Mapping 3.99
3.48 Bilinear (or Mobius or Fractional) Transformation 3.104
3.49 Cross Ratio 3.105
3.50 Applications of Complex Variables 3.109
Exercise 3.8 3.115
Answer 3.116
Summary 3.117
Objective-Type Questions 3.122
Answers 3.130

4. Empirical Laws and Curve Fitting 4.1–4.32

4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Scatter Diagram 4.1
4.3 Curve Fitting 4.1
4.4 Graphical Method 4.2
Exercise 4.1 4.6
Answer 4.6
4.5 Least Square Method 4.7
viii Contents

Exercise 4.2 4.12

Answers 4.14
4.6 Fitting of Other Curves 4.14
Exercise 4.3 4.18
Answers 4.19
4.7 Group Averages Method 4.20
4.8 Fitting of a Parabola 4.21
Exercise 4.4 4.25
Answers 4.26
4.9 Moments Method 4.26
Exercise 4.5 4.29
Answers 4.30
Summary 4.30
Objective Type Questions 4.31
Answers 4.32

5. Statistical Methods 5.1–5.54

5.1 Introduction 5.1
5.2 Steps of Statistical Methods 5.1
5.3 Graphical Representation of Frequency Distribution 5.4
5.4 Comparison of Frequency Distribution 5.7
5.5 Measures of Central Tendency 5.7
Exercise 5.1 5.15
Answers 5.17
5.6 Measures of Dispersion 5.17
5.7 Coefficient of Variation 5.19
5.8 Variance of the Combined Series 5.19
Exercise 5.2 5.23
Answers 5.24
5.9 Skewness 5.25
5.10 Kurtosis 5.27
Exercise 5.3 5.30
Answers 5.30
5.11 Correlation 5.31
5.12 Rank Correlation 5.34
5.13 Regression 5.37
Exercise 5.4 5.47
Answers 5.49
Summary 5.50
Objective Type Questions 5.52
Answers 5.54

6. Probability and Distribution 6.1–6.86

6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Terminology 6.1
Exercise 6.1 6.5
Answers 6.6
 Contents ix

6.3 Definition of Probability 6.6

6.4 Addition Law of Probability or Theorem of Total Probability 6.9
6.5 Conditional Probability 6.12
Exercise 6.2 6.21
Answers 6.23
6.6 Baye’s Theorem 6.25
Exercise 6.3 6.27
Answers 6.28
6.7 Random Variable 6.28
6.8 Types of Random Variable 6.29
6.9 Discrete Probability Distribution 6.29
6.10 Continuous Probability Distribution 6.33
6.11 Expectation and Variance 6.36
6.12 Moment Generating Function 6.42
Exercise 6.4 6.43
Answers 6.45
6.13 Some Important Distributions 6.46
6.14 Bernoulli Distribution 6.47
6.15 Binomial Distribution 6.47
Exercise 6.5 6.51
Answers 6.53
6.16 Poisson Distribution 6.53
6.17 Constants of Poisson Distribution 6.54
Exercise 6.6 6.57
Answers 6.58
6.18 Uniform Distribution 6.59
6.19 Exponential Distribution 6.60
Exercise 6.7 6.64
Answers 6.65
6.20 Normal Distribution 6.65
Exercise 6.8 6.73
Answers 6.75
6.21 Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution 6.75
6.22 Chebyshev’s Inequality 6.76
Exercise 6.9 6.77
Answers 6.77
Summary 6.78
Objective Type Questions 6.79
Answers 6.86

7. Sampling and Inference and Testing of Hypothesis 7.1–7.35

7.1 Introduction 7.1
7.2 Types of Sampling 7.1
7.3 Parameters and Statistics 7.2
7.4 Statistical Inference 7.2
7.5 Sampling Distribution 7.2
x Contents

7.6 Standard Error 7.3

7.7 Testing a Hypothesis 7.3
7.8 Errors 7.3
7.9 Null and Alternate Hypothesis 7.3
7.10 Level of Significance 7.4
7.11 Tests of Significance 7.4
7.12 Confidence Limits 7.4
7.13 Simple Sampling of Attributes 7.4
7.14 Test of Significance for Large Samples 7.5
7.15 Comparison of Large Samples 7.7
Exercise 7.1 7.9
Answers 7.10
7.16 Sampling of Variables 7.10
7.17 Sampling Distribution of the Mean 7.10
7.18 Central Limit Theorem 7.11
7.19 Confidence Limits for Unknown Mean 7.11
7.20 Test of Significance for Difference of Means 7.13
Exercise 7.2 7.14
Answers 7.15
7.21 Sampling of Variables – Small Samples 7.15
7.22 Student’s t-Distribution 7.16
7.23 Significant Test of Difference between Two Samples 7.20
Exercise 7.3 7.23
Answers 7.24
7.24 Chi-square ( 2) test 7.24
Exercise 7.4 7.29
Answers 7.30
7.25 F-Distribution 7.30
7.26 Fisher’s Z-distribution 7.31
Exercise 7.5 7.32
Answers 7.33
Summary 7.33
Objective Type Questions 7.34
Answers 7.35

