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 SWITCHGEAR PROTECTION
AND
POWER SYSTEMS
(Theory, Practice and Solved Problems)
Other Related Books of Special Interest A textbook for B . E . , B . Tech., M . E . (Electrical ), Technical Teacher’s Training, Power Engineering
Training Courses and a ready reference book for Engineers in Electricity Boards, Projects, Consultants,
* “Testing, Commissioning, Operation and Maintenance of Electrical Equipment ,
.
by S Rao
” Switchgear Industry , Power Sector covering EVERY topic on Switchgear Protection , and Power
System Operation and Automation.
* “Power Transformers and Special Transformers”, by S . Rao
’’Electrical Substation Engineering and Practice”, by S . Rao
m “EHV-A.C . and HVDC Transmission and Distribution ”, by S . Rao
m
—
“Energy Technology ( Non-conventional, Renewable & Conventional )” ,
by Dr . B. B . Parulekar and S . Rao
a Utillization Generation & Conservation of Electrical Energy by Sunil S
. Rao
a “Handbook of Electrical Engineerng” by S . L. Bhatia
“Electrical Safety, Fire Safety Engineering and Management”
by Prof . H . L. Saluja & S . Rao, New Arrival , Jan. 1999 .
B Industrial Safety, Health and Envlornment Management Systems
by Sunil S . Rao & Er . R. K. Jain SUNIL S RAO .
Electrical Power by S .L. Uppal & Sunil S . Rao M . E . (Electrical ), M . I . E .
*
m Electrical Engineering Technology by Dr . N . Datta
a Electrical Machinery by Dr . P.S . Bimbhra
a Electrical Machinery by Dr . S . K. Sen
m Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments by Dr . R.
Prasad
Generalised Theory of Electrical Machines by Dr. P.S . Bimbhra
High Voltage Cable Accessories and Cable Installation by
T .S . Swaminathan
B

.
High Voltage Engineering by Dr M . P , Chaursia
* Industrial and Power Electronics by G.K. Mithal
* Linear Control Systems by B.S . Manke
Power Electronics by Dr . P.S . Bimbhra
Power System Analysis by Prof . S .S . Vadhera
a Utilization of Electrical Power and Traction by G.C. Garg
Note : These books are of Topical Interest Tor Students and Professionals
'

. KHANNA PUBLISHERS
4575/15 , Onkar House, Opp. Happy School ,
Daryaganj, Delhi- 110002
.
Phones : 23243042 Fax : 23243043
 I

Published by :
Romesh Chander Khanna
for KHANNA PUBLISHERS
2-B, Nath Market ,
Nai Sarak, Delhi-110006.

ISBN No. 81-7409-232-3

All Rights Reserved. Reproductions from this book are stricly prohibited except for
Reviews.
No written matter and, illustrations shall be reproduced without written
consent from the
Publishers and the Author.
Reproductions in this book are with express permission from the
corresponding
manufacturers. They have been duly acknowledged by the author
.

Dedicated, to
Saroj , Sheetal and Chetan

!;
First Edition 1973
Eleventh Edition 1999 (10 Reprints )
Twelfth Edition 2007, September
Thirteenth Edition : 2008, October
Fourth Reprint : 2010

.
Price : Rs 350.00

Computertypetset at: Softserve Computer Systems, Delhi

Printed at: . Mohanlal Printers,
Delhi.
 r

FOREWORD PREFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION

, There has been a long-felt need of a book giving , . The widespread acceptance of the earlier Editions promoted this revised and enlarged edition .
W1 c &ear and Protection e nsiveaa systematic information of
and Power System Studies
" , The book presents in-depth knowledge about the principles and practices of modern power system
1® ne ®
(
e congratulated for fulfilling
-
dJ
^ y publishing a book. I am proud
s u en o mine and I am very happy that Shri Su ° , °
rlf &U P engineering. It gives an integrated approach to the complex phenomena related with Switchgear ,

The author has a brillin <

to write this foreword ° °° ^ ^
°° ’ *S an Protection, Fault-Calculations, Power System Analysis-Operation-Control-Automation , Digital relays,
Micro-processor based Relays and Microprocessor based Integrated Control and Protection Systems,
;

'
^^ ^
311 k ds a first Energy Systems .
Engineering of Karnataka
Uhivnrsiiw an fu
University . He has good practical
!?
ur ) class° ! class
- B . E . degree
degree in ‘Power Systems’ of
in Electrical
The k k wifi serve as a regular text book for electrical engineering courses to prepare the
' .
m many of the reputed Electrical Poona °°
Organisations like Hindustan
Brown ^rf erieace Firms and
Baroaa > Kirlosker Electrical Co Ltd Bangalore *
students for the careers in power sector. The book will also serve as a reference book to electrical
State Electricity Boards of Knrrmfoi ”Tl6
engineers working in power sector , electrical manufacturing industry , academic and testing
College of Technology, BhopalITTUct * etaHeisWOrkinZ 'atMaulana .AzadRegional!
m ectrica Engineering, and has
institutions, etc.
“Switchgear Protection and Power Systems
^ ^ been teaching
;
Since the publication of the first edition of the book Switchgear and Protection in 1973, many
advances have occured in field of the Switchgear, Protection and Power System Automation . While

—
conventional protection and switching devices will continue to serve, entirely new type of devices
over 59 chapters. Section the
..... and techniques are now available. The development of SF6 and Vacuum circuit- breakers have made
types nearly obsolete. The static relays have replaced the electro-mechanical relays . EHV-
u
iuciuamg SI16 circuit breakers ^ wxuwuiicu oi various,
choice, erection , maintenance , vacuum circuit breakers, and discusses about the other
and testing of the : AC and HVDC transmission are now commercially successful . Large interconnected networks are
high
apparatus.EHV A C. . voltage
Transmission and HVDC transmission. /low voltage switchgear and EHV; being automatically controlled from load control centres by means of on-line SCADA, AGC and EMS
Section II deals with fault current Systems. The developments in power electronics have resulted in the successful use of static VAR
calculations, role of network analysers and digital
in the calculation of fault
current of complicated system computers Sources (SVS), HVDC Convertors etc. Digital computers and microprocessors are being increasingly
networks. used for protection and automation . Fibre- optic cables have been successfully used for data
Section III deals with constructional transmission .
relays and protective systems and operational aspects of electromagnetic protective
for generators, transformers, ; Due to the energy crisis and increasing capital costs of power projects , there is a world -wide
motors and transmission lines.
Section IV deals with trend towards interconnecting adjacent AC Networks by means of EHV-AC or HVDC links.
fundamentals of static relays and static protection
Section V deals with advanced topics schemes. The techniques of testing and maintenance have advanced with an aim of increased reliability
and microprocessors for load in power system controls, applications of digital computer and availability of electrical power supply. Knowledge of specifications, testing, maintenance,
- frequency control - * commissioning has gained significance. The power system analysis techniques have also advanced
Load Frequency Control, Voltage
Power System Network Automation
and back
control and compensation of
up protection
-
, Power System Stability.
Reactive Power, Voltage Stability, significantly .
have been explained. India and other developing countries have ambitions development plans in power sector . Some
The matter is presented in a very landmarks in the power sector of India include indigenous capability of design , manufacture and
by neat, clear sketches and lucid style and simple English. The
book is profusely illustrated
diagrams and graphs. The commissioning of EHV-AC Sub-stations and apparatus, establishment of 400 kV. AC network ,
consulted the leading technical journals author is to be congratulated for
in the field and presenting the having introduction of HVDC Systems, interconnections between Regional Grids, introduction of static
“Switchgear Protection and Power Systems information relays and static protection systems, increasing use of digital computers and microprocessors,
mature art of teaching in the presentation ” up-to-date, in his book. The author has regarding expansion of testing facilities, etc.
exhibited
Some typical solved problems are given of the subject matter inspite of his short teaching experiencea. The technology of protection and automation have been revolutionised by the introduction of
throughout the book.
With addition of some unsolved microprocessor based combined protection , control , monitoring systems . Such systems have been
problems, summary and
chapter, the book may serve as
a text book in universities for
provocative questions at
the end of introduced for substation protection, generator protection , HVDC protection . This book covers the
Power Systems” in the under-graduate ,
a course in “Switchgear Protectioneach principles and applications of this latest technology and the important topics in Interconnected
and postgraduate curriculum. The and
a useful guide and reference to book should also serve as Power Systems. The new chapters include EHV-AC Transmission , HVDC Transmission Systems,
provides . Power Engineers, considering the volume ‘
Interconnections, Power System Automation with SCADA Systems, Power System Planning, Latest
of practical information it
I am very proud of the young Power map of India , Microprocessor based Protection . Energy Technology- Renewable and
author and express my sincere Nonconventional and Conventional . The Corelation between Energy Sector and Power sector has
of writing the Foreward to
this book of his. thanks to him for giving me the privilege been illustrated.
Chapters on Power system Calculations and Load Flow Studies, The principles and procedures
H.11. KARA KA RADI)] of network calculations and load flow studies have been simplified and explained by a few solved
B.Sc. ( Hons.), D.I.I.Sc. i examples. 'Recent Advances’ in Intelligent Circuit Brep kers, Fiber-optic Cable Applicaions , Compact
B.Sc. (Tech.) ( Munch.), F. I. E.
Intelligent Substations, ISO-9000 and TQMI are covered ip Appendix-A, while Appendix-B highlights
Sen. M„ I. E. E . E. ; overall system description of Distribution Management System .
Principal
Karnataka Regional Engg. College j The patronage of Academic Institutions and Power System Engineers to this book is hereby
\ gratefully acknowledged . J
Suratkal, S .K. ) 1
(
Karnataka.
— Author
 of

CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SECTION I — SWITCHGEAR AND SUB-STATION APPARATUS
The Author gratefully acknowledges the assistance by various Manufacturers and Organisations :
1. INTRODUCTION -
1 15
International Electrotechnical Commission . 1.1. Switchgear and Protection 1
Indian Bureau of Standards. 3
1.2. Sub-station Equipment
British Standards Institution , 4
1.3. Faults and Abnormal Conditions
a AEG, West Germany. 1.4. Fault Calculations
4
ABB, Sweden. 1.5. Fault Clearing Process 5
The Aluminium Industries Ltd. India. 1.6. Protective Relaying 5
Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., India. 1.7. Neutral Grounding (Earthing) and Equipment Grounding 5
6
General Electric, U.S.A. 1.8. Over-voltages and Insulation Co-ordination
6
* GEC Alsthom Ltd., England. 1.9. Some Terms in the Test
m Hindustan Brown Boveri ltd (ABB), India. 1.10 . Standard Specifications 7
8
-
Hi Velm Industries Pvt. Ltd. India. 1.11. Electro-mechanical Relays and Static Relays
Indian Aluminium Company Ltd., India. 1.12 . Applications of On-line Digital Computers Microprocessors And
Static Protective/control Devices in Power System 8
Jyo\i Ltd ., India.
1.13. Interconnected Power System 9
IjCirlosker Electric Co. Ltd., India. 10
Larsen & Toubro Ltd . , India. 1.14. Load-frequency Control, Load Shedding
1.15. Voltage Levels in Network and Sub-stations 11
« MCB (India) Pvt. Ltd., India.
1 1.16. Voltage Control of AC Network 11
Mitsubishi Electrical Corporation , Japan. 13
Reyrolle Parson Ltd., England . 1.17. Static Var Sources (SVS)
1.18. Power System Stability 13
Siemens India Ltd. 14
1.19. HVDC Obtion
* Universal Electric Ltd.( India. 1.20. Power System Analysis 14
Westinghouse Electric Corporation. , U.S.A. 15
1.21. Power System Network Calculations and Load Flow
i 1.22. Objective and Tasks 15
I
2. HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C, CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 16 31-
2.1. Introduction 16
2.2. The Fault Clearing Process 16
2.3. The Trip-circuit 17
2.4. Recent Advances 17
2.5. Classification Based on Arc Quenching Medium 18
2.6. Technical Particulars of a Circuit-breaker 19
-
2.7. Assembly of Outdoor Circuit breakers 20
22
2.8. Structural Form of Circuit-breakers
2.9. Operating Mechanisms 22
2.9.1. Closing Operation 23
2.9. 2. Opening Operation 24
2.9.3. Closing Followed by Opening Operating 24
I 24
2.9.4. Types of Mechanisms
2.10 . Interlocks, Indication and Auxiliary Switch. 26
2.11. Circuit-breaker Time (Total Break Time) 27
2.12 . Auto Reclosure 27
2.13. Auto Reclosure of EHV Circuit Breakers for Transmission Lines 28
2.14. Auto Reclosure for Distribution Lines (Upto 33 kv) 29
-
2.15. Weight Operated Reclosing, Pole Mounted Circuit breakers 29
 ( )
*
2.16. Trip-free Feature 30 ] 3.18.19. XtCU CU

