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New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals 1st
Edition Aldemaro Romero Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Aldemaro Romero, Edward O. Keith
ISBN(s): 9789535108443, 9535108441
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 15.34 MB
Year: 2012
Language: english
 Edited by
Aldemaro Romero
Edward O. Keith
 NEW APPROACHES
TO THE STUDY OF
MARINE MAMMALS
Edited by Aldemaro Romero
and Edward O. Keith
New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/2731
Edited by Aldemaro Romero and Edward O. Keith

Contributors
Aldemaro Romero, Edward O. Keith, Letizia Marsili, Silvia Maltese, Daniele Coppola, Ilaria
Caliani, Laura Carletti, Matteo Giannetti, Tommaso Campani, Matteo Baini, Cristina Panti,
Silvia Casini, M. Cristina Fossi, Juan José Alava, Frank A.P.C. Gobas, Catherine F. Wise, John
Pierce Wise, Jr., Sandra S. Wise, John Pierce Wise, Sr, Marnel Mouton, Alfred Botha, Juan
Arbiza, Andrea Blanc, Miguel Castro-Ramos, Helena Katz, Alberto Ponce de León, Mario Clara,
Kazue Ohishi, Rintaro Suzuki, Tadashi Maruyama, Cristina Brito

Published by InTech
Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia

Copyright © 2012 InTech

All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license,
which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial
purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum
dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by
InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they
are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or
personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source.

Notice
Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and
not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy
of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for
any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials,
instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

Publishing Process Manager Oliver Kurelic

Typesetting InTech Prepress, Novi Sad
Cover InTech Design Team

First published November, 2012

Printed in Croatia

A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com

Additional hard copies can be obtained from [email protected]

New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals,

Edited by Aldemaro Romero and Edward O. Keith
p. cm.
ISBN 978-953-51-0844-3
Contents

Preface IX

Section 1 History of Marine Mammalogy 1

Chapter 1 When Whales Became Mammals:

The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans
From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science 3
Aldemaro Romero

Section 2 Physiology 31

Chapter 2 A Matrix Model of Fasting Metabolism

in Northern Elephant Seal Pups 33
Edward O. Keith

Section 3 Environmental/Ecological Issues 47

Chapter 3 “Test Tube Cetaceans”: From the Evaluation of Susceptibility

to the Study of Genotoxic Effects of Different Environmental
Contaminants Using Cetacean Fibroblast Cell Cultures 49
Letizia Marsili, Silvia Maltese, Daniele Coppola, Ilaria Caliani,
Laura Carletti, Matteo Giannetti, Tommaso Campani, Matteo Baini,
Cristina Panti, Silvia Casini and M. Cristina Fossi

Chapter 4 Assessing Biomagnification and Trophic Transport of

Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Food Chain of
the Galapagos Sea Lion (Zalophus wollebaeki):
Conservation and Management Implications 77
Juan José Alava and Frank A.P.C. Gobas

Chapter 5 Skin Biopsy Applications in Free Ranging Marine

Mammals: A Case Study of Whale Skin Biopsies as
a Valuable and Essential Tool for Studying Marine
Mammal Toxicology and Conservation 109
Catherine F. Wise, John Pierce Wise, Jr.,
Sandra S. Wise and John Pierce Wise, Sr
VI Contents

Chapter 6 Cutaneous Lesions in Cetaceans:

An Indicator of Ecosystem Status? 123
Marnel Mouton and Alfred Botha

Chapter 7 Uruguayan Pinnipeds (Arctocephalus australis

and Otaria flavescens): Evidence of Influenza Virus
and Mycobacterium pinnipedii Infections 151
Juan Arbiza, Andrea Blanc, Miguel Castro-Ramos,
Helena Katz, Alberto Ponce de León and Mario Clara

Chapter 8 Host-Virus Specificity of the Morbillivirus Receptor,

SLAM, in Marine Mammals: Risk Assessment of Infection
Based on Three-Dimensional Models 183
Kazue Ohishi, Rintaro Suzuki and Tadashi Maruyama