8. Finite Differences and Interpolation 8.1–8.79

8.1 Introduction 8.1
8.2 Floating Point Representations 8.1
8.3 Rounding-Off and Chopping 8.2
8.4 Error 8.2
8.5 General Error Formula 8.6
8.6 Errors in Numerical Computations 8.7
8.7 Error in A Series Approximation 8.9
Exercise 8.1 8.13
Answers 8.14
8.8 Finite Differences 8.14
 Contents xi

8.9 Relation Between Operators 8.18

8.10 Factorial Notation 8.26
8.11 Reciprocal Factorial 8.27
8.12 Expression of any Polynomial f (x) in Factorial Notation 8.28
Exercise 8.2 8.32
Answers 8.33
8.13 Interpolation 8.34
8.14 Newton’s-Gregory Forward Interpolation Formula 8.34
8.15 Newton’s-Gregory Backward Interpolation Formula 8.34
8.16 Errors in Newton’s Interpolation Polynomial 8.35
8.17 Central Difference Interpolation Formulae 8.39
8.18 Guidelines for the Choice of Interpolation 8.43
Exercise 8.3 8.50
Answers 8.52
8.19 Interpolation for Unequal Intervals 8.52
8.20 Lagrange’s Interpolating Polynomials 8.52
8.21 Error in Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula 8.55
8.22 Divided Differences 8.59
8.23 Inverse Interpolation 8.65
8.24 Hermite Interpolation Polynomial 8.66
Exercise 8.4 8.68
Answers 8.69
Summary 8.70
Objective Type Questions 8.78
Answers 8.79

9. Numerical Solution of Equations 9.1–9.70

9.1 Introduction 9.1
9.2 Some Basic Properties of an Equation 9.1
9.3 Bisection Method 9.2
9.4 Fixed Point Iteration Method 9.6
9.5 Geometrical Interpretation of Iteration Method 9.7
9.6 Iteration Method for the System of Non-Linear Equations 9.10
9.7 Newton’s Method 9.12
9.8 Regula Falsi Method 9.16
9.9 Secant Method 9.17
9.10 Convergence for Iterative Methods 9.21
Exercise 9.1 9.24
Answers 9.26
9.11 Linear System of Equations 9.26
9.12 Gaussian Elimination Method 9.27
9.13 Gauss’s–Jordan Method 9.30
9.14 Crout’s Method 9.32
9.15 LU Decomposition Method 9.35
9.16 Iterative Methods 9.40
Exercise 9.2 9.48
Answers 9.49
xii Contents

9.17 Matrix Inversion 9.49

Exercise 9.3 9.56
Answers 9.57
9.18 Eigen Value Problems 9.57
Summary 9.62
Objective Type Questions 9.68
Answers 9.70

10. Numerical Differentiation and Integration 10.1–10.34

10.1 Numerical Differentiation 10.1
10.2 Numerical Differentiation Using the Interpolation Formulae 10.2
Exercise 10.1 10.11
Answers 10.14
10.3 Numerical Integration 10.14
10.4 Newton–Cote’s Quadrature Formula 10.15
Exercise 10.2 10.27
Answers 10.29
Summary 10.29
Objective Type Questions 10.32
Answers 10.34

11. Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations 11.1–11.47

11.1 Introduction 11.1
11.2 Initial and Boundary Value Problems 11.1
11.3 Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 11.2
Exercise 11.1 11.8
Answers 11.8
Exercise 11.2 11.12
Answers 11.12
Exercise 11.3 11.17
Answers 11.17
Exercise 11.4 11.20
Answers 11.20
Exercise 11.5 11.24
Answers 11.24
Exercise 11.6 11.26
Answers 11.27
11.4 Numerical Solution of Simultaneous First Order Ordinary Differential Equations 11.28
Exercise 11.7 11.32
Answers 11.33
11.5 Numerical Solution of Second Order Ordinary Differential Equations 11.33
Exercise 11.8 11.40
Answers 11.40
Summary 11.41
Objective Type Questions 11.45
Answers 11.47
 Contents xiii

12. Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations 12.1–12.44

12.1 Introduction 12.1
12.2 Classification of Partial Differential Equations 12.1
12.3 Some Standard PDE’s 12.1
12.4 Finite Difference Method 12.4
12.5 Parabolic Partial Differential Equations 12.6
Exercises 12.1 12.16
Answers 12.17
12.6 Solution of Hyperbolic Equations 12.18
Exercise 12.2 12.22
Answers 12.23
12.7 Numerical Solution of Elliptic Partial Differential Equations 12.23
Exercise 12.3 12.31
Answers 12.32
12.8 Solution of Poisson’s Equation 12.32
Exercise 12.4 12.35
Answers 12.36
Summary 12.37
Objective Type Questions 12.43
Answers 12.44