-
voltages When Interrupting
/

I
30 3.18.20. Permissible Maximum Switching Over Capacitor Bank Breaking
2.17 . Materials
2.18. Design and Development 30 Line-Charging, Cable -
charging and Single
71
Current 71
Making Current
3.18.21. Rated Capacitor Bank Inrush 71
3. FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING, SWITCHING PHENOMENA 3.18. 22 . Rated Small Inductive Breaking Current
AND CIRCUIT-BREAKER RATING -
32 73
3.19. Reignition and Restrike
72
3.1. . Introduction 32
3.2. Network Parameters : R, L, G 32
74-82
3.3. Voltage Equation of an RLC Series Circuit
3.4. Sudden Short Circuit of R.L. Series Circuit
34
34
38
. -
4. THE ARC EXTINCTION
4.1. Introduction
74
74
3.5. Sub-transient Transient and
, Steady State
41 4.2. The Matter and Plasma 75
3.6. Current Interruption in A. C . Circuit- breakers
4.3. Ionization of Gases
3.7. Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) 42 ! 76
4.4. Deionization 76
3.7.1. Effect of Natural Frequency of TRV 44
4.5. Electric Arc 77
3.7.2. Effect of Power-factor on TRV 44 :
4.6. Arc Formation in A.C. Circuit-breakers 78
3.7.3. Effect of Reactance-drop on Power-frequency Recovery Voltage 45
4.7. Modes At Arc Extinction 78
3.7.4. Effect of Armature Reaction on Recovery Voltage 45
45 ;
-
4.7.1. High Resistance Interruption, Blow out
Coils
79
-
3.7. 5. Effect of the First-pole to-clear
4.7.2. Low Resistance of Zero Point Extinction
80
-
3.7.6. The First pole-to-clear Factor 45 :
4.8. Arc Interruption Theories 81
3.8. Single Frequency Transient 46
47 i 4.9. Arc Extinction in' Oil 82
3.9. Double Frequency Transients
4.10. Arc Extinction in Vacuum 82
3.10. Rate of Rise of TRV 48
4.11. Arc Extinction in Air-blast 82
3.11. Resistance Switching, Damping of TRV, Opening Resistors 53
55 4.12. Arc Extinction in SFg Gas 82
3.12. Interruption of Low Magnetizing Current, Current Chopping
3.13. Use of Opening Resistors 56 ; 4.13. Arc Time Constant
3.13.1. Switching of Capacitor Banks 57
3.13.2. Switching of Unloaded Transmission Lines and Unloaded Cables 58
:
-
83 88
3.14. Interrupting the Terminal Faults 58 5. AIR-BREAK CIRCUIT-BREAKER 83
3.15. Interrupting Short Line Faults Kilometric Fault
( ) 59 5.1. Introduction 83
3.16. Phase Opposition Switching 60 : -
5.2. Construction of Air-break Circuit breaker 84
3.17. Specifying the TRV Wave 61 5.3. Arc Extinction in A.C. Air-break C.B. 85
3.18. Rated Characteristics of Circuit-breakers 61 : 5.4. Lengthening of Arc by Means of Magnetic Fields
3.18.1. Rated Voltage 61 5.5. Description of a Low Voltage Air-breaker Circuit -
breaker 85
87
5.6. Operating Mechanisms for Air-brealc Circuit -breakers
3.18. 2. Rated Insulation Level
3.18.3. Rated Frequency
3.18.4. Rated Normal Current ( Rated Current )
-
3.18.5. Rated Short Circuit breaking Current
61
62
63
63
—
5.7 . Series Connected Over Load Trip Coil
-
5.8. Air-bx eak D.C. Circuit-breakers
-
5.9. Miniature Circuit breaker ,
for
Moulded
Arrangement
Medium
Case
Voltages
Circuit -breakers
87
87
88

3.18.6. Rated Short-circuit Making Current 64 :

3.18.7. Rated Duration of Short-circuit ( Rated Short Time Current ) 65 : 89 96 -
3.18.8. Rated Operating Sequence ( Duty Cycle) 65 ; 6. AIR BLAST CIRCUIT-BREAKER 89
3.18. 9. Rated Transient Recovery Voltage for Terminal Faults 66 6.1. Introduction 89
3.18.10. Representation of a TRV Waveform by Four Parameter Method 66 6.2. Construction of an Air Blast Circuit-breaker 91
3.18.11. Representation of TRV Waveform by Two-parameter Method 67 I 6.3. Principle of Arc Quenching in Abcbs Energy 92
3.18.12. Rated Peak Withstand Current 68 -
6.4. Circuit breakers with External Extinguishing 93
3.18.13. Rated Quantities for Auxiliary Circuits and Operating Mechanisms For 6.5. Resistance Switching in Abcb
6.6. Voltage Distribution in.Multi-break Circuit-
Opening and Closing 69 breakers 94
3.18.14. Rated Pressure of Supply for Pneumatic and Hydraulic Operating Devices 69 (abcb-mocb, SFg)
3.18.15. Rated Pressure of Interrupting Medium and Insulating Medium 69 -
6.7. Reducing Switching Over voltages by 95
3.18.16. Summary of Rated Characteristics of HV (A.C. ) Circuit-breakers 69 Pre-closing Resistor 95
3.18.17. Rated Out-of-phase Breaking Current 70 6.8. Generator Circuit Breakers 96
3.18.18. Rated Cable-charging Breaking Current 71 6.9. Compressed Air System for ABCB
 I
(.xii ) I ( xiii )

I . SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT-BREAKER AND SFe

'

INSULATED METALCLAD SWITCHGEAR (GIS) -

97 121
—
9. VACUUM INTERRUPTER AND VACCUM
9.1. Introduction
CIRCUIT-BREAKER -
138 153
138
139
Part I : Properties of SFe Gas 9.2. Electrical Breakdown in High Vacuum 140
7.1. Introduction 97 9.3. Arc Extinction in Vacuum Interrupters 140
7.2. Physical Properties of SIB Gas 97 9.4 . Construction of a Vacuum Interrupter 142
7.3. Chemical Properties of SFg Gas 98 9.5. Arc Interruption in High Vacuum 142
99 9.6. Degree of Vacuum in Interrupters 142
7.4. Dielectric Properties of SF6 Gas
9.6.1. Construction of a Vacuum Interrupter 143
7.5. Arc Extinction in SF6 Circuit-breakers 100
9.7 . Interruption of Short-circuit Currents in Vacuum Interrupters 144
7.5.1. Single Pressure Puffer Type Circuit-breaker with Single Flow 9.8. Design Aspects of Vacuum Interrupters
of Quenching Medium 101 144
9.8.1. Length of Interrupter
7.5.2. Double Flow of Quenching Medium 103 144
9.8.2. Contact Travel (Contact (GAP)) 144
Part II : Outdoor SF6 Circuit Breakers 9.8.3. Contact Shape
145
9.8.4. Contact Size and Shape for Required Short-circuit
Breaking Current
7.6. Types Design 103
147
7.7. Single Pressure Puffer Type SFg Circuit-breaker 104 9.8.5. Contact Material
147
7.7.1. Configuration of a Single Pressure Puffer Type EHV Circuit-breaker 105 9.9. Time/travel Characteristics 148
7.8. Double Pressure Dead Tank SFg C.B. ( Now Obsolete) 106 9.10. Contact Pressure 148
7.9. Merits of SF6 Circuit-breakers 107 9.11. Contact Acceleration During Opening 148
7.10 . Some Demerits of SF6 Circuit-breaker 107 9.12. Contact Erosion 149
9.13. Vacuum Level and Shelf Life of Interrupters 149
7.11. SF@ Filled Load Break Switches 107
9.14. Checking of Vacuum 149
Circuit-breakers
7.12. Gas Monitoring and Gas Handling Systems 108 9.15. Range of Vacuum Switchgear, Vacuum Controlgear and Vacuum 151
Part III : SFe Insulated Metalcad Switchgear (Sub-Station) 9.16. Merits of VCB’s 151
7.13. Introduction to SFg Switchgear (GIS ) 108 9.17. Demerits of VCB’s 151
7.14. Advantages of S 6 Switchgear 109 9.18. Switching Phenomena with VCB
^
7.15 . Demerits of SF6 Insulated Switchgear /, 109 9.18.1. Reignition in Vacuum Circuit-breakers
' 9.18. 2. Capabilities of Modern Circuit Breakers for Medium
Voltages
151
152
7.16. General Constructional Features of SFg-Gas Insulated Vcb for Motor Switching Duty,
9.18.3. Switching Over - voltage Problem with
152
Switchgear ( GIS) " •
‘
109 RC Surge Suppressors
7.17. Gas Monitoring 114
7.18. Gas Filling and Monitoring System .for SFg Switchgear 118
7.19 . Transportation and Handling of SFg Gas 118 10. TESTING OF HIGH VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT BREAKER - -
154 163
7.20. Gas Transfer Units 118 154
10.1. Classification of the Test
7.21. SFg Insulated EHV Transmission Cables (GIC) nb 155
10.2. Type Tests
156
10.2.1. Mechanical Test ( Endurance Tests )
156
7-A. Routine, Site/Field Testing of GIS -
122 130 10.2.2. Temperature-rise Tests
10.2.3. Measurement of D.C. Resistance
157
,

7.22 . Routine Testing of GIS 122 157

7.23. Site/field Testing of GIS 128 10.2.4. Millivolt Drop Tests
157
10.2.5. No-load Operation Tests and Oscillographic and Other Records
-r 131 137 10.2.6. Dielectric Tests
158
8. MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT-BREAKER AND BULK OIL CIRCUIT-BREAKER -
8.1. Introduction 131
j
; -
10.2.7. Basic Short circuit Test Duties
158
159
8.2. Tank Type Bulk Oil Circuit-breaker ( Now Obsolete) 131 | 10.3. Routine Tests 159
8.3. Minimum Oil Circuit-breaker 133 { 10.4 . Development Tests
159
8.4. Principle of Arc-extinction on Oil Breakers 134 \ 10.5. Reliability Tests
160
8.5. Pre-arcing Phenomenon 135 | 10.6. Commissioning Tests 161
8.6. Sensitivity to TRV 135 | 10.7 . Insulation Resistance Measurement at Site
162
10.8. High Voltage Power Frequency Withstand Test (Routine Test
)
8.7. Circuit-breakers with Internal Sources of Extinguishing Energy- 162
Critical Current 136 : 10.9. Routine Tests on Circuit-breakers 162
8.8. Contact Assembly j 136 10.9.1. Mechanical Operating Tests (Routine Test)
(

/
 ( xiu) ( xv )

11. SHORT CIRCUIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 164- 189 13.6. Maintenance of Circuit Breakers 203
11.1. Introduction 164 . 13.7. Typical Maintenance Record Card 207
11.2 . Stresses on Circuit-breaker During Short-circuit Tests 13.8 . Maintenance of Air Break Circuit Breaker , Fusegear for Low
164
Part A : Short-Circuit Test Plants And Medium Voltages 207
11.3. Short-circuit Testing Plants 13.9. Maintenance of Vacuum Circuit-breaker 208
165
13.10. Maintenance of SF@ Circuit-breaker 208
Part B : Direct Testing
11.4. Direct Testing 13.11. Insulation Resistance Measurement 210
169 13.12. Insulation Resistance Measurement at Site
11.5. Rules for Type Tests 210
170 13.13. Likely Troubles and Essential Periodic Checks
-
11.6. Short time Current Tests on Circuit-breakers, Isolators, 211
Busbars, CTS Etc. 13.14 . Installation of Drawout Metalclad Switchgear 212
170
11.7. Basic Short-circuit Test Duties 13.15. Safety Procedures 214
173
11.8. Ci’itical Current Tests 13.16. Installation of Outdoor Circuit-breakers 216
174
11.9. Short-line Fault Tests
174
11.10 . Line Charging Breaking Current Tests
175
14. HRC FUSES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 218-232
11.11. Out-of-phase Switching Tests : 14.1. Introduction 218
176
11.12 . Capacitive Current Switching Tests 14.2. Types of Devices with Fuse 218
176
11.12.1. Single Capacitor Bank Current Breaking Test 14.3. Definitions 218
178
11.13. Cable:charging Breaking Current Test 14.4. Construction 219
179
11.13.1. Small Inductive Current Breaking Tests 14.4.1. HRC Fuses for Semiconductor Devices and Thyristors 220
179
11.13.2 . Recommendations for Small Inductive Current Switching Tests 14.5. Fuse Link of HRC Fuse 222
180
11.14. Reactor Switching Test 14.6. Action of HRC Fuse 222
181
Part C : Indirect Testing 14.7. Shape of Fuse Element 222
11.15. Unit Testing or Element Testing 14.8. Specification of a Fuse Link 223
183 14.9. Characteristic of a Fuse
11.16. Synthetic Testing 224
183 14.10 . Cut-off
11.17. Substitution Test 224
186 14.11. Classification and Categories
11.18. Capacitance Test 224
187 14.12. Selection of Fuse Links
11.19. Compensation Test 225
11.20. Development Testing of Circuit-breakers 188 14.13. Protection of Motor 227
188 14.14. Discrimination 228
12. INSULATION REQUIREMENT AND HIGH VOLTAGE 14.15. Protection of Radial Lines 228
TESTING
OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
190-199
14.16.
14.17. Equipment Incorporating Fuses
-
Protection of Meshed Feeders with Steady Load by HRC Fuses 230
12.1. Introduction 230
12.2 . Overvoltages 190 14.18. High Voltage Current Limiting Fuses 231
12.3. Design Aspects 191 14.19. Expulsion Type High-voltage Fuse 231
12.4. Causes of Failure of Insulation 191 14.20. Drop-out Fuse 231
i
12.5. Purpose ofH.V. Testing of Circuit breakers 191 14.21. Test on Fuse 232
-
12.6. Tests on a High Voltage Circuit-breakers 192
12.7. Some Terms and Definitions. 193 15-A. METAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR , CONTROLGEAR AND CONTACTOR 233- 248
12.8. Impulse Voltage Tests and Standards Impulse Waves 194 15.1. Introduction 233
12.9. Impulse Generator 195 | 15.2. Types of Switchgear 233
12.10. Test Plant for Power Frequency Tests 195
Part A : High Voltage Indoor Metal Enclosed Switchgear
.
12.11 H.V. Testing Transformer 196 I 15.3. General Features of Indoor Metal-enclosed Switchgear
196 234
12.12 . Sphere Gaps 15.4. Draw-out Type Metal-enclosed Switchgear 235
197
! 15.5. Switchgear with Vacuum Interrupters 237
13. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE
200- 217 I Part B : Low -Voltage Metal Clad Switchgear and Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
13.1. Introduction 15.6. Unit Type Metal Clad Low Voltage Switchgear and Motor
200
13.2 . Break Down Maintenance Versus Preventive Maintenance Control Centers 237
200
13.3. Inspection, Servicing, Overhaul ' 15.7 . Low Voltage Circuit Breakers 239
201
13.4. Guidelines for Maintenance of Switchgear 15.7.1. Classification. 239
13.5. Field Quality Plans ( FQP) 201
15.7. 2. Rated Quantities 239
/ 202

I
1
 { xvii )
(xvi )
AND METALLIC RETURN
15.7 .3. Test on Low-voltage Circuit-breakers 241 16. HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER 273- 290
"

(MRTB) ;

-
15.8. ‘Explosion- proof or ‘Flame proof Switchgear 241 TRANSFER BREAKER Switching System
273
Part C : Low Voltage Controlgear and Contractors 16.1. Introduction to HVDC , Bipolar Long Distance Hvdq/Trgns-
15.9 . Low Voltage Control Gear 242 16.2. Schematic of a 2-terminal e 276
15.10 . Contactors 242 Mission System 278 .

