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Language History, Language Change,
and Language Relationship

≥
Trends in Linguistics
Studies and Monographs 218

Editors
Walter Bisang
Hans Henrich Hock
Werner Winter

Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York
Language History,
Language Change,
and Language Relationship
An Introduction to
Historical and Comparative Linguistics

Second revised edition

by
Hans Henrich Hock
Brian D. Joseph

Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York
Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague)
is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin.

앪
앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines
of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hock, Hans Henrich, 1938⫺

Language history, language change, and language relationship :
an introduction to historical and comparative linguistics / by Hans
Henrich Hock, Brian D. Joseph. ⫺ 2nd rev. ed.
p. cm. ⫺ (Trends in linguistics. Studies and monographs ; 218)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-11-021842-8 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-3-11-021429-1 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Historical linguistics. 2. Comparative linguistics. I. Joseph,
Brian D. II. Title.
P140.H588 2009
417⫺dc22
2009022524

ISBN 978-3-11-021842-8
ISSN 1861-4302

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

” Copyright 2009 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin.
All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this
book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechan-
ical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, with-
out permission in writing from the publisher.
Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Laufen.
Typesetting: Dörlemann GmbH & Co. KG, Lemförde.
Printed in Germany.
 v

Preface to the Second Edition

As historical linguists, we have an interest both in preserving aspects of the

past and in noting (and explaining) changes. To these ends, in preparing this
second edition of our textbook, and especially in writing this preface, we de-
cided to preserve the original “Ur/Proto-”Preface but also to augment that
original, that is, change it by addition, including this introductory word. We
note further that our explicitly signaling inclusion of our e-mail addresses in
the preface to the first edition may sound hopelessly archaic at this point
(much as the language of Shakespeare strikes the modern ear), given the
prevalence of electronic communication in the 21st century (not so in 1995,
however, when the worldwide web was still quite young!).
In updating the book for this second edition, we followed a similar strategy.
Much is the same as before, though we tried to correct typographical errors
and occasional infelicities of wording. Some material was added and some de-
leted, with the goal of improving the book’s readability, as well as bringing it
more up-to-date in the light of new research or new circumstances (such as
moving into the 21st century). Many of these changes are reflected in the
Chapter Notes and the References. In addition, there are entirely new sec-
tions on the Brahmi writing system and various scripts of India in Chapter 3
(§ 5.3) and on the contentious issue of Indo-European “race” and language in
Chapter 18 (§ 4.5); the discussion of the Balkan convergence area in Chapter
13 (section § 3) has been thoroughly rewritten; and several extensive, complex
discussions, such as that of Kinshasa Lingala, have been eliminated from
Chapter 12.
In all cases, our goals were to make the material as readable and as accu-
rate as possible, based on the latest findings. As before, our hope is that we
have succeeded in making the study of language history, language change, and
language relationships as exciting to our readers as we find it ourselves.
We also would like to thank several people who have helped us in revising
this book. Most important was a seminar, organized by Thomas Krisch and
Oswald Panagl at the University of Salzburg with the goal of an in-depth
evaluation of the first edition. We also benefited from comments and correc-
tions from friends and colleagues, including Thomas Balke, Joe Eska, Hoss
Firooznia, Kirk Hazen, Georg Jochnowitz, Mary Allen Johnson, Ilse Lehiste,
Benjamin Slade, Daniel Taylor, and Rex Wallace, as well as from the feedback
of hundreds of students who took our courses in historical linguistics. Finally
vi Preface to the Second Edition

Hope Dawson provided valuable technical assistance early in the revision

process.
Our respective venues, and names, and e-mail addresses remain the same,
though the date below, of course, has changed – continuity in the face of
change, so with life as with language!

Champaign, Illinois, and Columbus, Ohio

June 2009

Hans Henrich Hock ([email protected])

and Brian D. Joseph ([email protected])
 Preface to the First Edition vii

Preface to the First Edition

Why does language change? Why can we speak to and understand our grand-
parents but have trouble reading Shakespeare? Why is Chaucer’s English of
the fourteenth century so different from Modern English of the late twentieth
century that the two are essentially different languages? Why are the Ameri-
cans and the English “one people divided by a common language”? And how
can the language of Chaucer and Modern English – or Modern British and
American English – still be called the “same language”?
The present book provides answers to questions like these in a straightfor-
ward way, aimed at the non-specialist, with ample illustrations from both fam-
iliar and more exotic languages. Specific topics covered include:

– The discovery of Indo-European, the far-flung family of related lan-

guages that embraces not only English, German, French, Russian, and
most of the other modern European languages but also the two classical
languages of Europe (Latin and Greek), and a number of languages outside
Europe, including Sanskrit, the sacred language of India.
– The history of writing with emphasis on the development of our alpha-
bet. The antecedents of our writing systems in the ancient Egyptian
hieroglyphs and the “cuneiform” writing of ancient Mesopotamia. The
decipherments that made it possible to read long-forgotten ancient
scripts.
– Change in grammatical structure. How do languages change in their
pronunciation and grammar? What kinds of changes can be observed?
And what are the effects of these changes?
– Change in vocabulary. How do meanings change and how do we create
new words? How do we “borrow” words from other languages, such as
rouge from French or pundit from Sanskrit? And what do these develop-
ments tell us about change in culture and society or about general tenden-
cies of human nature?
– Change in sign languages. Do they undergo changes that parallel those
found in oral languages?
– The relation between “language” and “dialect”. Is it really true, as some-
one claimed, that a language is merely a “dialect with an army and a navy”?
What are the effects of the dynamic interaction between language and dia-
lect on language change?
viii Preface to the First Edition

– Multilingualism and its consequences. What happens when languages

come in contact, especially if contact is intense and long-lasting? The re-
sults range from a simple “foreign accent” to the extreme case of “pidgins”,
which have a highly simplified structure and a greatly reduced vocabulary,
as mirrored in the famous expression Me Tarzan – You Jane. What are the
social and attitudinal factors that give rise to these and other outcomes of
contact?
– The question of language relationship. How can we establish that the
members of the Indo-European language family, or any other language
family, are really related to each other? Is it possible to establish a common
ancestor for all human languages? And how did human language arise in
the first place in the distant past?
– Recovering history from language. How do we “reconstruct” the ances-
tral languages from which the related languages are descended like daught-
ers from a common mother? What does reconstruction tell us about the
culture of prehistoric societies? And how can we apply some of the insights
of historical linguistics to real-world issues?

In writing this book, we, the authors, have been fortunate to receive sup-
port and encouragement from many different sources. Dr. Marie-Louise
Liebe-Harkort, then Editor-in-Chief of Mouton de Gruyter, set things in mo-
tion by requesting that Hans Henrich Hock produce an elementary introduc-
tion to historical and comparative linguistics at a less advanced level than his
Principles of Historical Linguistics (1986/1991). After Hock had produced a
working draft of some eighty-five percent of the present book, Brian D. Jo-
seph was invited to join the project, to provide a fully American perspective,
to help with the remaining parts of the book, and to offer comments and ad-
ditions to earlier parts. Since taking over as Editor-in-Chief of Mouton de
Gruyter in 1994 Dr. Anke Beck has provided continued and enthusiastic sup-
port for the project. A referee for Mouton de Gruyter provided a first profes-
sional reaction with many helpful hints for improvement. Dr. Werner Winter,
editor of “Trends in Linguistics” has given encouragement and helpful sugges-
tions on a near-final version of the book. We are very grateful to Mouton de
Gruyter for having placed our work in the hands of all such highly capable
and helpful colleagues.
We are also grateful for feedback from a class at The Ohio State University,
a group of students from many different institutions who attended the 1993
Linguistic Institute at The Ohio State University, and from several generations
of students at the University of Illinois who put up with earlier drafts, some of
which were highly preliminary indeed. Robert L. Good, a student at the Uni-
 Preface to the First Edition ix

versity of Illinois, made extensive comments on an earlier version. Heinrich

Sharad Hock provided very helpful comments on the first two chapters of a
near-final version, from the perspective of a second-year undergraduate stu-
dent. To all of these we owe deep gratitude.
Our deepest gratitude must go to Zarina M. Hock, who worked through
the entire final draft, making invaluable suggestions on almost every page,
both as an experienced editor and as an educated “general” reader. Her in-
sights and suggestions have made the text friendlier and more accessible for
those who are not specialists in linguistics.
We hope that the final product accomplishes what we set out to do –
to reach a general, non-specialist readership, and to convey to our readers at
least some of the excitement that can be derived from understanding language
change and the relationship between languages. We encourage our readers to
send us suggestions that might help us reach this goal even more effectively in
a third edition, and to this end we add our e-mail addresses.