Section 4 Exploitation 205

Chapter 9 Portuguese Sealing and Whaling Activities

as Contributions to Understand Early Northeast Atlantic
Environmental History of Marine Mammals 207
Cristina Brito

Chapter 10 Yankee Whaling in the Caribbean Basin:

Its Impact in a Historical Context 223
Aldemaro Romero

Necrologue 233
Preface

The highly specialized nature of marine mammals when compared with their
terrestrial counterparts, the environment in which they live, and the impact humans
have had on them today and throughout history, have made of the study of these
creatures something unique in itself. Probably with the exception of primates, no other
animal group has been perceived as so distinctive. Therefore, it is not surprising that
many researchers have also taken a particular approach to their research.

This volume is aimed at providing a glimpse at such diversity of views and

approaches while delivering valuable information in marine mammalogy. Given the
increasing concern regarding issues of anthropogenic factors affecting these animals it
is not surprising that the majority of chapters deal with environmental issues.

In the first chapter of this volume I looked at a question that has baffled some
biologists and historians of science alike: how come the suggestion by Aristotle that
cetaceans were closely related to their terrestrial counterparts (“viviparous
quadrupeds”) rather than fish was ignored for about 2,000 years. Interestingly enough
it was a non-evolutionist naturalist, Carl Linnaeus, who would create the taxon
Mammalia and include cetaceans among them. I advanced the idea that a combination
of environmental classification and scholasticism led to their misclassification for
centuries.

The late Ed Keith (see his obituary at the end of this book) presents a matrix model of
fasting metabolism in the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris). He provides
evidence that pups maintain a paradoxical fasting hyperglycemia while fasting for 6-8
weeks after nursing for about 30 days. He discusses this apparent contradiction as
possibly related to differences in time scale between the enzymatic reactions occurring
among these animals versus the time scale of the actual fasting period.

Marsili et al. introduce the original term of “Test Tube Cetaceans” in the title of their
chapter describing cetacean fibroblast cell cultures obtained from the skin biopsies of
stranded cetaceans, as the “test tube cetaceans” to evaluate susceptibility to
genotoxicity of different environmental contaminants. They suggest how to evaluate
the presence of DNA damage by Comet assay in these cetaceans after treatment with
different genotoxic compounds.
X Preface

The chapter by Alava and Gobas on biomagnification and trophic transport of

persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the food chain of the Galapagos sea lion
(Zalophus wollebaeki) provides us with what is probably the first biomagnification
assessment of POPs in a tropical marine ecosystem of the southeastern Pacific. Despite
the fact that they studied a population of marine mammals in a protected area (the
Galapagos Marine Reserve) and far away from the usual sources of industrial
pollutants, the authors found that endangered species at the top of the food web are
not immune to the health risks associated with the long range environmental transport
of POPs. Therefore, this problem, which has been extensively documented for other
areas of the world, now appears commonplace wherever you look for it.

Wise et al. provide another study on the topic of marine mammal toxicology. They use
skin biopsy applications in free ranging marine mammals and found it as a very useful
tool for studying marine mammal toxicology and conservation. They developed a cell
line to measure baseline DNA damage levels while serving as a species-specific model
for evaluating the impacts of marine pollutants on DNA. Thus, using a skin biopsy
they were able to assess both exposure and impact of exposure.

Mouton and Botha take an ecological approach to a topic that has become more and
more the focus of attention among some marine mammalogists: cutaneous lesions in
cetaceans due to human impacts on the environment. They review previous reports to
evaluate the microbes that seem to be the causative agents, as well as contributing
factors such as anthropogenic activities. They found that anthropogenic activities play
a role in allowing contact and consequent adhesion of opportunistic microbes from the
natural environment, as well as from sewage entering the marine environment. They
also point out at toxic pollutants intruding on the physiology of these mammals by
compromising their immune systems, rendering them susceptible to a host of health
threats. They conclude that skin lesions among cetaceans may be indicative of an
ecosystem under severe pressure and a result of human activities.