15.11. Some Terms and Definitions 243 -

16.3 . Back-to back HVDC
System
Systems ( MTDC) -
280
15.12. Contactor Starters for Motors 243 16.4. Multi-terminal HVDC
Switching System and Waveform of
15.13. Rated Characteristics of Contactors 244 16.5 .Schematic of DC 281
15.14. Tests on Contactors 246 IDC with Artificial Current Zeros 281
16.6. Conclusion -H« 282
Breaking Direct Current In Hvdc Circuil
'
3
Part D : Control Boards
15.15. Control Boards or Control Panels 246 _
16.7 .Energy Consideration in
16.8. Hvdc Switching SystJemPrinciple
,
284
284
15.16. Control Room-layouts 247 of Hvdc Circuit-breaker
16.8.1. Commutation 285
16.9. Control of dl / dt and dv / dt 286
15-B. MEDIUM VOLTAGE METAL ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR WITH
SFe CB AND VCB
Part I : Applications and Range
249-260 16.10 . Triggered Vacuum Gaps
16.11. Surge Suppression
16.12. Complete Circuit of HVDC
(TVG)

Switching System .
Switching
_ 286
286
286
15.17 . Type and Range 249 16.13. Main Circuit -breaker for HvdcBipolar HVDC Substations 287
15.18. Iec and Cired Classification 249 16.14. Switching Devices in Present 287
Part II : Constructional Aspects 16.15. Types of HVDC Circuit-breakers and Characteristics 289
15.19. Configuration and Variants 250 16.16. Hvdc Circuit-breaker Capabilities HVDC Circuit-breakers 289
for
15.20. Drawings and Diagrams 252 16.17 . Definitions of Switching )Time System
290
HVDC
15.21. Designation for the Degree of Protection 252 -
16.18. Short circuit Ratio (SCR of 290
Part III : Switchgear Phenomens with Medium 16.19. Conclusions
291- 339
Voltage Switchgear with SFe C.B. with VCB AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS
17[ LECTMCALSUBSTATiONSTEQUIPMENT
15.22. Cable Terminations Systems
15.23. General Assessment Criteria
254
255 ^ 17.1. Introduction
.

Yard Layout •
291
292
15.24. Interruption of Inductive Currents and Small Inductive Currents 256 17.2. Substation Equipment and Outdoor 295
15.25. Switching-on of a Motor , Voltage Surge Due To Multiple Reignition 257 17.3. Isolator and Earthing Switch .
295
15.26. Motor Switching with Puffer Type SFg Circuit-breakers 258 17.3.1. Requirement and Definitions 296
17.3.2. Types of Construction of Isolators
I
|! 15.27. Capacitor Switching 259 298
17.3.3. Pantograph Isolator 298
15 -C. LOW-VOLTAGE CONTROLGEAR AND SWITCHGEAR 261- 272 17.3.4. Ratings of Isolators and Tests 299
Switchyards j
17.4 . Bus-bar Arrangements in Important Sub-stations 303
15.28. Applications and Basic Requirements for Large
17.4.1. Bus-bar System Recommended
261
303
15.29. Components and Modular Structural Configuration 261
17.4.2. Maintenance Zoning 303
15.30. Switching Devices 262
17.5. Use a Load Break Switches 304
15.31. Mechanical Rated Life of a Switching Device 263
17.6. Switchgear in Generating Stations 304
15.32. Design Aspects for Long Mechanical Life 264
17.6.1. Main Switchgear Schemes :
15.33. Main Electrical Circuit and Components in A Switching Device
17.6.2. Unit System of Generator Connections
265 305
15.34. Main Circuit Components. Associated with Contactor Starters of LV 265 (Scheme Without Generator- circuit -breaker )
Circuit Breaker <306
15.35. Protection Aspects 266
17.6.3. Unit Scheme Employing Generator 306
15.36. Contact Travel Characteristics of LV Switching Device During Generating Stations
17.6 .4 . Main Switchgear in 306
Operating and Closing Operations, Switching Time Definitions. 266
* 17.6 .5. Single and Multiple Generator
Transformer Unit 307
15.37 . Connection and Cross Sectional Area of Cables 267
.
17.7 Auxiliary Switchgear in Power
Stations 309
l
15.38. Contact Configuration and Design Aspects 268
15.39. Contact Materials 17.8. Isolated Phase Bus Systems 310
268
17.9. Continuous Housing Type Isolated
-phase Buses 316
15.40. Contact Speed During Opening Operation 269
15.41. Auxiliary Switches 17.10. Switching Sub-stations 316
269
17.11. Layout the Switchyard Equipment
- 318
15.42 . Tripping Device and Relays 270 Transformers 318, ,
i *17.12. Location of Current
'" .

15.43. Degree of Protection, IP Code 271 System

15.44. Medium Voltage Vacuum Contactors for 3.6 to 12 KV 271 17 ,13. Typical Substation in Distribution
 ( xixl
(.xviii ) 378
18.30. Earth Electrodes 381
17.14. Switchgear for a Medium Size Industrial Works 31| Systems for Two or More Installations
-
17.15. Bus bars 318 18.31. Integrated EarthingTouch Potential
. 381
18.32. Step Potential and 382
17.16. Some Terms and Definitions 328
18.33 . _
Earth Earthing System
-resistance ofMeasurement 383
17.17 . Materials for Bus-bars 328 ,

385
17.18 . Bus-bar Design 322 18.34. Earth Resistance
/18.35. Earthed
Screens
17.19. Electrodynamic Forces on Bus-bars During Short-circuits 322 SECTION II - FAULT CALCULATIONS
-
17.20 . Important Techno economic Consideration for Construction
389-402
of Sub-stations/switchyards 330 CALCULATIONS
17.20.1. Activities in Construction of Sub-station 330 19. INTRODUCTION TO FAULT 389
17.20.2. Cost Effectiveness 331 19.1. Introduction 390
17.20.3. Ways and Means of Economizing 331 19.2 . Procedure of Fault Calculations
Systems
391
17.20.4. Construction Activities 334 19.3. Representation of Power 391
17.20.5. Maintenance of Over -head Transmission Lines 334 19.4. Per Unit Method System
392
17.20.6 . Maintenance and Repair 337 19.5. Advantages of Per Unit 392
19.6. Selection of Bases of Base-impedance
18-A. TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE SURGES, SURGE ARRESTERS 19.7. Single Phase Circuits : Determinations
)
393
AND INSULATION CO-ORDINATION 340- 359 (or Resistance or Reactance 393
18.1. Introduction 340 19.8. Change of Base 394
18.2. Terms and Definitions 346 19.9 . Circuits Connected by Transformer 395

-
18.3. Choice of Insulation Levels of Sub station Equipment 348 19.10 . Reactances of Circuit Elements 395
18.4. Protective Ratio,' Protective Margin 349 19.11. Induction Motors 395
18.5. Lightning 349 19.12. Synchronous Motor 396
18.6 . Overhead Shielding Screen ( Earthed ) 350 19.13. Thevenin’s Theorem 399
351 19.14 . Some Terms 400
18.7. Lightning Stroke on OH Lines ( Overhead Line)
18.8. Protective Devices Against Lightning Surges 351 19.15. Star-delta Transformation
403-437
18.9. Rod Gaps or Spark Gap 352
AND CURRENT SIT LIMITING REACTORS
18.10 . Surge Arresters ( Lightning Arresters) 352 20. SYMMETRICAL FAULTS 403
(Steady State)
18.11. Surge Arrester Specifications and Terms 355 20.1. Fault Mva and Fault Current 403
18.12 . Tests on Surge Arresters 356 20.2 . Solved Examples
by Standards for Short-circuit
18.13. Rated Voltage of Surge Arrester 356 20.3. Procedure Recommended .
414
18.14 . Coefficient of Earthing ( Ce) is the Ratio : 357 Calculations in Distribution Systems 418
20.4 . Reactors in Power Systems 418
Reactors
18-B. NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING ) 360 - 373 20.5. Principle of Current LimitingLimiting Reactors 419
20.6. Design Features of Current 420
18.15. Introduction to Neutral Grounding 360
20.7 . Dry, Air Cored Series Reactor 420
18.16. Terms and Definitions 360 - Shielded Reactor
20.8. Oil Immersed Non magnetically 420
18.17. Disadvantages of Ungrounded Systems 362
20.9. Oil Immersed Shielded Reactors 420
18.18. Advantages of Neutral Grounding 364
20.10. Terms and Definitions 421
18.19. Types of Grounding 365 Reactors
20.11. Physical Arrangement of Series 421
18.20 . Reactance in Neutral Connection 367 Reactors
20.12 . Selection of 422
18.21. Connection of the ARC Suppression Coil 368
20.13. Location of Series Reactors ) by Considering Kvar
18.22. Neutral Point Earthing of Transformer L.V. Circuits.
20.14. Effective Short Circuit Level ESCL
369 ( 432
18.23. Neutral Grounding Practice 370
Contribution of Shunt Capacitor Banks 433
18.24. Earthing Transformer 371 (ESCR)
20.15. Effective Short Circuit Ratio
18.25. Ratings of Neutral Devices 372
438-447
21. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 438
18- C. SUBSTATION EARTHIjNG SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT EARTHING 374 - 388
21.1. Introduction 438
21.2 . Symmetrical Components of -
18.26. Equipment Earthing ( Grounding) 374 3 phase Systems 439
18.27 . Functions of Substation Earthing System 375 440
21.3. Operator ‘o’
18.28. Connection of Electrical Equipment to Station-earthing System 376
21.4. Some Trigonometric Relations
18.29. Substation Earthing System 3f 7
 u (xxi )

(xx) ~ RELAYS
500 519 -
26. ELECTROMAGNETIC 500
21.5. Zero Sequence Currents 442J 26.1. Introduction 500
of Trip Circuit
26.2. Basic Connections
-
21.6. Phase Displacement in Star delta Transformers 446
Auxiliary Relays
501
26.3. Auxiliary Switch, Sealing, and 501
22. Unsymmetrical Faults on an Unloaded Generator -
448 462 26.3.1. Auxiliary Switch 501
’
22.1. Sequence Impedances 448 26.3.2. ‘sealing’, ‘holding’, ‘repeat Operation 502
22.2. Sequence Networks of Alternator 448 26.4. Measurement in Relays 503
22.3. Voltage Equations 449 26.4.1. Magnitude Measurement 503
22.4 . Single Line to Ground Fault on an Unloaded Three-phase 26.4.2. Product Measurement 503
Alternator at Rated Terminal Voltage 450 26.4.3. Ratio Measurement 503
)
22.5. Double Line to Ground Fault on an Unloaded Generator 452 26.4.4. Vector Difference (or Vector Sum 503
22.6. Line to Line Fault on Unloaded Alternator (Generator ) 456 26.5. Type of Relays Units 503
-
26.6. Pick up 504
23. FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS -
463 475 26.7. Reset or Drop-off 504
26.8. Drop Off/pick- up Ratio 504
23.1. Sequence Networks 463 (Electromagnetic Attraction)
26.9. Attracted Armature Relay 506
\ (Electromagnetic Attraction Principle)
26,10. Balanced Beam Relay 507
24. USE OF A.C. NETWORK ANALYSER AND DIGITAL COMPUTER 26.11. Induction Disc Relay (
Electromagnetic)
IN FAULT CALCULATIONS
24.1. Introduction
-
476 484
26.11.1. Plug Setting and Time Setting in Induction
Disc Relays 510
510
® 26.11.2. Effect of Time- setting
510
24.2. A.c. Network Analyzer (A.C. Calculating Board ) )
^ 26.12 Induction Cup Relay (Electromagnetic
. 511
24.3. Digital Computers 478 Moving Coil Relay
26.13. Permanent Magnet 512
24.4. Organization of a Digital Computers 478 26.14. Rectifier Relay Systems 512
24.5. Process of Solving Engineering Problems on Digital Computers 478 26.14.1. Relays for One Quantity 513
24.6. (i) Short Circuit Studies on Digital Computer 479 26.14.2. Relays for Two Quantities 513
Thermocouples
—
SECTION III POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION 26.15. Thermal Relays, Bimetal Relays, 514
26.16. Directional Relays 514
25. INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING
i
-
485 499 26.16.1. Principle of Measurements
26.16.2. Directional Relays
514
25.1. About Protective Relaying 485 515
25.2. Faults, Causes and Effects 486 26.16.3. Principle of Operation of Directional Element 516
25.3. Importance of Protective Relaying 487 26.17 . Polarized Moving Iron Relays 516
25.4. Protective Zones 487 26.18. Frequency Relays 517
25.5. Primary and Back-up Protection 488 26.19. Under-voltage Relays 517
25.6. Back Up Protection by Time Grading Principle 489 26.20. D.C. Relays 517
25.6.1. Back-up Protection by Duplication Principle 490 -
26.21. All-or nothing Relays 518
25.6.2. Monitoring 490 26.22. Plug Setting 518
25.7 . Desirable Qualities of Protective Relaying 490 26.23. Time Setting 518
25.7.1. Selectivity and Discrimination 490 26.24. Test Facility
25.7.2. Relay Time and Fault Clearing Time
25.7.3. Sensitivity
491
492 27. OVERCURRENT PROTECTION AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
520 530 -
520
25.7.4. Stability 493 27.1. Introduction 521
25.7.5. Reliability 493 27.2. Applications of Over-current Protection 521
25.7.6. Adequateness 494 27.3; Relays Used in Over-current Protection 521
27 ,4. Characteristics of Relay Units for Over-current
Protection
25.8. Some Terms in Protective Relaying 494 Relays 522
25.9 .Distinction Between Relay Unit, Protective Scheme and Protective System 496 27.4.1. Connection Scheme with Three Over-current
523
25.10. Protective Current Transformers and Voltage Transformer's 496 27.5. Earth-fault Protection 523
25.11. Actuating Quantities 497 27.6. Connections of Ct’s for Earth-fault Protection 523
25.12. Electro-mechanical Relays and Static Relays 497 27.6.1. Residually Connected Earth-fault Relay 524
27.6.2. Earth-fault Relay Connected in Neutral to
Earth Circuit
25.13. Power Line Carrier Channel ( PLC) 497 525
25.14. Programmable Relay 498 27.7. Combined Earth-fault and Phase- fault Protection
Transformers. (Zero Sequence CT) 525
25.15. System Security 498 -
27.8. Earth fault Protection with Core Balance Curren \

25.16. Role of Engineers 498

 ( xxii ) ( xxiii )
27.9. Frame-leakage Protection
27.10 . Directional Over-current Protection 521 Part B : Distance Protection of Transmission Lines
27.11. Directional Earth fault 528 - 30.9. Introduction to Distance Protection of H.V. and E . H.V. Lines 557
- Protection
529 30.9.1. Plain Impedance Protection - 559
.
28 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTIO 30.9.2. Directional Impedance Relay . 559
N 531-535 " 30.9.3. Reactance Relay 560
28.1. Differential Protection 30.9.4, Mho Relay Admittance Relays 560
28.2 . Applications of Differential Protecti 531 30.9.5. Offset Mho Characteristic 561
on .
28.3. Principle of Circulating Current 531
Differential (merz-prize ) Protection
531 30.10 . Distance Schemes 561
28.4. Difficulties in Differential Protect
ion
532 30.11. Starting Element (Fault Detectors) . 562
28.5. Differential Protection of 3 phase
- Circuits 30.12. Stepped Characteristic 563
28.6. Biased or Per Cent Differe 533
ntial Relay 30.13. Three Step Distance-time Characteristic 564
28.7. Settings of Differential Relays 533
,
30.14. Power Swings 564
28.8. Balanced Voltage Differential 534 .

