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Published in 2010 by Britannica Educational Publishing
(a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.)
in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC
29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010.

Copyright © 2010 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica,

and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All
rights reserved.

Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2010 Rosen Educational Services, LLC.
All rights reserved.

Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services.

For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932.

First Edition

Britannica Educational Publishing

Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor
Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control
Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies
Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor
Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor
Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition
Erik Gregersen: Associate Editor, Astronomy and Space Exploration

Rosen Educational Services

Jeanne Nagle: Senior Editor
Nelson Sá: Art Director
Matthew Cauli: Designer
Introduction by Greg Roza

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Milky Way and beyond / edited by Erik Gregersen.—1st ed.

p. cm.—(An explorer’s guide to the universe)
“In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.”
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-61530-053-2 (eBook)
1. Milky Way—Popular works. 2. Galaxies—Popular works. I. Gregersen, Erik.
QB857.7.M55 2010
523.1'13—dc22
2009037980

On the cover: Thousands of sparkling young stars are nestled within the giant nebula
NGC 3603, one of the most massive young star clusters in the Milky Way Galaxy. NASA,
ESA, and the Hubble Heritage (STScI/AURA)-ESA/Hubble Collaboration
 17

CONTENTS
Introduction 12

Chapter 1: The Milky Way Galaxy 21

The Structure and Dynamics of the Milky Way
Galaxy 21
Structure of the Spiral System 22
The Nucleus 22
The Central Bulge 22
The Disk 23
The Spiral Arms 24
The Spherical Component 25
The Massive Halo 25
Magnetic Field 25
Rotation 26
23
Mass 26
Star Populations and Movement 28
Stars and Stellar Populations 28
Principal Population Types 28
The Stellar Luminosity Function 31
Density Distribution 35
Density Distribution of Various Types
of Stars 36
Variations in the Stellar Density 36
Variation of Star Density with
z Distances 37
Stellar Motions 38
Proper Motions 38
Radial Velocities 39
Space Motions 39
High-Velocity Stars 40
Solar Motion 40
Solar Motion Calculations from 33
Radial Velocities 41
Solar Motion Calculations from
Proper Motions 41
Solar Motion Calculations from
Space Motions 41
Solar Motion Solutions 42

Chapter 2: Stars 45
The Nature of Stars 45
 64

Size and Activity 45

Variations in Stellar Size 46
Stellar Activity and Mass Loss 46
The 20 Brightest Stars 47
Distances to the Stars 49
Determining Stellar Distances 49
Nearest Stars 50
The 20 Nearest Stars 51
Stellar Positions 52
Basic Measurements 52
Stellar Motions 52
Light from the Stars 53
Stellar Magnitudes 53 66
Stellar Colours 54
Magnitude Systems 54
Bolometric Magnitudes 55
Stellar Spectra 55
Line Spectrum 56
Spectral Analysis 56
Classification of Spectral Types 57
Bulk Stellar Properties 58
Stellar Temperatures 59
Stellar Masses 59
Visual Binaries 60
Spectroscopic Binaries 61
Eclipsing Binaries 61
Binaries and Extrasolar Planetary
Systems 63
Stellar Radii 67
Average Stellar Values 67 69
Stellar Statistics 68
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram 68
Estimates of Stellar Ages 71
Numbers of Stars Versus
Luminosity 72
Mass-Luminosity Correlations 72
Variable Stars 73
Classification 73
 95

Pulsating Stars 74
Explosive Variables 76
Peculiar Variables 78
Stellar Atmospheres 80
Stellar Interiors 82
Distribution of Matter 83
Source of Stellar Energy 85

Chapter 3: Star formation and

Evolution 89
Birth of Stars and Evolution to the Main
Sequence 89
Subsequent Development on the Main 111
Sequence 92
Later Stages of Evolution 93
Evolution of Low-Mass Stars 93
Origin of the Chemical Elements 96
The Most Abundant Chemical Elements 96
Evolution of High-Mass Stars 99
End States of Stars 102
White Dwarfs 103
Neutron Stars 104
Black Holes 108

Chapter 4: Star Clusters 110

Open Clusters 110
Globular Clusters 114
OB and T Associations 117
Dynamics of Star Clusters 119
Clusters in External Galaxies 120
124
Notable Stars and Star Clusters 122
51 Pegasi 122
Alpha Centauri 122
Arcturus 123
Betelgeuse 123
Deneb 123
Fomalhaut 123
Pleiades 124
Polaris 124
 125