Arbiza et al. report evidence of influenza virus and Mycobacterium pinnipedii infections
among individuals of two pinnipeds (Arctocephalus australis and Otaria flavescens) on
the coasts of Uruguay. They confirmed that fur seals could act as reservoirs of human
influenza strains that circulated in the past, and also suggest that influenza A and B
viruses may be transmitted from humans to seals. This is most likely the result of
interactions during capture and research activities, as well as in rehabilitation centers
and sometimes with divers that swim near the seal islands. Furthermore, they suggest
that keepers and veterinarians at zoos, aquaria and rehabilitation centers are at
increased risk of infection because of their extensive contact with the animals.

Ohishi et al. looked at morbillivirus, a causative agent of mass die-offs of marine

mammals. Given that a notable biological feature of morbillivirus is its high level of
host specificity, they researched SLAM (the principal cellular receptor for
morbilliviruses allowing entry and propagation) and found that 32 amino acid
residues on the interface of SLAM V domain, which are potentially involved in the
 Preface XI

interaction with viruses. These amino acid residues are thought to be important for
host–virus specificity. They hypothesize that recent climate change may increase the
opportunities for new contacts among wild mammals and for the transmission of
viruses and propose a new approach to assess the viral sensitivities of wild mammals
by analyzing the host receptors.

In her chapter Brito described early sealing and whaling in the Northeast Atlantic
from Portuguese activities. Using relatively unknown Portuguese records of
encounters and hunting of monk seals in the Atlantic and medieval and early modern
whaling in the Iberian Peninsula, she was able to identify and understand
environmental changes integrated in a time of resources exploitation and highly
predatory perceptions towards the marine environment.

In my chapter on Yankee whaling in the Caribbean basin I analyze available

information at providing a historical context for understanding the economic and
political issues that influenced the development of this activity and their cultural and
ecological impact. Yet, that influence was not uniform and the heterogeneity in its
impact was due to a number of historical and cultural circumstances. At the end I
conclude that the development of whaling in the Wider Caribbean area was the result
of how multiple factors interplayed.

This book ends with a sad note. It is the obituary of the co-editor of this volume.
Edward O. Keith was an excellent scholar and teacher and an even better human being
whose life was cut short just when the book was almost ready to be sent for
publication. His colleagues and friends will sorely miss him.

Aldemaro Romero
College of Arts and Sciences, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville,
Peck Hall, Edwardsville, IL,
USA
 Section 1

History of Marine Mammalogy

 Chapter 1

When Whales Became Mammals:

The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans
From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science

Aldemaro Romero

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50811

1. Introduction
Cetacea (whales and dolphins) is a natural group that has for centuries generated a great deal
of misunderstanding and controversy regarding its proper place in natural classification. As
late as 1945 Simpson wrote that “Because of their perfected adaptation to a completely
aquatic life, with all its attendant conditions of respiration, circulation, dentition, locomotion,
etc., the cetaceans are on the whole the most peculiar and aberrant of mammals.”

Although both molecular and paleontological data have provided a much better
understanding of the placement of this group among mammals, there is no question that
despite being studied and dissected by dozens of naturalists since Aristotle, these animals
were always misclassified. This group provides an interesting case study for intellectual inertia
in the history of science. In other words, why did so many scientists misplace this group in the
natural classification despite the fact that they themselves were gathering critical information
that showed the close relationship these animals had to what we know today as mammals?

The aim of this chapter is to explore this question. To that end I will (1) survey the
naturalists who studied cetaceans providing clues of their true nature, (2) describe the
intellectual environment in which their conclusions were made, and (3) discuss the factors
behind this intellectual inertia.

For the purpose of this chapter I have only taken into consideration works that had some
scientific basis and/or that in some ways influenced the process of placing cetaceans as
mammals. Authors are enumerated based on the date of the major publication they
produced on cetaceans. For synonyms in names of marine mammals through time see
Artedi (1738) and Linnaeus (1758).
4 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

2. Ancient times
2.1. Aristotle
Aristotle1 was the son of Nicomachus, the personal physician of King Amyntas of Macedon
and Phaestis, a wealthy woman2. Nicomachus may have been involved in dissections
(Ellwood 1938, p. 36), a key tool in Aristotle’s biological studies, particularly on marine
mammals. Aristotle lost both his parents when he was about 10 and from then on he was
raised of his uncle and/or guardian Proxenus, also a physician (Moseley 2010, p. 6). Early
Greek physicians known as asclepiads usually taught their children reading, writing, and
anatomy (Moseley 2010, p. 10).