Champaign, Illinois, and Columbus, Ohio

Fall 1995

Hans Henrich Hock ([email protected])

and Brian D. Joseph ([email protected])
x Preface to the First Edition
 Contents xi

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition v

Preface to the First Edition vii

Introductory 1

1 Introduction 3
1. Language keeps changing 3
2. Types of linguistic change 8
3. Language relationship 14
4. A word of caution, or “Long live the speaker” 17
5. A note on transcription and terminology 19

Appendix to Chapter 1:
Phonetics, phonetic symbols, and other symbols 21

2 The discovery of Indo-European 34

1. Language relationship 34
2. Proto-Indo-European 38
3. The Indo-European languages 41
3.1. Celtic 42
3.2. Italic (Latin) 44
3.3. Germanic 46
3.4. Slavic 49
3.5. Baltic 51
3.6. Albanian 53
3.7. Greek 53
3.8. Anatolian 54
3.9. Armenian 55
3.10. Indo-Iranian 56
3.10.1. Iranian 57
3.10.2. Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) 58
3.10.3. Indo-Iranians in the ancient Near East – the Mitanni 60
3.11. Tocharian 61
3.12. Other Indo-European languages 61
4. Abbreviations of Indo-European language names 62
xii Contents

3 Writing: Its history and its decipherment 63

1. Introduction 63
2. History of writing 64
2.1. Oral traditions 64
2.2. Forerunners of writing 65
2.3. The development of writing in the Ancient Near
East 69
2.4. The origination of full syllabaries and consonantal
alphabets 79
3. The decipherment of ancient scripts 91
3.1. The decipherment of the cuneiform scripts 92
3.2. The decipherment of ancient Egyptian 94
3.3. Other decipherments 95
4. The phonetic interpretation of written records 98
4.1. Determining the nature of the script 98
4.2. Beginning to crack the code 99
4.3. Establishing phonetic values 100
5. Writing in the rest of the world 102
5.1. The Chinese system 102
5.2. Writing in Korea 104
5.3. Brahmi and the writing systems of India 105
5.4. Writing elsewhere 109

Change in structure 111

4 Sound change 113

1. Introduction 113
2. Grimm’s Law 114
3. From Grimm’s Law to Verner’s Law 118
4. The regularity hypothesis and the neogrammarians 123
5. Some types of sound change 126
5.1. Assimilation, weakening, loss 126
5.1.1. Assimilation 127
5.1.2. Weakening 129
5.1.3. Loss 130
5.2. Epenthesis, the gain or insertion of speech sounds 131
5.3. Acoustically or auditorily conditioned changes 132
5.4. Structurally conditioned changes, “chain shifts” 133
 Contents xiii

5.5. Fast, furious, and faulty speech: Typically sporadic

changes 137
6. Why sound change? 142
6.1. Early views 142
6.2. Neogrammarian explanations 143
6.3. Labov and the social motivation of change 146

5 Analogy and change in word structure 150

1. Introduction 150
2. Relatively systematic analogy 151
2.1. Leveling 152
3. Sporadic or non-systematic analogy 161
3.1. Blending, contamination, and similar processes 161
3.2. Other sporadic processes 166
4. Morphological change 172
5. Analogy and phonology: Rule-governed, regular
analogy 179
6. Hypercorrection – an interdialectal form of analogy 181

6 Syntactic change 183

1. Introduction 183
2. Questionable “syntactic” changes 184
3. Syntax, analogy, or both? 186
4. Me revisited, or the critics’ revenge 188
5. A successful major shift: Word order in English and
related languages 194
6. Conclusion 201

Change in the lexicon 203

7 Semantic change 205

1. Introduction 205
2. The inherent fuzziness of meaning – polysemy,
semantic overlap, metaphor 208
3. Synonymy and homonymy 213
4. The relationship between sound and meaning 215
5. Factors responsible for semantic change 217
5.1. Metaphor 218
5.2. Taboo 220
xiv Contents