Sirius 125
Vega 126

Chapter 5: Nebulae 127

Classes of Nebulae 129
Early Observations of Nebulae 131
The Work of the Herschels 131
Advances Brought by Photography
and Spectroscopy 132
20th-Century Discoveries 132
Chemical Composition and Physical
Processes 133
Interstellar Dust 134 145
Turbulence 136
Galactic Magnetic Field 137
Molecular Clouds 137
Composition 138
Formation of Stars 139
Hydrogen Clouds 140
Reflection Nebulae 141
H II Region 141
Ultracompact H II Regions 144
Supergiant Nebulae 145
Chemical Composition of H II Regions 146
Planetary Nebulae 148
Forms and Structure 148
The Distances of Planetary Nebulae 150
Chemical Composition 150
Positions in the Galaxy 151
Evolution of Planetary Nebulae 151 157
Central Stars 152
The Nature of the Progenitor Stars 153
Supernova Remnants 154
The Crab Nebula 157
The Cygnus Loop 158
Diffuse Ionized Gas 158
Notable Nebulae 159
Cassiopeia A 159
 161

Coalsack 160
Great Rift 160
Gum Nebula 160
Horsehead Nebula 160
Lagoon Nebula 161
North American Nebula 161
Orion Nebula 161
R Monocerotis 162
Ring Nebula 162
Trifid Nebula 162

Chapter 6: Galaxies 163

The Evolution of Galaxies 165 164
Historical Survey of the Study of Galaxies 167
The Problem of the Magellanic Clouds 168
Novae in the Andromeda Nebula 169
The Scale of the Milky Way Galaxy 169
The van Maanen Rotation 171
The Shapley-Curtis Debate 172
Hubble’s Discovery of Extragalactic Objects 173
The Distance to the Andromeda Nebula 175
The Golden Age of Extragalactic
Astronomy 176
Types of Galaxies 177
Principal Schemes of Classification 177
Elliptical Galaxies 177
Irregular Galaxies 182
Other Classification Schemes and
Galaxy Types 182
The External Galaxies 183
181
The Extragalactic Distance Scale 183
Physical Properties of External Galaxies 186
Size and Mass 186
Luminosity 186
Age 187
Composition 187
Structure 188
The Spheroidal Component 188
The Disk Component 189
 196

Spiral Arms 189

Gas Distribution 189
Galaxy Clusters 189
Types of Clusters 190
Distribution 190
Interactions Between Cluster Members 191
Galaxies as a Radio Source 191
Radio Galaxies 191
X-ray Galaxies 193
Clusters of Galaxies as Radio and
X-ray Sources 193
Quasars 193
Gamma-Ray Bursters 195
Notable Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters 195
203
Andromeda Galaxy 195
Coma Cluster 196
Cygnus A 197
Great Attractor 197
Magellanic Clouds 198
M81 Group 198
Maffei I and II 199
Virgo A 199
Virgo Cluster 200

Appendix: Other Stars and Star

Clusters 201

Glossary 212
Further Reading 213
Index 214

207
INTRODuCTION
 Introduction | 13

F or thousands of years, astronomers

have worked to unlock the mysteries
of the heavens. As they observed the stars
ergs) of luminosity per second, making it
average in size, mass, and brightness.
Scientists use these measurements as
and planets that parade majestically benchmarks when discussing other
across the sky, one great source of won- stars, which can be bigger or smaller,
der was a huge faint trail of light that was more or less bright, depending on their
called the Milky Way Galaxy because it type and age.
looked like milk, spilled across the dark- While 150 million kilometres may
ness of night. When scientists started sound like a very long distance, it is tiny
using telescopes in the 1600s, they began in cosmic terms. The next closest star to
to understand more about the Milky Way. Earth is Proxima Centauri, which is the
But it wasn’t until the 20th century that smallest of three stars making up the triple
new technology allowed scientists to take star Alpha Centauri. Proxima Centauri is
the full measure of this galaxy and others approximately 4.22 light years from
scattered across the universe. What they Earth—or about 3.99 × 1016 metres (2.48 ×
have uncovered is richly detailed in the 1013 miles). Even the fastest modern
pages of this book. spacecraft would take countless lifetimes
The primary elements of any galaxy to reach this distant star.
are stars. A star is a massive body of gas Scientists have used several differ-
that shines by radiation resulting from ent methods to determine the distances
internal energy sources. There are so from Earth to the stars. The earliest
many stars in the universe it would be method, which is still used to determine
impossible to count them all. Only a very the distances of closer stars, is a trigo-
small fraction are actually visible to the nometric parallax, which involves
unaided eye. In the Milky Way Galaxy observing a star from two points on
alone there are hundreds of billions of opposite sides of Earth’s orbit. This
stars. The easiest of these for scientists to technique depends on using the rela-
study is the Sun, the star closest to Earth. tively unchanged backdrop of distant
It is about 150 million kilometres (93 space for precise measurements. More-
million miles) away from us. It has a distant stars require other techniques,
radius of about 700,000 km (430,000 most of which rely on comparing
miles.). Its mass is about the same as that luminosities.
of 330,000 Earth masses. It creates Depending on its mass, a star may
approximately 4 x 1023 kilowatts (4 × 1033 “live” 10 million years or 10 billion years.