Protection 534
30.15. Carrier Assisted Distance Protection 565
30.15.1. Carrier Transfer (Intertripping) 565
.
29 DISTANCE PROTECTION 30.15.2. Carrier Blocking Scheme (Directional Comparison Method) 566
29.1. Introduction to Distance Protect
ion
536 549 - 30.15.3. Carrier Acceleration 567
29.2. Principle of R-X Diagram
29.3. Theory of Impedance Measurement
536
536
-
30.16. Distance Schemes for Single Pole and Triple pole Auto-Reclosing . 567
30.17. Connections of Distance Relays 567
29.3.1. R-X Diagrams of Plain Impedance 537 Part C : Protection of Based on Unit Principle Lines
Relay
29.3.2. Plain Impedance Characteristic 538
s. 539
30.18. Pilot Wire Protection Using Circulating Current Differential Relaying 568
29.3.3. Disadvantages of Plain Impedance
Relay. Part D : Carrier Current Protection of Transmission Lines
29.3.4. Time Characteristic of High Speed 539
29.4. Methods of Analysis
Impedance Relay
540 30.19. Carrier Current Protection 571
, 30.20. Phase Comparison Carrier Current Protection
29.5. Directional Impedance Relay 540 574
29.6. Torque Equation of Directi 540 30.21. Applications of Carrier Current Relaying 577
onal Impedance Relay 30.22. Radio Links or Microwave Links 577
29.7. Modified (Shifted ) Characteristic 541
29.8. Reactance Type Distance Relay 542
29.9. Mho Type Distance Relay 542 .
31 PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS 579-592
29.10. Application of Distance Protect 543 31.1. Introduction 579
ion 31.2. Abnormal Operating Conditions and Causes of Failures in Induction Motors
29.10.1. R-X Diagram 544 580
29.10 . 2. Line Characteristics 544 31.3. Protection Requirements 581
29.10 .3. Condition for Relay Operation 544 31.4. Protection of Low Voltage Induction Motor , (below 1000V AC ) 581
29.10.4. Operating Time 545 31.4.1. Scheme of Starting Circuit 581
29.10.5./Stages of Relay Time Charac 545 31.4. 2 . Bimetal Overload Devices 582
teristics 545 31.4.3. Short Circuit Protection by Hrc Fuses 583
29.10.6', Co-ordinated Characteristic
s of Distance Relays in Three Stations. 31.5. Protection of Large Motors 584
29.10 .7. Significance of R -X Diagram 546
and Method of Analysis 31.6. Overload Protection of Induction Motors
29.10.8. Load Impedance 547 584
29.10.9. Line Impedance 547 31.7. Protection Against Unbalance ’ 586

31.8. Protection Against Single-phasing ( Phase Failure )

'

29.10.10. Power Swings 547 587

29.10 .11. Choice of Characteristic Mho 548 31.9. Phase Reversal Relay 588
/reactance Mho/static 31.10. Phase to Phase Fault Protection 588
548
.
30 PROTECTION OF TRAN
SMISSION LINES
31.11. Stator Earth-fault Protection 590
30.1. Introduction 550 31.12. Faults in Rotor Winding 591

-
Part A : Overcurrent Protection of Transm
30.2. Non directional Time Graded System ission Lines
550
.
32 PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 593 613 -
of Feeder (or Line) Protection 32.1. Protection Requirements 593
30.3. Directional Time and Current graded 551
-
30.4. Setting of Directional Over-current
System '
,

553 32.2. Safety Devices with Power Transformers 595

30.5. Current Graded Systems
30.6 . Definite Time Overcurrent Protect
Relays of a Ring Main
554
554
—
32.3. Low Oil Level Fluid Level Gauge
32.4. Gas Actuated Devices
595
595
ion of Lines
30.7. Earth Fault Protection of Lines 556 32.4.1. Pressure Relief and Pressure Relay 595
30.8. Summary of Overcurrent Protection 556 32.4.2. Rate-of-rise Pressure Relay 596
of Lines
557
 { xxv )
( xxiv )
644-655
32.4.3. Buchholz Relay ( Gas Actuated Relay) 596 - 34. STATION BUS-ZONE PROTECTION 644
32.5. Biased Differential Protection, Percentage Differential 34.1. Introduction 645
598 Relays of Connected Circuits
Protection of Power Transformer 34.2. Bus Protection by Overcurrent 646
32.6. Problems Arising in Differential Protection Applied to Transformers 6031 Protection of Incoming Line as a Remote Back-up
34.3. Bus Protection by Distance 646
32.7 . Harmonic Restraint and Harmonic Blocking 604 34.4. Bus-zone Protection by Directional Interlock
Principle 647
32.8. Differential Protection of Three-winding Transformer 604 34.5. Bus-zone Protection by Differential 648
32.9 . Differential Protection of Auto-transformers 605 34.6. Problems in Bus -zone Differential Protection
649
32.10. Earth-fault Protection 60S1 34.7. Selection of CTS for Bus- zone Protection 650
32.11. Restricted Earth Fault Protection 606 34.8 . Biased Differential Bus-zone Protection 650
32.12 . Protection of Transformers in Parallel 608 34.9. High Impedance Circulating Current
Differential Bus-zone Protection
Based on Voltage Drop 650
32.13. Overcurrent Protection of Power Transformers 608 34.10 . High Impedance Differential Protection
System 651
32.13.1. Overload Protection 609 34.11. High Impedance-voltage Differential 652
-
32.14. Thermal Over heating Protection of Large Transformers 610 34.12. Check Features in Bus Protection 652 ,

32.15. Over-fluxing Protection 610 34.13. LocatiOn\ Qf CTs 652

32.16. Protection of Arc Furnace Transformers 611 34.14. Monitoring of Secondary Circuits
32.16.1. Power Supply Requirements of Arc Furnace Plants 611 34.15. Interlocked Overcuffent Protection for
Buszone and Generator-unit Zone 653
654
Three-pole Operation
32.17 . Protection of Rectifier Transformer 612 34.16. Non-auto Reclosure and Simultaneous Switchgear and Industrial Switchgear 654
32.18. Protection of Grounding Transformer 612 34.17. Bus Transfer Schemes for Auxiliary
APPLICATIONS 656-675
33. PROTECTION OF GENERATORS 614-643 35. CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR 656
33.1. Introduction 614 35.1. Introduction 657
33.2. Abnormal Conditions and Protection Systems 616 35.2. Terms and Definitions 658
33.2.1. External Faults. 616 35.3. Accuracy Class 659
33.2.2. Thermal Overloading. 616 35.4. Burden, on CT 661
33.2.3. Unbalanced Loading. 617 35.5. Vector Diagram of CT 663
33.2.4. Stator Winding Faults. 617 35.6 . Magnetisation Curve of CT 664
33.2.5. Field Winding Faults. 618 35.7. Open Circuited Secondary of CT 664
33.2.6. Overvoltages 618 35.8. Polarity of CT and Connections 665
Ratings
33.2.7. Other Abnormal Condition . 619 35.9. Selection of Current Transformers of Protection

-
^
33.3. Percentage Differential Protection of Alternator Stator Windings
33.4. Restricted Earth fault Protection by Differential System
621
623
35.10. CT’s for Circulating Current Differential Protection
35.11. CT’s for Other Protection Systems ; CT’s for Distance
Protection
666
668
668
- -
33.5. Overcurrent and Earth fault Protection for Generator Back up 627 35.12. Type of Construction CT’s 669
33.6. ( a ) Sensitive Stator Earth -fault Protection 628 35.13. Core Shapes for Multiturn Wound Primary Type CT 670
-
33.7. Protection Against Turn to-turn Fault on Stator Winding 629 35.14 . Current Transformer for High Voltage Installations 670
33.8. Rotor Earth Fault Protection 631 35.15. Intermediate CT 672
33.9. Rotor Temperature Alarm 632 35.16. Testing of CT’s (Brief ) 673
33.10. Negative Sequence Protection of Generators Against Unbalanced Loads 632 35.17 . Transient Behaviour of CT’s
33.11. Negative Phase Sequence Circuit 633
676- 689
33.12 . Stator-heating Protection 635 36. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
676
33.13. Loss of Field Protection 635 .
36.1 Introduction
33.14. Reverse Power Protection 635 676
36.2 . Theory of Voltage Transformers 678
33.15. Over-speed Protection 636 36.3. Specifications for Voltage Transformers
33.16. Field Suppression 637 678
36.4. Terms and Definitions 679
33.17. Other Protections 637 36.5. Accuracy Classes and Uses [B.S. 3914 (1965)]
33.18. Protection of Small, Standby Generators 638 679
36.6. Burdens on Voltage Transformer 680
33.19. Generator Transformer Unit Protection 639 36.7 . Connections of VT’s
33.19.1. Combined Differential Protection for Generator Main Transformer ) 682
639 36.8. Residually Connected VT (Zero Sequence Voltage Filter 682
33.20. Static Protection of Large Turbogenerators And Main Transformer 639 36.9. Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer
33.21. Static, Digital, Programmable Protection System For 683
36.10. Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVT) 684
Generator and Generator-transformer Unit 641
36.10.1. CVT with Stepped Output

|
 ( xxvii )
Cxxui )
725
36.10. 2. Protection of Voltage Transformers 684 38.20.3. Pnpn Devices and Thyristor Tripping Circuit 726
36.11- CVT as Coupling Capacitor for Carrier Current Applications 684 38.20.4. Power Switching Techniques with “Thyristors ”
,

726
36.12. Choice of Capacitance Values for CVT 684 38.20.5. Triac 726
36.13. Transient of Behaviour of CVT - 686 38.20.6. Thermistors 726
36.14. Ferro-resonanee ( FR ) in CVT 686 38.20.7. Resistors 727
36.15. Testing of Voltage Transformer ( BRIEF) 687 38.20.8. Capacitors 727
36.16. Application of Capacitor Type Voltage Transformer for Protective Relaying 687 38.21. Printed Circuit Boards with Discrete Components 727
38.22 . Static Relays with Integrated Circuits 728
37. TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS 690-702 38.22 .1. Reed Relays 729
37.1. Importance of Maintenance and Setting 690 38.23 . Static Directional Units
Relaying
37.2. Tests on Relays
'

690 Section II : Digital Circuits and thier Applications in Protective 730

‘
37.3. Test Equipment 691 38.24. Logic Circuits
,

731
37.4. Routine Maintenance Tests 692 38.25. And Function 733
37.5. Inspection and Testing for Acceptance 693 38.26. Or Function 734
37.6 . Some Tests on CT’s 694 38.27. Not Function 734
37.7 . Some Tests on PT’s 694 38.28. Combined Functions j 735
37.8 . Some Test Circuits and Procedures for Secondai'y Injection Tests 695 38.29. Memory Function (Stdrage Function) 736
37.9 . Manufacturer’s Tests 698 38.30. Families of Logic Circuits 738
38.31. Applications of Log c Circuits in Protective Relaying
37.10 . Commissioning Tests
SECTION IV — STATIC RELAYS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES
699
^
38.32. Definition and Application
38.33. Symbol of Operational Amplifier
738
739
739
38-A. INTRODUCTION TO STATIC AND MICROPROCESSOR-BASED 38.34. Characteristics of Ideal Operational Amplifier
740
INTEGRATED PROGRAMMABLE PROTECTION, MONITORING 38.35. Some Applications of Operational Amplifiers
742
AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 703-720 38.35.1. Analogue Level Detector or Comparator
743
38.35.2. Anplogue/digital Conversion
38.1. Introduction and Definition 703 745
38.35.3. Digital to Analogue Conversion
38.2 . Static Versus Electromagnetic Relays 706 745
38.35.4. Digital Multiplexers
38.3. Limitations of Static Relays 708 745
38.35.jj. Encoders and Decoders
38.4. Reliability and Security of Static Relays 709 745
38.5. Historical Review in Brief 710
38.3516/ Programmable System
38.35.7. Microprocessor /
746
38.6. Recent Development of Static Relays 710
^ 746
'

38.35 8. Microprocessor Module

38.7. Present Trends in Protection and Control Technology 711
38.35.9. Hybrid of Analogue and Digital Systems 746
38.8. Modular Concept , Building-block Principle Used in Predominantly 746
38.36. Auxiliary Voltage Supply for Static Relays
Static Protection Systems 714 747
38.37. Full-wave Rectifier
38.9. Static Relay Functional Circuits and Index of Functions 714 747