In 367 BCE Aristotle moved to Athens to study at Plato’s Academy, and later travelled
throughout Asia Minor and studied living organisms while at the island of Lesbos (344-342
BCE) where he collected a lot of information about marine mammals. He later created his
own philosophical school, the Lyceum, in Athens where most of his written work was
produced between 335 and 323 BCE.

Aristotle is the first natural historian from whom we have any extensive work. One of his
surviving opuses is Historia Animalium (inquiry about animals)3. There he classified animals
as follows (beginning from the top): “blooded” animals (referring to those with red blood,
vertebrates) with humans at the top, viviparous quadrupeds (what we would call terrestrial
mammals), oviparous quadrupeds (legged reptiles and amphibians), birds, cetaceans, fishes,
and then “bloodless” animals (invertebrates). He named each one of these groups a “genus.”

Humans
Viviparous quadrupeds (terrestrial mammals)
Oviparous quadrupeds (reptiles and amphibians)
Birds
Cetaceans
Fish
Malacia (squids and octopuses)
Malacostraca (crustaceans)
Ostracoderma (bivalve mollusks)
Entoma (insects, spiders, etc.)
Zoophyta (jellyfishes, sponges, etc.)
Higher plants
Lower plants

Based on the “kinds” of animals and the varieties he described we can distinguish
somewhere between 550 and 600 species. Most of them he had observed directly and even

1 b. Stagira, Chalcidice, Macedonia, today’s Greece, 384 BCE; d. Chalcis, Euboea, Ancient Greece, today’s
Greece 322 BCE
2 Biographical information on Aristotle is largely based on Barnes (1995).

3 We used the text available at http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.html

 When Whales Became Mammals:
The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science 5

dissected but others were based on tales and he warned about the accuracy of those
descriptions. For example, although he mentioned information in numerous occasions
provided to him by fishers, many times (but not always) he debunks some of the fallacies he
heard based on his own observations, particularly when it came to reproduction.

Of what we would consider today as mammals (including cetaceans) he described about 80

and about 130 species of fishes, which, again, underlines the extensive work, he did on
marine creatures, mostly while living at Lesbos. Under the genus “Cetacea” he included at
least three species: (1) “dolphins” probably a combination of striped dolphin (Stenella
coeruleoalba, the most frequent species in the Mediterranean), the common dolphin
(Delphinus delphis), and the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus); (2) the harbor porpoise
(Phocoena phocoena) which he described as “similar to dolphins but smaller and found in the
Black Sea” (“Euxine”) (HA 566b9)4; and, (3) the fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) another
common species in the Mediterranean at that time.

The motives behind Aristotle classification system, particularly animals, were not biological
in nature but rather philosophical. For him these creatures were evidence for rational order
in the universe. This approach meant that species were rigid elements of the world and,
thus, he never contemplated mutability or anything close to evolution, despite the fact that
earlier Greek philosophers such as Anaximander envisioned the mutability of species.
Furthermore, Aristotle’s motive for conducting this categorization was done in such a way
that we can then identify the causes that explain why animals are organized the way they
are. His investigation into those causes is carried out in other surviving biological works
(e.g., Parts of Animals). When describing species he adhered to his teleological doctrine of
purposiveness in nature.

Aristotle was able to distinguish between homology and analogy, recognizing cetaceans as a
natural group with many similarities with other mammals (“viviparous quadrupeds”). He
considered cetaceans as “blooded” animals, adding, “viviparous such as man, and the horse,
and all those animals that have hair; and of the aquatic animals, the whale kind as the
dolphin and cartilaginous fishes” (HA 489a34-489b3). He also wrote: “all creatures that have
a blow-hole respire and inspire, for they are provided with lungs. The dolphin has been seen
asleep with its nose above water as he snores (HA 566b14). All animals have breasts that are
internally or externally viviparous, as for instance all animals that have hair, as man and the
horse; and the cetaceans, as the dolphin, porpoise and the whale -for these animals have
breasts and are supplied with milk” (HA 521b21-25). Among the species he described were
dolphins, orcas, and baleen whales, noting that “the [whale] has no teeth but does have hair
that resemble hog bristle” (HA 519b9-15). Thus, he was the first to separate whales and
dolphins from fish.