13. Linear Programming 13.1–13.90

13.1 Introduction 13.1
13.2 General Form of Linear Programming 13.1
13.3 Formulation of Model 13.2
Exercise 13.1 13.5
Answers 13.6
13.4 Standard Form or Equation Form of Linear Programming Problem 13.8
Exercise 13.2 13.10
Answers 13.11
13.5 Some Important Terms 13.12
13.6 Solution of a Linear Programming Problem 13.13
Exercise 13.3 13.19
Answers 13.20
13.7 Algebraic Solution of a Programming Problem 13.20
Exercise 13.4 13.22
Answers 13.22
13.8 Simplex Method 13.22
Exercise 13.5 13.28
Answers 13.29
13.9 Artificial Variable Technique 13.29
13.10 Exceptional Cases in LPP 13.37
Exercise 13.6 13.42
Answers 13.44
13.11 Duality in Linear Programming 13.45
Exercise 13.7 13.49
Answers 13.50
xiv Contents

Exercise 13.8 13.56

Answers 13.57
13.12 Dual Simplex Method 13.58
Exercise 13.9 13.60
Answers 13.61
13.13 Transportation Problem 13.61
Exercise 13.10 13.76
Answers 13.78
13.14 Assignment Problem 13.79
Exercise 13.11 13.85
Answers 13.87
Summary 13.87
Objective Type Questions 13.88
Answers 13.90

14. Calculus of Variations 14.1–14.69

14.1 Introduction 14.1
14.2 Function 14.1
14.3 Functional 14.1
14.4 Difference Between Function and Functional 14.2
14.5 Closeness of Curves 14.3
14.6 Continuity of Functional 14.3
14.7 Variation of Functional 14.4
14.8 Maxima or Minima of Functionals 14.5
14.9 Fundamental Lemma of Calculus of Variation 14.6
14.10 Extremal 14.6
14.11 Some Important Lemmas 14.6
14.12 Euler’s Equation 14.8
14.13 Alternative Forms of Euler’s Equation 14.10
14.14 Variational Problems for Functional Involving Several Dependent Variables 14.20
14.15 Functional Dependent on Higher Order Derivatives 14.23
14.16 Functionals Dependent on the Functions of Several Independent Variables 14.25
14.17 Variational Problems in Parametric Form 14.31
14.18 Isoperimetric Problems 14.34
Exercise 14.1 14.36
Answers 14.37
14.19 Sufficient Conditions for an Extremum 14.39
14.20 Jacobi Condition 14.41
14.21 Weierstrass Function 14.44
14.22 Legendre Conditions 14.51
14.23 Legendre Condition for Quadratic Function 14.57
Exercise 14.2 14.58
Answer 14.60
Summary 14.60
Objective Type Questions 14.66
Answers 14.69
 Contents xv

15. Integral Equations 15.1–15.46

15.1 Introduction 15.1
15.2 Integral Equation 15.2
15.3 Differentiation of a Function Under an Integral Sign 15.6
15.4 Relation between Differential and Integral Equations 15.7
Exercise 15.1 15.10
Exercise 15.2 15.13
Answers 15.14
Exercise 15.3 15.16
15.5 Solution of Non-Homogenous Volterra’s Integral Equation of Second Kind
by the Method of Successive Substitution 15.16
15.6 Solution of Non-Homogeneous Volterra’s Integral Equation of Second Kind
by the Method of Successive Approximation 15.18
15.7 Determination of Some Resolvent Kernels 15.21
Exercise 15.4 15.28
Answers 15.28
15.8 Solution of the Fredholm Integral Equation by the Method of
Successive Substitutions 15.29
15.9 Iterated Kernels 15.31
15.10 Solution of the Fredholm Integral Equation by the Method of
Successive Approximation 15.33
15.11 Reciprocal Functions 15.35
15.12 Volterra’s Solution of Fredholm’s Equation 15.36
Exercise 15.5 15.39
Answer 15.39
Exercise 15.6 15.43
Answer 15.44
Summary 15.44
Objective Type Questions 15.45
Answers 15.46
Appendix A: Statistical Tables A.1–A.6
Appendix B: Some Basic Formulae B.1–B.2

Index I.1–I.6
 Preface

Engineering Mathematics for Semesters III and IV deals with the applications of applied Mathematics
in the field of Engineering. This subject is generally taught in the 3rd and 4th semester of engineering.
In the Engineering Mathematics for Semesters I and II we learnt about the basics of engineering
mathematics as a branch of applied mathematics concerning mathematical models (mathematical
methods and techniques) that are typically used in engineering and industry. This book on semesters
III and IV will prepare students for their domain-specific study and applications in their respective
branches.
This book will also introduce the students to the concepts of Fourier transform, Z-transform, complex
variables, probability and numerical techniques.