5.3. Onomatopoeia 223

5.4. Avoidance of excessive homonymy 224
5.5. Avoidance of synonymy, semantic differentiation 225
5.6. Reinterpretation 226
5.7 Other linguistic changes 228
6. The effects of semantic change 229
6.1. Social attitudes and change in connotations 230
6.2. Sporadic vs. systematic effects 233
6.2.1. Cardinal-point systems 233
6.2.2. Syntax and systematic semantic shifts 236
7. Conclusion 240
8 Lexical borrowing 241
1. Introduction 241
2. The substance of borrowing 243
3. Nativization, or how do you deal with a word once
you have borrowed it? 247
4. “Hyper-foreignization” – A further effect of
borrowing 257
5. Why borrow? Motivations for borrowing strategies 258
5.1. Prestige relations and their effects 259
5.2. Linguistic nationalism or the effect of social
attitudes on nativization 262
6. The effects of borrowing 272
9 Lexical change and etymology: The study of words 279
1. Introduction 279
2. Coinage 283
3. Proper names: A case study in lexical origins 289
3.1. Names of peoples and places 290
3.2. Names of persons 294
4. Coinage in argots, jargons, and slang 298
4.1. Coinage through semantic change 300
4.2. Coinage through borrowing 301
4.3. Other devices for coinage 301
4.4. Concluding notes 302

Language and dialect 305

10 Language, dialect, and standard 307
1. Introduction 307
 Contents xv

2. Language and dialect 308

3. Social dialects 313
4. Discontinuous dialects – Professional jargons and
related forms of speech 314
5. Standard languages 316
6. Diglossia 324
7. Dialect borrowing 327

11 Dialect geography and dialectology 332

1. Introduction 332
2. Patterns of dialect interaction 335
2.1. The Chicago sound shift revisited 335
2.2. The fate of long *u in the Low Countries 335
3. Focal, transition, and relic areas 337
4. Dialectology as a diagnostic tool 338
5. Isoglosses and the problem of defining regional
dialects 340
6. Migration and dialect leveling 343

Languages in contact 347

12 Language spread, link languages, and bilingualism 349

1. Introduction: Link languages and their sources 349
2. Interference and interlanguage 354
3. Code switching and code mixing 360
4. Substratum 362
5. Koinés 367
6. Outlook 369

13 Convergence: Dialectology beyond language boundaries 370

1. Introduction: Convergence defined 370
2. Convergence illustrated – Kupwar 374
3. The Balkans 377
4. South Asia 383
5. Europe 389
6. The dialectology of convergence areas 390

14 Pidgins, creoles, and related forms of language 392

1. Introduction: Foreigner Talk, “Tarzanian”, and other
simplified forms of speech 392
2. Pidgins defined 397
xvi Contents

3. Pidgin origins 400

3.1. “Imperfect learning” 400
3.2. The “racial-inferiority” argument 402
3.3. The Portuguese Proto-Pidgin hypothesis 402
3.4. Foreigner Talk and the origin of pidgins 405
4. Trade Jargons and other pidgin-like languages 408
5. Creoles 411
6. Decreolization and African American
Vernacular English 415

15 Language death 419

Language relationship 425

16 Comparative method: Establishing language relationship 427
1. Introduction 427
2. Chance similarities, onomatopoeia, and
“nursery words” 431
3. Similarities due to linguistic contact 433
4. Systematic, recurrent correspondences 435
5. Shared idiosyncrasies 437
6. Reconstruction 438
7. What can we reconstruct and how confident are we
of our reconstructions? 441
8. Language families other than Indo-European 445
17 Proto-World?: The question of long-distance genetic
relationships 455
1. Introduction 455
2. Longer-distance comparison 458
3. Are there any unrelated languages? 466
4. Lexical mass comparison:
Can it establish “Proto-World”? 466
5. The origin of Language 472

18 Historical linguistics, history, and prehistory:

Linguistic paleontology and other applications of our methods 477
1. Introduction 477
2. Linguistic comparison as a detective’s tool –
the Tasaday of the Philippines 477
3. Comparative linguistics and comparative law 479
 Contents xvii

4. Comparative reconstruction as a window on

prehistory – Linguistic paleontology 481
4.1. Material culture and economy 481
4.2. Ecology and the question of the “original home” 486
4.3. Religion, mythology, and poetic tradition 493
4.4. Society 495
4.5. The question of “race” and related problematic issues 498
5. Dating the Indo-Europeans 504
6. Realism in reconstruction 506
7. Conclusions and outlook 509

Chapter notes and suggested readings 510

Copyright acknowledgments 533

References 535

Language index 569

Subject and name index 578
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