--
38.10. Types of Measuring arid All or-nothing Relay Units 715
38.38. Smoothing Circuits
38.39. Voltage Stabilization (Regulation) by Zener Diodes 748
38.11. Analogue and Digital Sub systems in Protective Relaying 716 . 748
38.40. Time-delay Circuits
38.12 . Analogue Protection Systems 716 749
38.41. Frequency Filters
38.13. Limitations of Analogue Systems 718
38 42. Symmetrical Component Filters
;
750
38.14. Digital and Programmable Electronic Static Relays 718
38.15. Hardwire Digital Systems 718 753-765
39, COMPARATORS AND LEVEL DETECTORS
38.16. Programmable Digital Protective and Control Systems 719 753
38.17. Forms of Digital Electronic Circuits 719 39.1. Static Relay Functional Circuits
39.2. Comparators 754
38.18. Integration a Control and Protection for High Voltage AC Substation 719 755
39.3. Amplitude Comparators
39.4. Phase Comparators 756
38-B. INTRODUCTION TO ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL STATIC RELAYS 721-752 756
39.5. Phase Comparator Based on Rectangular (or Squared) Pulses'
Section I : Solid State Devices 757
39.6. Phase Comparators Based on Vector Product Devices
38.19. Semiconducting Materials 721 758
39.7 . Direct (Instantaneous) and Integrating Type Comparators
38.20 . Solid-state Devices : (Brief Introduction ) 722 39.8. Integrating Amplitude Comparator
758
38.20.1. Semiconductor Diode 722 39.9. Operating Time
759
38.20.2. Zener-Diodes (Voltage Regulating Diodes ) 723 39.10 . Coincidence Techniques in Phase Comparators
759
 (.xxviii )
{ xxix )
39.11. Spikes and Block Coincidence Technique in Phase Comparator 760 806
39.12. Phase Comparator with Phase Splitting Technique 761 43.3. Protection of Static Relay Circuit Relaying Equipment 807
39.13. Hybrid Comparator 761 43.4. Recommended Protection Practices for Static voltage Transients 808
39.14 . Level Detector 762 43.5. Testing of Static Relays with Regard to Over- 809
39.15. Level Detector by pnp Transistor 762 43.6. Reliability , Dependability, Security 811
39.16. Npn Transistor as Level Detector 763 43.7. Static Relay for Motor Protection Comparison 814
39.17 . Schmitt Trigger with Operational Amplifier 763 43.8. Static Busbar Protection Based on DirectionalAuxiliary Supply
Inplant
39.18. Schmitt Trigger with Two NPN Transistor 764 43.9. Disconnection of Mains Supply From 816
During System Faults
817
. -
766 778 -
43.10 . Breaker Back-up Local Back up
40 STATIC OVERCURRENT BELAYS
766
-
43.11. Use of Micro processor for Local Back up
818
820
43.12. Computer Based Centrally Coordinated Back-
40.1. Introduction to Static Overcurrent Relays up
40.2. Single Actuating Quantity Relays 766 for Protective Relaying Me sure
40.3. Double Actuating Quantity Relays . 767 43.13. Programmable Equipment
820
Ments and Control (PPRMC )
768 821
43.14. Principle of Centralized Back-up Protection CBP
40.4. Basic Principle of Static Overcurrent Relays ( )
40.5. Time Characteristic 769 Computers 822
770 43.15. Post-faulty Control PFC
( ) by Digital
823
40.6. Timing Circuit
771 43.16. Communication Links for Protection Signalling 823
40.7. Directional Overcurrent Relay
43.17. Fibre Optic Data Transmission
40.8. Static Instantaneous A.C. Measuring Relays 773 ;
43.18. Local Breaker Back- up Protection : Breaker Fail Protection 824
-
40.9. Static Time lag Over-current Relays 774
Stuck-breaker Protection 825
40.10. Static Directional Relay 7761
43.19 Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)
.
Protection of Overhead Lines 826
43.20. Directional Wave Relays for Fault Detection And
.
41 STATIC DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF POWER TRANSFORMERS -
779 784
,
41.1. Introduction 7791 43-B. DIGITAL RELAYS, MICROPROCESSORS BASED RELAYS
-
41.2 . Differential Protection of Two winding Transformer 780 FAULT RECORDERS AND FAULT LOCATORS
1 -
828 854
41.3. Differential Protection of Three Winding Transformer 781 828
43.21. Enter Microprocessors in Protection Technology /
829
41.4. Inrush- proof Qualities. 7821 43.22. Block Diagram and Components of a Digital Relay
41.5. Requirements to be Fulfilled by the Main CT 783 831
43.23. Basic Principles of Digital Relays 834
41.6. Auxiliary C.T . 783| 43.24. Microprocessor Based Relays
Relay for Motor Protection 834
43.25. Description of a Microprocessor Based Protective
42. STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE PROTECTION OF EHV LINES 785 802 - 43.26. Advantages of and Special Features of Microprocessor Based Protective Relays 837
42.1. Introduction Relay for
785 ! 43.27. Block Diagram of a Microprocessor Based Distance 838
42.2. Voltage Comparator and Current Comparator 786 Protection of Transmission Line
841
42.3. Three-input Amplitude Comparator 790 ; 43.28. Architecture of a Microprocessor 847
42.4. Hybrid Comparator 791 ; 43.29 . Programming of Microprocessors Based Relays 847
Relay
42.5. Four Input Phase Comparator with Quadrangular Characteristic 792 : 43.30 . Self-checking And/or Self Monitoring in Microprocessor based 849
42.6. Errors in Distance Measurement 792 ; 43.31. On Line Microprocessor Based Fault Monitoring
849
42.7. Influence of Power Swings on Distance Protection 793 i 43.32 . Microprocessor Based Fault Locators
42.7.1. Power Swings 793 i 43.33. Principle of Fault Detection in on Line Digital Relays, Fault 851
42.7. 2. Effect of Power Swing on the Starting Elements in Distance Schemes. 793 i Locators and Fault Recorders
42.7.3. Effect of Power Swing on the Measuring Elements in Distance Schemes. 794 :
855 864-
42.8. Protection of Teed Lines by Distance Relays
-
42.7.4. Representation of Power Swing on R X Diagram
796 t
-.
794 43 C MODERN PROTECTION SYSTEM
43.34. Introduction
856
856
-
42.9. Back up Protection with Intermediate Infeed 796 43.35. Numerical Relays 857
42.10. Compensation or Compounding in Distance Relays 797 i 43.36. Traditionally Separate Networks
42.11. Setting of Distance Relays 858
798 43.37. Ethernet just a Physical Layer Standard
42.12. Solved Examples on Distance Relay Setting 798 •; 43.38. The IEC’s Initiative
859

-
43 A, IMPORTANT ASSORTED TOPICS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 803-827 43 D, MICROPROCESSOR BASED SUBSTATION PROTECTION
- CONTROL
-
865 871
43,1. Combating Electrical Noise and Interferences 803 AND MONITORING
43, 2. Transient Overvoltages in Static Relays 804 865
43.39. Introduction 865
43.40 . Equipment to Automatic Control Substations
 ( xxx )
( xxxi )
43.41. Two Subsystems in Substations 86G
5X LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING
'

43.42 . Two Hierarchical Levels in a Substation 866

,|

43.43. Substation Level ( Upper Level ) AND STATIC FREQUENCY RELAY 920- 930
867
43.43.1. Unit Level 868 45.1. Introduction to System Frequency Control 920
43.43. 2. Inter-level Communication 869 45.2. Load-frequency Characteristics of Rotating Machines 921
43.44. Functions Performed by Protection and Control Equipment 870 45.3. Primary Load -frequency Control 921
43.45. Protection and Control Configuration 45.4. Secondary Load Frequency Control 921
. 871
-
45.5. Load frequency Control of a Grid 922
45.6. Load Shedding
SECTION V — POWER
POWER
SYSTEM ANALYSIS, INTERCONNECTION AND
45.7. Usd nf Frequency Relays for Load Shedding
923
923
SYSTEM CONTROL SQADA SYSTEMS
45.8. Static Frequency Relay 924
44. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES, METHODS 45.8.1. Turbine Frequency Capability and Under-frequency Limits 925
OF ANALYSIS AND IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT STABILITY 45.9. Network Islanding . ./ 927
875 -91 !)
45.10. Other 'Application of Frequency Relay 927
Part A : Concept of Power System 45.11. Load Dispatching and Network Controller
44.1. Power System Stability 927
875
44.2. Concept of Power System Stability
44.3. Single Machine Against Infinite Bus
877
88(1
-
15 B. VOLTAGE
CONTROL
AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER 931-958
45.12. Voltage Control in Network ( Power System ) 931
Part B : Swing Curves and Swing Equation, Equal Area Criterion 45.13. Permissible Voltage Variation
44.4. Dynamics of Synchronous Machines, Kinetic Energy, Inertia 932
45.14. Methods of Voltage Control 933
Constant and Stored Energy 884 45.15. Compensation of Reactive Power
44.4.1. Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Mass 937
884 45.16. Effect of Reactive Power Flow on Voltage at Sending-end and
44.4. 2. Inertia Constant H 885 Receiving end of Transmission Line
44.4.3. Stored Energy in Rotor of a Syn . Machine 938
886 45.17. Series Capacitors 938
44.5. Swing Curve 888 45.18. Applications of Power Capacitors in Electric Power Systems
44.6. Derivation of Swing Equation From Fundamentals 940
889 45.19. Installation of Shunt Capacitors 947
44.7. Equal Area Criterion of Transient Stability 891 45.20. Reactive Power Requirements and Voltage Regulation Of
44.8. Critical Clearing Angle 894 Ehv/ uhv A.C. Lines. Surge Impedance Loading
44.9. Method of Improving Transient Stability Limit 949
897 45.21. Reactiye Power Management 952
Part C : High Speed Protection and Circuit Breakers
44.10. High Speed Circuit Breakers and Fast Protective Relaying for 45 - C, VOLTAGE STABILITY OF ELECTRICAL NETWORK
959-966
Improved Transient Stability 898 45.22 . Introduction to Voltage Stability Studies
44.11. Auto-reclosure Improves Transient Stability 959
900 45.23. Explaining Voltage Instability
44.12. Single Pole Reclosing of Circuit-breakers 959
901 45.24. Increasing Voltage Stability Limit by Supply of Reactive Power
44.13. Independent Pole Mechanism 960
902 45.25. Sequence of Switching-on and Switching-off Shunt Capacitor Banks
961
44.14. Single Pole Tripping
44.15. Selective Pole Tripping
902
902
—
45.26. Q V Characteristics
45.27 . Voltage Collapse Occurances, and Their Time-spans
962
44.16 . Segregated Phase Comparison Relaying (SPCR ) 963
902 45.28. Preventive Measures Against Voltage Collapse
44.17. Influence of Power Swings on Transmission Line Protection 965
903 45.29. Definitions
965
Part D : Autoreclosing
44.18. Autoreclosing Schemes 904 45-D. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS, VOLTAGE CONTROL
AND
44.19. Terms and Definitions Regarding Autoreclosing 904 STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 967 -991
44.20. Rapid Autoreclosing Scheme 905 45.30. Introduction
44.21. Delayed Autoreclosing Scheme 967
907 45.31. Operation of Synchronous Generator 971
44.22. Synchronism Check 907 45.32. EMF and No Load Terminal Voltage, Saturation Curve and Air Line
44.23. Control Schemes for Auto-reclosing 973
908 45.33. Terminal Voltage of an Isolated Generator with Constant
Part E : Modern Definitions of Power System Disturbance, Stability Field Current and Without AVR 974
44.24. Terms and Definitions in Power System Stability Studies (1980 ) 909 45.34. Types of Excitation Systems and AVRS
975
44.25. Operational Limits with Reference to Steady State Stability 45.35. Synchronous Generator in Parallel with the Grid (Infinite Bus) 976
Limit and Transient Stability Limit 912 45.36. Types of AVR and Excitation Systems 977
44.26 . Methods of Improving Transient Stability Limit 914 45.37. Terms and Definitions on AVR and Excitation Systems 980.
 ( xxxiii )
( xxxii ) System
of Bipolar HDVC Transmission 1037
47.2.7. Economic Comparison
45.38. Excitation Systems and AVR (Synchronous Machine Regulators ) 982 with Ehv-ae System . 1038
45.39 . Steady State Performance Excitation Systems and AVRS
45.40. Transient Performance of AVRS
984
984
8 . -
47.2. EHV AC Versus
HVDC
Transmission .
1039
1040
47.2.9. HVDC Cable Interconnection
45.41. Excitation System Voltage Response 985 47.2.10. HVDC System System 1041
1042
45.42. Generator Capability Curves 987 47.2.11. HVDC Coupling HVDC Transmission
45.43. Electrical Load Diagram of a Synchronous Generator Operating 47.2.12. EHV-AC Versus 1044
988 HVDC Transmission 1044
In Parallel with the Grid (VT Constant) 47.2.13. Limitations of Regarding Hvdc
45.44. Control and Protective Circuits of an Excitation System 989
47.2.14. Terms and Definitions 1045
45.45. Voltage-reactive Power Characteristic for Constant Power 990 1045
47.3. Control of Hvdc Link UD/ID Characteristic of Converters.
47.3.1. Steady-state of Rectifier and Inverter Under
Normal
46-A. DIGITAL COMPUTER AIDED PROTECTION AND AUTOMATION 992-1012 47.3 .2 . Intersecting Characteristics 1046
46.1. Introduction to Power System Control and Operation 992 Operating Mode
Under Steady Condition
47.3.3. Intersecting Characteristic
46.2. Terms Related with Computers and Microprocessors 994 1047
with Current Margin Control
46.3. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System for Power- Characteristic with Constant Current Regulation 1047
System Operation and Control 997 47.3.4 . Power Transmission Angle Regulation of Inverter .
46.4. Data Collection Equipment, Data Loggers 999 of Rectifier and Constant Extinction Link : Necessity of
Through an HVDC 1048
46.5. Data Transmission Equipment (Telemetry) 1001 47.3.5. Reversal of Power .
Reversal of Power 1050
46.6. Applications of Power Line Carrier 1003 Control
-
46.7. Man machine Interface 1004 47.3.6. Alternatives of HVDC 1053
Arrangements 1054
46.8. Application of Computers in Network Automation 1004 47.4. Circuit
47.5. Thyristor Valves for
HVDC Convertor 1056
46.9. Microprocessor’s 1005
1056
-
46.10. Micro processor Based Micro-computer 1007 47.6. Reversal of Power -
Conversion of Sub station
46.11. Applications of Digital Computer and Micro-processors in 47.7. Typical Layout of HVDC 1057
Power System Protection. 1008 47.8. Over-voltage Surge Protection 1057
46.12 . Microprocessor Based Inverse Time Overcurrent (IOT ) Relay 1009 47.9. D.C. Surge Arrestors 1058
47.10. Line Protection System 1058
46.13. Digital Computers for Power System Operation 1009
46.14. On Line Digital Computer for Protection of Line 1010 47.11. AC Harmonics 1058
47.12 . Harmonic Filters 1059
47.13. HVDC Simulator 1060
46-B. ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM AND AUTOMATIC
ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH 1013- 1028
-
Sub station
47.14. Protection Systems in HVDCTransmission System 1060
46.15. Classical Method of Loading the Units in a Plant 101 ! 47.14.1. Protection of HVDC 1062
47.15. Line Insulation 1063
46.16. Economic Load Distribution Within a Generating Station by Modern Method 1015
46.17. Modern Method of Economic Load Distribution Between 47.16. Maintenance of HVDC Links 1063
Various Generating Stations in a Region 1017 47.17. D.C. Breakers and Load Switches 1064
47.18. Control and Protective
Equipment
46.18. Distribution of Load Between Generating Stations by Taking
Into Account the Transmission Losses : Penalty Factor 1020 ANDSTATICVARSOURCES -
1067 1088
46.19. Automatic Load Dispatch Incorporating Load Frequency
Control and Economic Load Dispatch 1021 .
—
48 A. EHV ACTRANSMISSION
-
48.1 General Background of
STOTEMS
EHV -AC Transmission
1067
1068
Transmission Lines 1068
46.20. Transmission Loss as a Function of Output Power of Generating Station 1024 48.2 . Voltage Levels for
and Distribution
46.21. Network Controller in Load Control Centre 1024 48.3. Hierarchical Levels of Transmission 1070
48.4. Tasks of Transmission Systems Systems and Design Aspects 1070
47. HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 48.5. Functional Requirements of Transmission 1071
1029-106( 1 and Bipolar Hvdc Transmission System
47.1. Introduction Choice of HVDC Transmission 1029 48.6. Configuration of EHV- AC Transmission
Line
System 1072
47.2 . HVDC Transmission Systems 1029 48.7. Power Transferability of AC 1072
48.8. Line Losses 1073
47.2.1. Applications of HVDC Transmission Systems 1029
48.9. Conductor Cost 1074
47.2.2. Choice of HVDC Transmission System 1030 Line
47.2.3. Types of HVDC Systems and Brief Description 1031 48.10. Transient Stability Limit of AC 1074
Through Li ne
47.2. 4. Long Distance, High Power Bipolar HVDC Transmission Systems 1035 .
48.11 Control of Power Flow 1075
1075
47.2 .5. Power Rating of Long Bipole HVDC Transmission System 1035 48.12 . Short Circuit Levels Compensation of Reactive Power
47.2.6. Configuration and Description of a Bipolar Scheme 1035 48.13. Voltage Control of AC Lines and
 ( xxxiu) ( xxxv )
48.14. Insulation Co -ordination and Surge Arrester Protection
48.15. Line Insulation, 50.4.1. Division of Tasks Between Various Control Centres
1112
48.16. Right-of-way (ROW Clearance and Creepage Distances 107E 1112
) 50.4. 2. Functions of Scada Systems
.
48.17 Corona 107J
107? 50.4.3. Common Features of All Scada Systems 1113
48.18. Towers (Supports) 50.4.4. Alarm Functions 1116
48.19. Bundle Conductors ( 107?
Multiple Conductor) 1078 50.4.5. Integration of Measurement Control and Protection Functions
48.20. Switching by SCADA Systems 1116
Phenomena
48.21. Audible Noise (AN) Associated with EHV AC Line Switching
- 1078 1116
1080 .
50.5 Automatic Sub-station Control
1120
48.22. Biological Effect of
Electric
Electric Field Strength. Field and Limiting Value of 1080 .
50.6 Scada Configurations
1120
48.23. Radio Interference
.
50.7 Energy Management Systems ( EMS)
1123
and 50.8. System Operating States
48.24. Rapid-auto Reclosing Television Interference 1081
50.8.1. Normal State (Secure State) 1123
Breakers -
and Delayed Auto reclosing
of Circuit 1081
50.8.2. Alert State (Insecure State) 1123
48.25. Surge Impedance 50.8.3. Emergency State 1124
Loading of AC Transmission 1082
-
48.26. Sub synchronous
48.27. Static Var System (Resonance Lines
in Series Compensated Ac 1082 50.8.4. Islanding (In Extermis) State 1124
1124
SVS) Lines 50.8.5. Restoration State
48.28. Applications 1082 1124
1083 50.9. System Security
50.9.1. Security Control 1125
49.
INTERCONNECTED POWER
49.1. Introduction SYSTEMS 50.10. State Estimation 112'5
1126
1089-71 O 4" 50.11. Expert Systems Using Artificial Intelligence For Power System Operation
49.2. System Configuration 50.11.1. What is an Expert System? 1126
and
49.2.1. Individual SystemPrinciple of Interconnection
(Region or Area).
1089 50.11.2 . Components of Expert System 1126
49.2.2. Total Generation 1090 1126