Salient Features
Engrossing problem sets based on real life situations like Modulation techniques and Heat
Flow
360° coverage of subject matter: Introduction–History–Pedagogy–Applications
Introduction to Fourier Transform, Z-transform, Complex Variable, Probability and Numerical
Techniques with reference to applications in the field of engineering
582 Solved problems with stepwise solutions
535 MCQs for various competitive examinations
Appendix includes Statistical Tables and List of Formulae
Other pedagogical aids include:
Drill and Practice Problem: 1100

Chapter Organization
The book is divided in fifteen chapters. In Chapter 1, we have discussed Fourier transform which
includes Fourier transform of some basic functions and the properties of the Fourier Transform.
Chapter 2 deals with Z-Transform, inverse Z-transform, Cauchy’s residue theorem, convolution
theorem and properties of Z-transform. In Chapter 3, basic concepts of complex theory including
basic concepts of complex numbers, Cauchy–Riemann equations, conjugate and conjugate harmonic
equations, complex integrals, expansion of analytic functions as power series, zeros of analytic
functions, calculus of residues, singularities, complex integrals, Cauchy’s residue theorem, etc.,
are discussed. Chapter 4 covers empirical laws and curve fitting along with scatter diagram and
various methods of curve fitting. In Chapter 5, we present various statistical methods while in
xviii Preface

Chapter 6 basic concepts of probability such as additive law, multiplicative and conditional probability,
Baye’s theorem, probability distribution (discrete and continuous in general) and some specific
distributions such as binomial, Poisson, uniform, exponential and normal are discussed. Chapter 7 deals
with sampling, inference and testing of hypotheses which includes parameters and statistics, type I and
II errors, confidence intervals and F, chi-square and Z statistic. Chapter 8 deals with finite difference
and interpolation while Chapters 9 and 10 deal with numerical solution of differential equations and
various formulas for numerical differentiation and integration, respectively. Chapters 11 and 12
talk about numerical solutions of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations,
respectively. In Chapter 13, linear programming and various methods to solve linear programming
including transportation and assignment problems, duality and dual simplex method, etc., have
been discussed. Chapters 14 and 15 cover the method of variational with fixed boundaries while
Chapter 15 deals with integral equations.

Online Learning Center

The Online Learning Center can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/gupta/em3/4 and contains the
Instructor Elements: Solutions Manual.

Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to all who have directly or indirectly helped them during the preparation of
this book. We are also thankful to all our family members for their encouragement, patience, and all
possible help provided by them while we were engaged in writing the manuscript. We would also like
to thank the following reviewers for their feedback and comments:

Rama Bhargava Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, Roorkee,

Uttarakhand
Rajesh Kumar Gupta Lovely Professional University , Phagwara, Punjab
Uma Arora JRE Group of Institutions, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh
Rashmi Mishra G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, Uttar Pradesh
Paras Ram National Institute of Technology (NIT), Kurukshetra, Haryana
Guruprasad Samanta Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur,
West Bengal
Debdas Mishra C. V. Raman College of Engineering, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Apu Saha National Institute of Technology (NIT) Agartala, Tripura
Bikash Bhattacharjya Indian Instititute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati, Assam
Som Sahani ITM Universe, Vadodra, Gujarat
Pragnesh Laxmiram Lalbhai Dalpatbhai College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Thakkar
Swagat Rameshchandra Marwadi Education Foundation, Rajkot, Gujarat
Barot
Mamta Jain Venus International College of Technology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat
 Preface xix

Meena Sankaranarayanan Anand Institute of Higher Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

B Jaganathan VIT University, Chennai Campus, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Prasanna BMR Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkuru, Karnataka

We wish to express our appreciation for the support provided by the staff at McGraw Hill Education
(India) during the publication of this book.

Feedback Request
We shall be grateful to acknowledge any constructive comments/suggestions from the readers for
further improvement of the book.
C B GUPTA
S R SINGH
MUKESH KUMAR

Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be sent to
[email protected] (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Microbiology - Lecture Notes
First 2021 - Department

Prepared by: Researcher Jones

Date: August 12, 2025

Lesson 1: Research findings and conclusions

Learning Objective 1: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 4: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Unit 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 12: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 14: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 3: Learning outcomes and objectives
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 22: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 27: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 29: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 4: Case studies and real-world applications
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 34: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 36: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 37: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 5: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 42: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 44: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 45: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Section 6: Learning outcomes and objectives
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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