However, Aristotle placed whales and dolphins below reptiles and amphibians, because
their lack of legs, despite his physiological and behavioral observations that they were
related more closely to “viviparous quadrupeds” than to fish.

4 These citations for Historia Animalium follow the Bekker’ pagination.

6 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

Aristotle followed his teacher Plato in classifying animals by progressively dividing them
based on shared characters. This is an embryonic form of today’s classification more fully
developed by Linnaeus. The reason he ordered the different “genera” the way he did was
because he considered “vital heat” (characterized by method of reproduction, respiration,
state at birth, etc.) as an index of superiority placing humans at the very top. Men were
superior to women because they had more “vital heat.” On this he followed Hippocrates’s
ideas, since the Greek physician thought there was an association between temperature and
soul.

Yet he was not fully satisfied by this approach given that a number of “genera” had
characters that were shared across groups, particularly when compared with their habitats.
For example, both fishes and cetaceans had fins, but they differ markedly on other
characters such as reproduction (oviparous vs. viviparous) or organs (gills vs. lungs,
respectively).

Many of Aristotle’s observations about cetaceans remain accurate. In terms of internal

anatomy he mentioned that they have internal reproductive organs (HA 500a33-500b6), that
dolphins, porpoises, and whales copulate and are viviparous, giving birth to between one
and two offsprings having two breasts located near the genital openings that produce milk
(HA 504b21), that dolphins reach full size at the age of 10 and their period of gestation is 10
months, show parental care, some may live up to 30 years and this is known because fishers
can individually identify them by marks on their bodies (HA 566b24), and that dolphins
have bones (HA 516b11).

Regarding behavior and sensory organs he said that dolphins have a sense of smell but he
could not find the organ (HA 533b1), that dolphins can hear despite the lack of ears (HA
533b10-14), produce sounds when outside the water (HA 536a1), that dolphins and whales
sleep with their blowhole above the surface of the water (HA 537a34), are carnivorous (HA
591b9-15), and swim fast (HA 591b29).

He held that cetaceans are not fishes because they have hair, lungs (HA 489a34), lack gills,
suckle their young by means of mammae, they are viviparous (HA 489b4), and that their
bones are analogous to the mammals, not fishes. Still they he calls them “fishes” (HA
566b2-5).

These basic Aristotelian biological descriptions persisted for good and for bad until Charles
Darwin’s evolutionary work. On one hand his descriptions were so accurate that Darwin
admired Aristotle, to the point that he said privately that the intellectual heroes of his own
time “were mere schoolboys compared to old Aristotle.”5 Yet the fact that Aristotle saw the
natural world as fixed in time with no room for evolution and that he kept calling cetaceans
“fishes,” would delay intellectual progress for many centuries when it came to the
classification of these animals.

5Darwin Correspondence Database, http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-11875 accessed on 25 Feb

2012.
 When Whales Became Mammals:
The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science 7

Aristotle’s influence on naturalists’ classification of life would extend until Darwin’s times
when evolutionary views replaced the fixity of species as elements in nature.

2.2. Pliny the elder

Pliny the Elder6 was the son of an equestrian (the lower of the two aristocratic classes in
Rome) and was educated in Rome. After serving in the military he became a lawyer and
then a government bureaucrat. In these positions he travelled not only throughout what is
Italy today but also what it would later became Germany, France and Spain as well as North
Africa (Reynolds 1986).