—
49.3. Merits ofi' *
Interconnec
49.4. Limitations of
ted
in Inte
m interconnected
Power System
Interconnected Power Systems
49.5. Obligations of Each
Systems (national Grid) 1090
1090
1091
50.11.3. Example of an Expert System’s Working
50.11.4. Applications in Power Systems
50.12. Centralised Diagnostic Expert System Using Artificial Intelligence
50.13. Scada Systems for Power System
1127
1128
1130
49.6. Objectives of Interconnected Systems 1092
Automatic Generation
49.7. Overall Objective on Control aand Tie-line Power Flow 1092 1134- 1137

49.8. Tie-line Power Flow

~ -
and ooCo-relation
reiation
Reactive Power Control and Tie
- -
Between
line
v> -
Betwoo Real
Power Flow
Power and
Control 1093
51. POWER SYSTEM PLANNING
51.1. Scope of Power System Planning and Design 1134
1134
- 51.2. Significance of System Planning and Design
49.9. Tie line Power Flow Control in 2 area System
- 1094
51.3. Computer Programmes for Planning
1
1135
49.10. Alternative Principlesinof3-area System 1096
-
49.11. Equations of Tie-line Control and the Tie line Bias Control 1096
52. IMPROVING DYNAMIC STABILITY BY FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION
49.12. Actions by the ControlPower Flow Control Reviewed 1097
SYSTEM (FACT) AND FVDC SYSTEMS 1138-1149
Room Operators to Change Tie
49.13. Actions by Control
49.14. Controlling Tie line Room Operators for Voltage - line Power 1098
1100 52.1. Inter-relationship Between Voltage, Active Power, Reactive
- Control
Former (Regulating Power by Means of Phase Shifting Trans 1100 Power , Power Angle, Oscillations and Various Types of Stabilities 1138
49.15. Phase Shifting Transformers) - 52.1.1. Review of Concepts of Power System Stability and Basic equations 1138
Transforme
49.16. Types of Interchanges r (Regulating Transformer) 1100 52.2. Parameters for Dynamic Control 1139
in Interconnected System 1101 52.3. Fundamental Requirements of AC Transmission System 1140
49.16.1. Control of
49.17 . National Grid and Power Flow Through Interconnector 1102 52.4. Time Ranges of Abnormal Conditions and Disturbances 1140
Growth of Power System in India 1103 52.5. Enter Thyristor Control 1140
1103 52.6. First Swing Period and Oscillators Period 1141
50. OPERATION AND
AGC AND SCADA CONTROL OF INTERCONNECTED POWER 52.7. Review of Power System Problems and Methods for Improvement 1141
SYSTEMS; 52.8. Flexible AC Transmission ( FACT) 1144
50.1. Introduction 1105- 1133 52.9. Damping of Oscillations in AC Networks by Means of HVDC Damping Control 1145
50.2. Main Tasks in Power System 52.10. Stabilisation of Adjacent AC Lines 1146
50.2.1. Planning of Operations Operation 1105
1105 52.11. Damping of AC Networks Oscillations with Different
50.2.2. Operational Tasks Conditions of DC Control for Synchronous HVDC Link 1147
50.2.3. Operating Accounting 1106
50.3. Automatic Generation and Financial Control 1106 - 53. COMPUTER AIDED POWER SYSTEM STUDIES 1150-1154
50.4. Supervisory Control and Control (AGC) 1108
Data Acquisition (SCADA) System 1108 53.1. Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) for Power System Studies 1150
1109 53.2. Purpose and Need of System Studies 1150
 ( xxxviii )

58.5.5. Switchgear Installations 1235

i 58.6. High-voltage Switchgear 123f
58.6.1. Definitions and Electrical Characteristics for HV Switchgear Apparatus 1236
58.6. 2. Electrical Characteristics 1237
58.7. Disconnectors and Earth Switches 123;.
58.7 .1. Circuit Breakers Function 12.1:
58.7 . 2. Quenching Medium and Operating Principle for Different Insulating &
Quenching Medium 1251
58.7 .3. Different Types of Operating Mechanisms of HV, CB 1251
. .
58.7 .4. Electrical Control of H V Circuit Breakers 1254
.
58.7.5 Instrument Transformers for Switchgear Installations 125;-
58.7 .6. Current Transformers 1257
.
58.7 7. Inductive Voltage Transformers 12«;
58.7.8. Capacitive Voltage Transformers 1261
58.8. Surge Arresters 1261
58.8.1. Types of Surge Arresters 126;
58.8.2. Application and Selection 126
58.8.3. Typical Values of Surge Arresters for the Major Voltage Ratings 126
-
58.8. 4. Circuit Configurations for High and Medium-voltage Switchgear Installations 1266
59. ELECTRICAL SAFETY 1273 m -
59.1. Introduction 127
59.2. Requirements for Electrical Safety 127:
59.3. Relevant Indian Standards 127
59.4. Special Precautions in Design, Installation Maintenance of
Electrical Equipment in Hazardous Locations 127i
59.4.1. Elements for Ignition L27-
59.4.2. Classifications of Hazardous Areas & its Sub-groups 127
59.5. Hazardous Areas Classification zones/divisions
- 127
59.6. Gas/dust/fibre Groups 1277
59.7. Temperature Class 1271
59.8. Weather Protection 127:
.
59.9 Material of Construction, Design Characteristics and
Conformity Type Test Report 1271
59.10. Marking on Ex protected Design Electrical Equipment
- 128(
59.11. Maintenance of Ex protected Equipment
- 1281
59.12. Duties and Obligations 1287
59.13. Selection of Right Variety of Ex protected Equipment
- 128'
59.14. Explosion Protection Techniques 128-
59.15. Lightning Protection of Structures with Explosive or Highly Flamrriable Contents 128:
59.16. General Principles of Protection 1287
59.17. Types of Lightning Protection System 1287
59.18. Bonding 1286
59.19. Other Considerations 128:
59.20. Group Classification of Inflammable Gas/vapor 1286

-
Appendix A : Recent Trends and Advances Towards 21st Century -
1291 1316
-
Appendix B ; Distribution Management System 1314 - 133;

Bibliography 133!

Index 1336 T33:

 SECTION T
SWITCHGEAR AND
SUB -STATION APPARATUS
 1
Introduction
—
Significance Energy Management System —
Switchgear Protection and Network Automation
. — —Power
- Network Phenomena —
— — —
Normal and Abnormal Conditions Faults-Fault clearing Network
—
Svetlans
— — —
Configiirations Switchgear Circuit Breakers Protective Relays Substations EHV AC
HVDC Transmission Systems —Interconnected Systems —Load Flow
,Kli ,. _ Grounding of Neutrals —Transient Overvoltages and Surge Arresters — Static
Transmissio n Systems
s
cjt
r based integrated protection and control —Power System Calculations—Load
relays Microprocesso
Flow Calculations—Computer and Microprocesso r in Energy System Studies —Scope of Subject.
of Switchgear, Protection and Power Systems
to every consumer at all times
Electrical Energy Management system ensures supply of energy
wave form , at lowest cost and with minimum en-
at rated voltage, rated frequency and specified are integral part
vironmental degradation. The Switchgear , Protection and Network Automation
System and National Economy . The modern 3 phase, 50 Hz,
of the Modern Energy Management
A ( 1 interconnected power system has several conventional and non-
conventional power plants , EHV
AC and HVDC Transmission Systems , Back-to-back HVDC Coupling
Stations, HV Transmission
network , Substations, MV and LV Distribution Systems, and Connected Electrical Loads . The ener-
gy in electrical form is supplied to various consumers located in a vast geographica l area , instantly,
automatically and safely with required quality at all times . The service continuity and high-quality
of power supply have become very important .
Cenerution Planning, Transmission Planning, System Expansion , Installation , Operation -
Con
trol mid Maintenance of Electrical Energy Systems , Fault Calculations , Network Calculations , Load
Flow Studies have become very essential functions of Modern Power Engineers. Switchgear and
Controlgear are also essential with every power consuming devices at Utilization Level.
Switchgear and Protection/Control-Panels are installed at each voltage levels at each switching
point for
(1) normal routine switching, control and monitoring and
i '2 ) automatic switching during abnormal and faulty operating conditions such as short circuits,
undorvoltage, overloads.
The Computer Controlled Network Automation by Load Control Centre, Power Station Control
Rooms and Substation Control Rooms and communication channels together ensures the Control
of National and Regional Grids and control of Voltage, frequency , Power and waveform under
prevailing and ever changing load conditions. This Text-Book covers the principles and practice in
.
Modern Power Systems, Switchgear Protection, Fault Calculation. Load Flow Calculations and
Computer Aided Energy Management Systems. This Chapter gives an Overview and the Scope.