Milky white stars and interstellar dust cascade across the sky to form the Milky Way Galaxy, a
spiral galaxy that is home to the solar system. www.istockphoto.com/Shaun Lowe
14 | The Milky Way and Beyond: Stars, Nebulae, and Other Galaxies

During this time, it goes through many the outer layers of the star to expand. This
dramatic changes. Stars begin as clouds is called the red giant stage. It can take
of interstellar gases, mostly hydrogen. anywhere from about a million years to
Molecules in the clouds slowly begin to hundreds of billions of years for a star
collapse and clump together, eventually to reach this stage.
forming areas of greater density. The Eventually, due to the lack of hydro-
clumps begin to rotate slowly as they gen, the fusion reaction begins to die
grow more massive. In time, one or more down. Not all stars die in the same man-
of the clumps begins to collapse in on ner. They differ depending on how they
itself due to gravity. Often, several stars formed, how dense they are, how big
form from the same cloud, resulting in they are, and their age. In less-massive
star groups. stars, the outer layers may drift away
Mass, gravity, and other forces cause into space, leaving the slowly cooling
the cloud to form a disk shape around the core called a white dwarf. More-massive
young star core. The temperature within stars can explode as a supernova. The
the core continually rises, and when the most-massive stars go supernova, then
temperature is high enough, hydrogen collapse in on themselves due to immense
fusion begins, which allows stars to radiate gravitational force. The result is a black
tremendous amounts of heat and light. hole—a force so powerful nothing, not
Soon after, the star has become fully even light, can escape its grasp.
formed. With a star the size of the Sun, Stars are not the only bright points
this might take tens of millions of years. of light in the night sky. A few of those
More massive stars, which burn hotter and twinkling specks are nebulae. A nebula
more quickly, may take just a few hundred is an interstellar cloud of gas and dust.
thousand years to reach this point. The matter that makes up nebulae is
For most of its life, a star continues to called the interstellar medium, which can
create helium through hydrogen fusion. be found just about everywhere in the
This part of a star’s life is called the main universe, although it is more dense in
sequence. Fusion creates the light and nebulae. The composition of nebulae is
heat that stars radiate and turns hydro- approximately 90 percent hydrogen and
gen into helium in the process. The power nearly 10 percent helium, with a very
created by fusion is constantly pushing small amount of other elements mixed
outward and fighting against the massive in, namely oxygen, carbon, neon, and
gravitational pull of the core. In time, as nitrogen. Many of the characteristics of
the hydrogen fuel in the core decreases, nebulae are determined by the physical
the core is converted to helium. Hydrogen state of the hydrogen in them.
is then burned on the surface of the Based on their components and
helium core at a higher rate, which causes behaviour, there are two main
 Introduction | 15

The interstellar medium (gas and dust) that make up nebulae can take many shapes,
including this aptly named Bow Tie Nebula. NASA, ESA, R. Sahai and J. Trauger (Jet
Propulsion Laboratory) and the WFPC2 Science Team

categories of nebulae, dark and bright. These are the clouds from which most
Dark nebulae, which are also called new stars form through gravitational
molecular clouds, are dense and cold. collapse.
While molecular clouds can contain Although a very small percentage of
approximately 60 different kinds of mol- the interstellar medium, like that found in
ecules, the majority of their composition dark nebulae, is in solid grains, that per-
is molecular hydrogen (H2). They are centage is very important to the creation
opaque because of the relatively high of stars and solar systems. Unlike the
concentration of solid grains in them. gases in dark nebulae, solid grains absorb
Densities generally are millions of hydro- starlight. In turn, they are able to heat
gen molecules per cubic centimetre. and cool the gases.
16 | The Milky Way and Beyond: Stars, Nebulae, and Other Galaxies