He wrote a 37-volume Naturalis Historia7 (ca. 77-79) in which according to himself he had
compiled “20,000 important facts, extracted from about 2000 volumes by 100 authors” and
was written for “the common people, the mass of peasants and artisans, and only then for
those who devote themselves to their studies at leisure” (Preface 6). This is the earliest
known encyclopedia of any kind, which has been interpreted as a Roman invention in order
to compile information about the empire (Naas 2002, Murphy 2004). It was a rather
disorganized book, whose prose has been criticized by many (Locher 1984). Pliny seemed to
be more interested in what appeared to be curiousities than what were facts. This is a big
collection of facts and fictions, based mostly said on things said by others.

He devoted 9 of the 37 volumes to animals and ordered them according to where they live.
Volume IX (Historia Aquatilium) of Naturalis Historia is devoted to aquatic creatures, whether
living in oceans, rivers or lakes, whether vertebrate or invertebrate, real or mythical. Based
on their size he categorized as “monster” anything big, whether it is a whale, a sawfish or a
tuna (IX 2,3).

He grouped together all known species of cetaceans (cete) but constantly mixed their
descriptions with those of other marine mammals such as seals as well as with cartilaginous
fishes, such as some sharks (pristis). Pliny mentioned the three species cited by Aristotle:
dolphins (delphinus, probably a combination of striped dolphin [Stenella coeruleoalba] and the
common dolphin [Delphinus delphis], IX 12-34), porpoises (porcus marinus, the harbor
porpoise [Phocoena phocoena], IX 45) and whales (ballaena, possibly a combination of large
toothless whales [mysticetes] IX 12-13). Then he added a few more: the thursio or tirsio
(probably the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus IX 34), the physeter (probably the sperm
whale [Physeter macrocephalus] IX 8) found in the “Gallic Ocean” (probably the Bay of Biscay,
IX 3, 4), the orca (probably the killer whale [Orcinus orca] IX 12-14), and the river dolphin
from India (possibly Platanista gangetica, IX 46). He also mentioned some mythical creatures
such as Homo marinus (Sea-Man, IX 10) and the Scolopendra marina (IX, 145) a mythical

6 b. as Gaius Plinius Secundus 23/24 CE in what is now Como, Italy; d. 25 August 79 CE near Pompeii,
Italy.
7 I used the version available at:

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+toc&redirect=true
8 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

organism whose legend may be based on polychaetes, marine annelids characterized by the
presence of many legs (Leitner 1972, p. 218).

Pliny recognized that neither whales nor dolphins have gills, that they suckle from the teats
of their mothers, and that they are viviparous. In addition to these true facts copied from
Aristotle, he mentioned exaggerations such as whales of four jugera (ca. 288 m) in length
that because of their large size “are quite unable to move” (IX 2,3). In addition to some of the
biological facts mentioned by Aristotle, Pliny adorns his narrative with all kind of casual
tales about interactions between cetaceans and humans.

By lumping together all kinds of aquatic organisms it is hard to distinguish what he called
“fish” and what he did not (see for example IX 44-45). His classification took a step back
from Aristotle because he did not try for a comprehensive classification of animals. He failed
to compare organisms based on shared or divergent characters. Many times he ordered
creatures based on size, from the largest to the smallest. Yet, his work had great influence
for 1700 years, which was unfortunate because he was an uncritical compiler of other
people’s writings (even if they were contradictory). Pliny also created a number of
unfounded impressions about the reality of nature. His only positive contribution was that
he established the norm of always citing the sources of his information (in actuality 437
authors, whose works, in some cases, are no longer available).

3. Medieval times
During the middle ages, little progress was made in the sciences. Students were urged to
believe what they read and not to question conventional wisdom. Logic determined truth,
not observation. Free thought was non-existent and minds were filled with mythological
explanations for the unknown. Marine mammals were depicted as monsters and little new
information was generated.