Bright nebulae are usually not as Despite their many differences, neb-
dense as the dark variety. However, as the ulae have basic traits in common. For
name suggests, they are visible. There example, all nebulae exhibit chaotic
are several different kinds of bright nebu- motions scientists call turbulence. This is
lae. Reflection nebulae are molecular similar to the ripples and whirlpools we
clouds just like dark nebulae. However, see when we add a coloured liquid to a
they are visible because light from nearby clear liquid. The disorganized flow of
stars reflect off of their solid grains. gases creates energy and heat. Scientists
H II regions are cosmic clouds that know that turbulence has a great effect
glow because they have been ionized by on the behaviour of nebulae, but they do
the radiation produced by a neighbour- not fully understand why or how. They
ing hot star. Ionization occurs when the hope to learn more about turbulence and
hydrogen atoms in the cloud separate nebulae by continuing to study known
into positive hydrogen ions (H+) and free nebulae and by discovering new ones.
electrons, causing the cloud to glow. Galaxies are massive, self-contained
Another kind of nebula, called the dif- collections of stars. Scientists believe that
fuse nebula, is visible due to the most galaxies formed shortly after the
ionization of hydrogen, nitrogen, and birth of the universe, about 13 billion
sulfur. Diffuse nebulae require the most years ago. They can look very different,
energy of all the kinds of nebulae and based on how they formed and evolved.
are found in the vicinity of the hottest Some are very small, while others, like
and most-massive stars. the Milky Way, have huge spiral arms
When a star goes supernova, the result- reaching deep into space.
ing explosion can last for several weeks. Scientists have had difficulty studying
After the supernova dies down, a bright, the Milky Way because of a thick layer of
colourful nebula, sometimes called a super- interstellar medium that obscures their
nova remnant, is left behind. Stars that view of it, even with powerful telescopes.
don’t go supernova can create planetary Many think the galaxy’s diameter is about
nebulae. This occurs when the envelope 100,000 light-years, and that our sun
of gases around the dying star begins to resides in a spiral arm about 30,000 light-
expand and spread out. Planetary nebulae years from the galaxy’s center.
often have a round, compact shape. The Milky Way is one galaxy in a
Scientists believe the Milky Way Galaxy cluster of galaxies called the Local Group.
contains about 20,000 planetary nebulae. Galaxy clusters are groups of galaxies

The arms of spiral galaxies, such as the Milky Way and this dusty spiral (pictured), are
thought to be produced by density waves that compress and expand galactic material.
NASA Headquarters - GRIN
Introduction | 17
18 | The Milky Way and Beyond: Stars, Nebulae, and Other Galaxies

that can be hundreds of millions of light- smaller galaxies. In fact, the two galaxies
years across. The word “cluster,” however, are moving toward each other and will
might be a bit misleading. The Magellanic some day—billions of years from now—
Clouds are two satellite galaxies orbiting merge to form a single galaxy.
the Milky Way. They are probably Beyond the Andromeda Galaxy,
between 160,000 and 190,000 light-years countless other galaxies with countless
away. Scientists have learned much about stars and nebulae are scattered to the
nebulae and stars by observing these farthest corners of the cosmos. We may
neighbouring galaxies. never travel past the distant limits of our
The Andromeda Galaxy is the closest own solar system, and those galaxies may
spiral galaxy beyond the Milky Way gal- always be just colourful specks visible
axy cluster. The Andromeda Galaxy only through our most-powerful tele-
cluster is one of the most-distant objects scopes. However, scientists will continue
that can be seen from Earth with the to study them and search for new stars,
unaided eye. At one time, scientists nebulae, and galaxies in the hope of
thought the Andromeda Galaxy was a learning more about our place in the
nebula in the Milky Way. However, we vast cosmos. With billions upon billions
now know that it is about 2,480,000 light- of galaxies—each of which are home to
years from Earth and is twice the size of billions upon billions of stars—there will
the Milky Way galaxy. Scientists believe no doubt be plenty for scientists to study
this galaxy has a history of “consuming” for many years to come.
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