4. The renaissance
The Renaissance was a time of awakening and the religious ideology began to be
questioned. The translations of the works of Aristotle and Pliny into Latin and the
introduction of the printing press helped to spread the little knowledge accumulated until
that time about natural history in the western world. For example, by 1500 about 12 editions
of Aristotle’s Historia Animalium and 39 of Pliny’s Historia Naturalis had seen the light, which
is evidence of the popularity of these works. During this age of discovery the finding of
species that were never mentioned neither by Aristotle nor the Bible, opened up scientific
curiosity about new creatures around the world. Thus, people once again began to seek new
knowledge. However, in these times, naturalists were more compilers of information than
investigators despite the fact that they were performing more dissections that in turn
uncovered new taxonomic possibilities. Still, scientists relied on environmental aspects to
classify animals. Collecting was a primary activity during this era (Alves 2010, p. 54).
 When Whales Became Mammals:
The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science 9

4.1. Pierre Belon

Belon8 was the first author studying marine mammals in this historical period. Little is
known about his family and early years. He traveled extensively throughout Europe and the
Middle East, including the Arabian Peninsula and Egypt. Among the places he visited were
Rome where he met two other ichthyologists, Rondelet and Salviani (see below). He studied
medicine at the University of Paris and botany at the University of Wittenberg, Germany.
He served as a doctor and apothecary for French kings, as well as a diplomat, traveler, and
as a secret agent (he was murdered under strange circumstances) (Wong 1970).
His L'Histoire Naturelle des Estranges Poissons Marins (1551) was the first printed scholarly
work about marine animals. This book was expanded and published in French in 1555 as La
Nature et diversité des poissons including 110 species with illustrations for 103 of them.
Belon not only reproduced information from Aristotle and Pliny but also added his own
observations including comparative anatomy and embryology. For him “fish” was anything
living in the water. He divided “fishes” in two large groups: the first was “fish with blood”
(as Aristotle had done) that included not only actual fishes but also cetaceans, pinnipeds,
marine monsters and mythical creatures such as the “monk fish,” as well as other aquatic
vertebrates such as crocodiles, turtles, and the hippopotamus. He called a second group
“fishes without blood” and consisted of aquatic invertebrates (see also Delaunay 1926).
He ordered what we know as cetaceans today in a vaguely descending order based on size: Le
balene (mysticete whales, although in the illustration he depicted a cetacean with teeth), Le
chauderon (sperm whale? although he mentions the sawfish), Le daulphin (common dolphins on
which he devoted 38 pages of this 55-page book), Le marsouin (porpoise), and L’Oudre (bottlenose
dolphin) (for a rationale on the identification of these species see Glardon 2011, p. 393-398). He
dissected common dolphins (D. delphis) and porpoises (P. phocaena) acquired at the fish market in
Paris brought in by Normandy fishers, and probably a bottlenose dolphin (T. truncatus) as well.
He described these marine mammals as having a placenta, mammae, and hair on the upper
lip of their fetus. Belon wrote that apart from the presence of hind limbs, they conform to the
human body plan with features such as the liver, the sternum, milk glands, lungs, heart, the
skeleton in general, the brain, genitalia. He also dealt with issues of breathing and
reproduction (although from the description it is clear that he never saw one of these animals
giving birth, since he depicted the newborn surrounded with a membrane). He drew the
embryo of a porpoise and the skull of a dolphin (Fig. 1). Despite all this he did not make the
connection between cetaceans and “viviparous quadrupeds” and based his entire
classification on environmental foundations, as he made clear in the introduction of his work.

4.2. Edward Wotton

Wotton9 was the son of a theologian who did general studies at Oxford and studied
medicine and Greek at Padua (1524-6). He was a practicing physician who published De

8 b. 1517, Soultière, near Cerans, France; d. April 1564, Paris, France.

9 b. 1492, Oxford, England; d. 5 October 1555, London, England.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Astronomy - Field Notes
Second 2025 - Institute

Prepared by: Prof. Brown

Date: August 12, 2025

Conclusion 1: Research findings and conclusions

Learning Objective 1: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 2: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 3: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 5: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 9: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 2: Current trends and future directions
Practice Problem 10: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Background 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 22: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 24: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 26: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 32: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 36: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 5: Ethical considerations and implications
Practice Problem 40: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 42: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 46: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 47: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 48: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 49: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice 6: Key terms and definitions
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 53: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Part 7: Current trends and future directions
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 62: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 67: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 8: Case studies and real-world applications
Practice Problem 70: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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