1.1 . SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

Everyone is familiar with low voltage switches and rewirable fuses. A switch is used for opening
and closing in electric circuit and a fuse is used for over-current protection. Every electric circuit
needs a switching device and a protective device. The switching and protective devices have been
developed in various forms. Switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of equipment con -
cerned with switching and protection .-
 3
2 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTS; INTRODUCTION
s of switchgear vary depending upon the location , ratings and switch -
A circuit-breaker is a switching and current -interrupting device in a switchgear . The circujapplications’ the requirement network, switchgear is necessary in industrial works, industrial
breaker serves two basic purposes :
'
j ng duty. Besides
| the supply
and commercial buildings . A controlgear is used for switching and controlling
a
(1) Switching during normal operating conditions for the purpose of operation and maintenan rojects’ domestic % consuming devices.
. reJf ” S tchi E
" normal conditions such as short circuits and interrupting the fault c power-
^ „
) currents whi, 1 SUB-
STATION EQUIPMENT
are T toT tfernrCuntnTTenti 1
, „
0
“ ction
relati lj simPle
“ is complex as the fault
, il Selves > *
“ currents are relatively high aif In every electrical sub-station , there are generally various indoor and outdoor switchgear equip -
thev should be iniprrnnf iSecan Wlt n a short time of the order of a few cycles. One cycjjment. Each equipment has a certain functional requirement Ref. Table
( 1.1). The equipment are
in 50 Hz svstem takes 1 / n
^ “ voltage rating and local conditions . Generally indoor
^

n mu
aei ara several types of faults and abnormal conditions. Tljfeither indoor
,
or outdoor , depending upon the
, ° '
?
fault currents can dnmncro FV e e1ulPment and the supply installation if allowed to flow for a long equipment is preferred for voltages up to 33 kV. For voltage of 33 kV and above , outdoor switchgear
* . , in heavily polluted areas indoor equipment may be preferred even
duration In order to avoir]
SUC S every part of the power system is provided with a protejfis generally preferred However
- 035 InSUl tei SubS*ati0nS < GIS> are f r ltageS i
live relaying system and
lb„vet rkV
3
0ltaSBS'
^ “ “’ arge
“
C ieS
° °V

is generally in
If ^ The outdoor equipment is installed under the open sky. The indoor switchgear
converted by the term ‘Switchgear’ Swkrtwinirto!
)
of ' any electric circuit . In addition to circuit -breaker and nr
a
Afer 1
clearing process a§
"p0ault system and also |
th form 0f metal enclosed factory assembled units called metal - clad switchgear , /
-breakers are the switching and current interrupting devices . Basically a circuit -breaker
for controlling, regulating and measuring can also be consider ed a " s t w b H y J l p sfCircuit
• owitchgea comprises a set of fixed and movable contacts . The contacts can be separated by means of an operat-
includes switches, fuses, circuits-breakers isolators relavs mnimi rP,,nni s > v m- nmg
rent transformers and various associate d equipments ’
•
arresters , cm jng mechanism. The separation of current carrying contacts produces an arc. The arc is extin -
, SF6 gas. The circuit-breakers are
. . guished by a suitable medium such as dielectric oil, air( , vacuum
Switchgear are necessary at every switching point in AC nower svsW
station and final load point , thore aro several"
, , , AUXUMRY
Tag" lovtla
and fluh Tela
H c
’
" tat ^ *
SWiichi ®
condition. They are generally
“ ^” AC

installed along
Ref . Fig. 1.1)
Isolators are disconnecting switches which can be used for disconnecting a circuit
with the circuit breaker . An
under no cur
isolator , can be
-
9
i
i x SWITCHGE rent can be closed to
AR opened after the circuit breaker . After opening the isolator , the earthing switch ft
i -X - SWITCHGEAR discharge the trapped electrical charges to the ground . The current transformer s and potential
transformers are used for transforming the current and voltage to a lower value for the voltages
purpose of 3w
GENERATOR!; QD - measurement, protection and control. Lightning arresters ) divert the over -
AUXILIARY
TRANSFORMER
^ TRANSFO
“
RMER
protect the sub-station equipment
arresters
from over
( surge
-voltages . The further details about the c
MAIN O- GENERATOR to earth and
TRANSFORMER sub-station equipment are given in Section I of this book . 2
/MAIN SWITCHGEAR
Table 1.1 I
TT -X - 7 . -
AC Sub station equipment* 1
X X I l y Function
3>
Symbol Equipment
Hi Switching during normal and abnormal Irf
-
SUB STATION T Circuit-breaker
conditions , interrupt the fault currents.
an
-
i__
1 XtXK 3D^
>LV -_ ^BUTION-
X4-X-C1D-X-
x ISTRI 2. Isolator
( Disconnecting switch)
Disconnecting a part of the system from live
parts under no load condition.
s<
TRANS
MISSION -—X 3. Earthing-switch Discharge the voltage on the lines to earth after
disconnecting them .

H
A
x
SWITCHING
fHSTATION
—y1
1 i
X
4. Surge arrester Diverting the high voltage surges to earth and
maintaining continuity during normal voltage.

x — 1
IB T Stepping down the current for measurement
5. Current transformer
protection and control.
GENERATING
STATION
6.
( oL ,
)
Potential transformer
( Voltage transformer )
Stepping down the voltage for the purpose of
protection, measurement and control .

SUB - A aiijin
IMHt T
STATiiON
f f
* For 400 kV, and above Series Capacitors are used for increasing power transfer ability. Shunt
reactors are
U DISTRIBUTION .
Fig. 1.1. Location of Switchgear in Typical P'ower System (Single line, simplified diagram ).
used for compensation of reactive power
I
 4 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 5
INTRODUCTION
L3. FAULTS AND ABNORMAL CONDITIONS
A fault in an electrical equipment is
defined as a defect in its electrical circuit due to whicj
jg tHE FAULT CLEARING PROCESS 1
the current is diverted from the intended path . Faults are generally caused by breaking of The protective relays are connected in the secondary circuits or current transformers and/or
conduc
tors or failure of insulation The other causes of faults include mechanical failure, accidents , . ,
tiai transformers. The relays sense the abnormal conditions and close the trip circuit of the
exces p° nciated circuit-breaker The circuit-breaker opens its contacts. An arc is drawn between the con-

affected . Voltage becomes unbalanced .

The faults can be minimised by improving the system, design , quality
of the equipment ant
—— transient variation of the short-circuit currents.
transient variation of the voltage after final arc interruption ( transient recovery voltage )
maintenance. However the faults cannot be eliminated completely. the arc extinguishing phenomenon
For the purpose of analysis, AC faults can be classified as After final arc extinction and final current zero , a high voltage wave appears across the dr -
— cuit-breaker contacts tending to re-establish the arc. This transient voltage wave is called Transient
single line to ground fault
— —
line to line fault
.
Recovery Voltage (TRV) The TRV comprises a high frequency transient component superimposed
double line to ground fault
— —
simultaneous fault on a power -frequency recovery voltage.
three phase fault
—
open circuit . , etc.
The other abnormal conditions in AC system include: These phenomena have a profound influence on the behaviour of the circuit-breakers and the
associated equipment ( Ref. Ch. 3, 4).
—
voltage and current unbalance
—
over-voltages
—
under frequency
—
reversal of power .
1.6 PROTECTIVE RELAYING
—
temperature rise
—
power swings AC power system is covered by several protective zones . Each protective zone covers one or two
—
instability, etc.
Some of the abnormal conditions are not serious enough to call for tripping
components of the system. The neighbouring protective zones overlap so that no part of the system
fc
f
is left unprotected. Each component of the power system is protected by a protective system corn- i
breaker . In such cases the protective relaying is arranged for giving of the circuit
an alarm In more serioi - prising protective transformers, protective relays, all-or-nothing relays , auxihanes, tnp-circmt, trip
? , "
cases, the continuation of the abnormal condition (such as a
the faulty part should be disconnected the system without any
by protective relaying and switchgear .
faifitl
can be * 11£
^ ^ « «
delay . This function is performed
oil etc' Duringthe abnormal conditi°n the Protectb elaying 8611865
’
^ tl
triP circuit of the circuit-breaker. Thereby the circuit-breaker opens and the faulty part of the y
tem is disconnected from the remaining system. ^ l

srnr - the fault the mrrsnf ana

During
The -
,
^
. ,,
^ difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.
3
is

observed are called ‘transient phenomena’. Thewrd

which lasts for a short duration of time. The fault
to three cycles, the fault current is very high but ^ ^transient
ranSient^
current varies with time
The protective schemes for large electrical equipment comprise several types of protective systems,
During the first one For low voltage eTuiPment of relatively small ratings, fuses and thermal relays are generally adequat
decreases verv ranidlv This 7 nne in whinh fh « The protective schemes of large power
current is very high , but decreases very rapidly is called
the Sub -
system -equipment are generally designed with
State . After the fimt power swings > power system stabiUty and associated problems. Ref. Sec. Ill and IV .
( )
due regards
.
to
i
i
li
current is called the Transient State.
.
state Steady State is reached . During the Steady State
remains almost constant .
The circuit -breakers operate during the Transient State
^
TheTransient tatSs forleverarcycleT Aft
^ htTransient - -
the r. m .s value of the short -circuit current

.
1 7 NEUTRAL GROUNDING (EARTHING) AND EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
The term Grounding or Earthing refers to the connecting of a conductor to earth. The neutral
points of generator and transformer are deliberately connected to the earth . In 3 phase a.c. systems
the earthing is provided at each voltage level. If a neutral point is not available, a special Earthing
Transformer is installed to obtain the neutral point for the purpose of earthing. Neutral points of
.
1.4 FAULT CALCULATIONS star connected VTs and CTs are earthed. The neutral earthing has several advantages such as :
The knowledge of the fault currents is necessary for selecting
rating designing the sub-station equipment, determining
the circuit-breakers of adequate
the relay settings, etc. The fault calcula-
tions provide the information about the fault currents and the voltages
—
Freedom from persistent arcing grounds. The capacitance between the line and earth gets
charged from supply voltage. During the flash-over the capacitance get discharged to the
power system under different fault conditions. at various points of the earth. The supply voltage charges it again . Such alternate charging and discharging
produces repeated arcs called Arcing Grounds. The neutral grounding eliminates the prob-
The per- unit system is normally used for fault calculations
phase faults are analyzed on per phase basis. For
. The symmetrical faults such as three
calculations on unsymmetrical faults, the method The6 neutral grounding stabilises the neutral point. The voltages of healthy phases wi
.
of Symmetrical Components is adopted The network analyzer
and digital computers are used for SP6Ct to
° neutral are stabilised by neutral earthing.
— , . .
-
.
fault calculations of larger systems. (Ref. Sec. II) . f i jn discharging over voltages due to lightning to the earth ,
The neu ra ear mg
 7
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIOff INTRODUCTION
6
Lighting Arrester (Surge Arresters). The equipme
nt connect ed between the conductor and
— Simplified design of earth fault protection. to discharge the excessiv e voltages to earth.
— The grounded systems require relatively lower insulation levels as
compared with u , around
Clearing Time. The time elapsed between the instant of
the occurrence of a fault and
grounded systems. ?
Fault
,
The modern power sysW are s phase a systems Wlth grounded
^
ing a transient fault. High voltage circuit-breakers used
restore the service continuity after interrupt
lines are provided with such a feature.
.
1.8 OVER-VOLTAGES AND
INSULATION CO -ORDINATION for controlling overhead transmission
capable of making carrying and breaking electric
The over-voltage surges in power systems are caused by Contactor. Contactor is a switching; device
.
various causes such as : lightnim current under normal and overload conditions
switching resonance etc. over-current protection of low
.
HRC Fuse High rupturing capacity cartridge fuse is used for

, transformer
gradedln system against abnormal conditions , e.g. , generator protection scheme

cal
!
mSU
° levels
atl n

Irte rr
use of overhead ground wires
-
of various power
V0lta es is min
^
system elemen ts are such a wa of
.the power
and the design of insulation of the equip Protecti°n SChem6’ etC '
economi . The protective measures against over-voltages due to
lightning include
1.10. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
— uselow tower footing resistance The various
.. ,
standards institutions in the world publish the standards specifica
, „
tions of high
. Standards have been published
and other substation equipment
fc
ft
a
-
the switching over voltages depend upon the values of equivalent
tance in the system, the magnitude of the current to be interruptedinducta
and
nce, capacitance and resis-
other local conditions. Over-
_ terms and definitions (vocabulary ) Ic
voltages are produced during opening of a circuit-
be reduced by incorporating opening resistors breaker . The amplitude of such over-voltages can — conditio
ratings
-
across the circuit breaker interrupters. Over-voltages
are also produced during the closing operation of — construcnstional
of service
.
loaded transmission lines Such over-voltage can be minimi -
circuit breaker especially while closing on un
-- — tests to be performe
details
d, standard test procedures , methods of evaluation of the test results
.
tors across the interrupters of the circuit breakers.
- -
zed by incorporating pre closing resis — guidelines for selection .
5v
The surge arresters offer low resistance to over voltages
- and divert and over-voltages to earth.
—The standards are generally, erection and maintenance
drafted for a wider application and they generally do not cover
s are generally
specific cases. IEC ( International Elector-Technical Commission recommendation
)
1.9. SOME TERMS IN THE TEST specifica tions Publishe d by Bureau of
accepted all over the world and the IS ( Indian standards )
Controlgear. Controlgear is a general term Indian Standards ( BIS) are generally based on IEC recomm endation s . %
with associated control, measuring and protectivecovering switchin g devices and their combination
ing devices. (Ch. 15) equipment intended for control of power consum
- Quality Standards
The following Standards Organisations are associated with the Standards on
Quality .
*
Circuit -breaker. A device capable of making, breaking an
abnormal conditions such as short circuits. electric circuit under normal and —— Interna
-
Bureau
tional Standards Organisation (ISO) , Headquarters: Geneva
of Indian Standards , New Delhi (BIS)
, Switzerl and.

Isolator (Disconnecting Switch). A switching

under no current condition. It provides isolation of a device which can be opened or closed only
circuit for the purpose of maintenance.
—Bureau Veritas Quality International ( BVQI)
The ISO and IS Standards on Quality are:
Earthing Switch. It is a switch which connects a conductor to
the charges on the conductor to the earth. the earth so as
a to discharge Title
Earthin g switches are generally installed on the frames ISO IS
of the isolators. .

Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standard . Selection and Use :

20
ISO: 9000 IS: 14000
.
Relay An automatic device which closes its
contacts when the actuating quantity/quantities System Elements
reach a certain predetermined magnitude/phase . ISO: 9001 IS: 14001 Level 1: Design/Development Production , Testing in factory, installation and
Current Transformer (CT). The current ratio of current
500 A/5A) and volt-ampere capacity is relatively low ( e.g. 50 ) transformers is generally high ( e.g
VA as compared with that of the power
. Servicing
transformers. ISO: 9002 IS: 14002 Level 2: Production and installation all elements, some less stringent
Potential Transformer (PT), Voltage Transformer (VT) , The volt-ampere ISO: 9003 IS: 14003 Level 3: Final Inspection and Tests-half the elements, low stringency
potential transformer is low ( e .g. 100 VA) capacity of a
.
and the voltage ratio is relatively high ( e g. 132 kV/lOOV). ISO: 9004 IS: 14004 Guidelines: Maximising benefits and minimising costs.
The protective relays are connected in the secondary
circuits of CTs and PTs .
 8 9
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO INTRODUCTION
are either fixed wire or programmable

Switchgear and Protection are vital equipment in the electrical installations.

It should hav, Data transmission ( telemetry )
Perfect Quality .

——
-
Data monitoring equipment
J

Man-machine interface.
1.11. ELECTRO-MECHANICAL RELAYS AND STATIC RELAYS
The Data includes current, power, voltage, status etc .Load Control Centre receives the following
Data regarding generating stations
The electromechanical relays, are based on the comparison between operating
restraining torque/force. The VA burden of such relays is high. The
Each relay unit can perform only one protective function. Such relays are
costly protection purposes. For important and costly equipment
torque/force an|
characteristics have limitation!
used for simple and lesj
and installation, static relays art
——
Data regarding major sub-stations
Data regarding receiving stations,
The variables are scanned periodically and conveyed to
load control centres as required .
processed in data loggers . It is transmitted
preferred . The data is collected at sources by transducers , it is

—— through one or more of following channels :

In static relays the sensing, comparison and measurement are made by static ( to load control centres
cuits having no moving parts. Static relays were developed during 1960’s electronic) cir- Power line carrier communication channels
all over the world for almost all protective relaying, control and and have been accepted . . Pilot wire communication

— tive/control/monitoring functions in one compact unit. Recently (

static relays incorporating microprocessor have been
automation purposes .
Static relays have versatile characteristics, offer low burden, and incorporate
several prater
1980’s ) programmable —
Microwave communication
Satellite communication
Now fibre-optics is being used for short lengths of upto 50 km for
dat a transmission. Data is
introduced . Microprocessor based converted into digital form in A/D convertors.
£
— relays have several superior features such as :
Indication or operating values on demand and thereby no need of separate
struments on panel.
Applications of Digital computers and microprocessors in power system protection
indicating in-; in Section V ,
are described

Is
— A single relay can perform 10 or more different protective
functions thereby reducing num
1.13. INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM

——
ber of separate relays and increasing reliability. *

Modern electrical power systems are large interconnected AC Networks. The

total network is
Internal monitoring of own relays circuit.
.
Memory function e g . a relay which has tripped on
display, the magnitude of current and instant of time at the
,
fault can remember and flash on the divided a few regional zones Areas .
( ) Each Area controls its own loud , frequency and generation.
Adjacent independently controlled areas are interconnected to from a Regional/National
Grid .
i3
— Better properties and extended range of application for generation
time of tripping,
For example, the Power Map of India is covered by the following five regional zones:
4
tion and industrial application.
The range of static relays in rapidly spreading. Details
, transmission, distribu -
——
Central zone
Southern zone
—— Western zone
Northern zone
i
s
IV. about static relays are covered in section
—North eastern zone
Some zones are already interconnected to form the Regional Grids. Each zone has its loadunder con- % 1
CTATicraoTOrTX trol centre . National load control centre is in Delhi . However the total National Grid is
i
^witlf
1[GITAL C0MPUTEES MICROPROCESSORS AND
STATIC PROTECTIVE/CONTROL DEVICES IN development .
POWER SYSTEM
Complex tasks associated with data loa ' n an Interconnected network , the National Load Control Centre determines the exchange
*
mani ormgi measurements, protection, control and between Regional Zones. Regional load control centres control generation in the respective zone to
•

th ’ 31. ** Hz . )
automation are now being performed ’
n ne Programmable devices match the prevailing load so as to maintain the regional frequency within target limits 49-51
(
tyP
including oh-line digital computers, microproce SS °
transmission and processing devices etc Th e«e . as°ts’include
nfW- ° °"

^
rs , static protective and control devices, data During the low frequency/high load; the region imports power from adjacent surplus region .
, During
.
———
. low load/high frequency, the region exports power
I Checking fault levels periodically Advantages of Interconnections
Loading of plants for economical and reliable
operation —During the period of need, a Region (Area) imports power from adjacent region and main-

:: —— Protection analysis, setting of trip levels to suit network configuration

-
Back up protection.
Real-time energy management from National Load
and loading status. tains stability and frequency.
—
The transient stability limit of each region is increased without increasing the installed
capacity as the rotating reserve of adjacent region is used by interconnection.
Centre.
The task of power system protection control and
Control Centre, Regional Load Control
—Optimum economic loading of hydro/thermal/nuclear generating stations depending
energy reserves. Economic loading of power plants.
upon

automation are performed by SCADA systems*.

—Bulk transfer of energy as per agreed schedule.
Peak loads of each region may occur at different hours during the day. During this
period , the

* Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition Systems region imports the power.
(Ref . Ch . 50) .
 10 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO: 11
INTRODUCTION
After 1975, the Back- to-Back HVDC Coupling stations have zones. Drop in frequency and rate of drop ( df / dt )
become extremely successful f0,
interconnections between adjacent AC Grids . The rating of HVDC
range of 500 MW, 1000 MW . By means of an HVDC
Coupling Stations are in % 1
Coupling Station , power exchange betwee ,
S sed in
^, f^
frequency relay for segregation action ,

LEVELS IN NETWORK AND SUB STATIONS

VOLTAGE - I
'
The network has various voltage levels for generation , transmission distribution , utihsation ,

Economic Load Despatch. The economic operation of large AC grid can

a centraheed load control centre' or load despatch
centre'.
be controlled fret _ Eadtbone transmission network is by EHV AC transmission lines (400 kV AC )
__ “ stribution is at lower AC voltages between 132 kV AC and 3.3 kV AC.
,
1.
he load control centre determines the allocation
ot economic load distribution considering
of generation by various plants on the basis
incremental operating costs X and penalty factors ft ,
___ Utilisation at is low voltage ( up to 1 kV) and medium voltages upto 33 lcV.
1 n losses ( Ln ) fo eac sub-
Th factorv stations receive power at distribution voltage upto 33 kV and step it down
rnnf -rTSS
control rooms
in the control system of Generator ^ Plant; The load control centre sends command to power stations
° periodically ?by telemetric
data transmission. The automatic load-frequency control
-Turbine-Governor basically aims at maintaining constant
quency/speed as a primary control. But the setting
control ) is changed according to the instructions
fre-
of governor to turbines ( secondary load frequence
to 440 Volts AC Larger factories receive power at 132 kV and have internal distribution at 4?
T TkV to 440 volts AC
’ TABLE 1
Voltages in AC. and HVDC Sub- stations ri
of the load control centre. Thus the input to tur Reference Values of Nominal
bines of generators gets automatically adjusted by -
cy is maintained. And the governor setting
primary load-frequency control and the frequen
- A.C. Sub- stations 5 :
is determined by economy load dispatch instructions. 400 kV 220 kV 132 kV 110 kV
The total load frequency control is achieved jointly
by: 66 kV 33 kV 22 kV 11 kV 6.6 kV
(a ) Load Control Centre
(b ) Telemetry and Telecontrol Equipment
and
3 3 kV 400 V a.c. rms. phase to phase.
H .V .D.C. Sub- stations
5
t
(c ) Power Station Control Room.
Automatic Economic Load Despatch is illustrated in Chapter
46-B.
± 260 lcV,
+ 400 kV, + 500
kV, + 600 kV
s
. -
1.14 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD
SHEDDING
Station Auxiliaries i
Load-frequency Control of AC grid is achieved by Auxiliary A . C . supply : 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV d
)
tion of electrical power with prevailing load continuous matching of generation ( produc - 400 V, 3 ph , phase to phase
conditions by joint action of control rooms in generating .
stations. Voltage control is achieved by appropriate
tive sub-stations.
tap-changing and shunt compensation in respec
230 V a . c. single phase
| Auxiliary L.V.D.C , : 220 V, 110 V, 48 V.D.C . 1
The regulations of power supply insist that the supply
within 2% about the declared frequency of 50 . frequency variation should remain
Hz 116 VOLTAGE CONTROL OF AC NETWORK
The frequency of a generator and generating Voltages of various sub-stations buses should be held within specified limits, the variation al-
mechanical governors controlling the turbine speedstation is controlled partly by the action of the lowed ± 10% ( Refer Table 2).
plants output is increased by increasing input and partly by changes in load conditions . The
. How much load the plant should share is decided Whereas the active power flow (P ) determines directly the frequency (/), it does not affect the
by grid control loading engineer . voltages significantly.
.
Load Shedding When the load increases
starts dropping. Drop in frequency below 49 Hzbeyond limits of generation, the system frequency Voltages are affected significantly by the flow of reactive power Q .
is not permitted . To _ Q L
frequency, load is shed (disconnected ) at
distribution
Tap changing should be arranged to prevent voltage level . Load
control
shedding
rise beyond safe limits.
may
the further drop of
cause voltage rise. I ^*
AV | =
IV |
Reduced frequency causes vibrations and failures of stream where | VR | = Receiving end voltage of the line, magnitude
former cores, drop in synchronous speed, error in clock turbine blades, overfluxing of trans-
time etc. Excellent power system operates Q = Reactive power flow through the line
within targetted frequency continuously. X = Series reactance of line
.
Network Segregation (Islanding) In case of major fault or outage
dency of cascade tripping and large blackout. It , the network has a ten -
| AV | = Voltage drop in line, [Vs] - [Vjj] , magnitude
is difficult to resynchronise. To avoid such happen- Voltages are controlled by supplying reactive power ( Q ). This is called compensation .
 13
12
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT INTRODUCTION
Basic Methods of Voltages Control ^ VAr SOURCES (SVS)

——
1 17 STATIC
Voltages Regulators and Excitation Control of Synchronous
Tap-changing transformers at various sub stations.
Generators. _ Static
VAr sources are installed in receiving sub
£
of readdve power compensation for voltage
-stations, load sub-stations for fast stepless
control . In conventional switched schemes the
- ,
, the capacitors/reactors are con-
seasonal voltage variations. On load tap changers are
changing the turns ratio of the transformer v / Nu ,,
..
n
thTltoB KPTS ‘
° °
.

ue (( By compensated
rie >
‘Tcit ^*
, by the»rsdrop
S
Nl 2 the
Off-load
, r
ed
voltages
tap
for
changers
daily load
are used
variation
ratio IVV2 is changed .
.

* tong lines . The inductive reactance drop i

fif control
trolled
^
y
v

, "Sc
“
^ switched in/out by circuit-breakers. In SVS
BJ fS controlling
^ the delay angle of thyristor
Compensation
schemes are used for
triggering
controlling
.
voltage
The
of
duration

AC
and magnitude of current
compensation is controlled . Fast
reactor/capacitor is controlled . Thereby amount of buses m EHV AC sub-stat ons . .
in series capacitors I IK, c Series capacitors „ Dimerly synchronous compensators were used for similar purpose ,
generally used for long extra high voltage
transmission lines. voltage control techniques are described in
Chapter 45 B.
—
Shunt Capacitors are used for voltage control in
transmission and distribution network,

,
Class r “i a ofrotat ng masn

ph. to ph. R . M. S . ph. to ph. R . M . S . ph . to ph . R . M . S . P= sin 5

X
LV( 1 ph) 240 V Induced emf , magnitude
MV 415 V
264 V
457 V
216 V
347 V
where |V| = Terminal voltage, magnitude; |E j =
5 = angle between V and E vectors; X = Synchronous
reactance. im
M . H . V. Steady state stability limit occur at 8 = and is equal to
3.3 kV 3.6 kV
90°
3
pss = m - m s i n 9 0° =
3 kV
| V | - | 2S |
M . H . V. 6.6 kV 7.2 kV 6 kV
X X
*0
M . H .V.
M. H . V .
11 kV
22 kV
12 kV 10 kV
1 lowever, if a sudden disturbance occurs , the angle delta overshoots beyond 90° and the stability
amount of disturbance AP is defined .
8s .
24 kV 20 kV may he lost. Hence the limit of loading permitted ( Pts ) for given
M . H . V. generator can be loaded safely upto its 5
33 kV 36 kV 30 kV It is called Transient Stability Limit ( Pts ) A synchronous 3
lesser than steady state stability
H . V.
H. V.
66 kV
132 kV
72.5 kV 60 kV
transient stability limit . The transient stability limit (Pts) is much
limit . Assuming safe load angle of 30° electrical,
a
-
P
I V | • | E | sin 30° = 1 v i \ E 1 1
145 kV 120 kV •
E . H . V. 220 kV 5
245 kV 200 kV Pts X X 2 n
E. H . V .
U . H . V.
400 kV 420 kV 380 kV ,,
i Pt , = 1/2 Pss . for critical 5 = 30°
760 kV 800 kV 750 kV Transient state stability limit is half of steady state limit .
Note. L. V. Low Voltage A similar analysis is applied to power transfer through an AC interconnecting
transmission
= M .V. = Medium Voltage
M .H.V. = Medium High Voltage lino
H . V. = High Voltage

—
E. H. V. = Extra High Voltage

Shunt reactors are used with EHV AC lines

loads.
U.H.V. = Ultra High Voltage
Permissible variation is approximately ± 10% Nominal
value.
for compensation of reactive power during low
Pst - I Vi |
X
| V2 |

whore j Vj j , |V2| = Sending and receiving voltage magnitudes

sin 8

Compensation of Long Lines X = Series reactance of line ; 8 = Angle between vectors Vp V2

switchgear and
During Low Loads and Transient stability lmit can be improved by several methods associated with
High Receiving Voltage Switch-off shunt capacitors . prut ection. These include the following :
During High Loads and
Low Receiving Voltage
Shunt -reactors -unswitched
Switch-in shunt capacitors at load end
— Use of faster and superior protection system ,
-- Use of faster circuit breakers.
-
Varying Load
shunt-reactors-unswitched
Static VAr Source (SVS) — -
Use of rapid auto-reclosing of circuit breakers .
By improving transient stability limit, the installed generating stations can be loaded to
higher
The voltage control of each sub-station bus ioveis resulting in major economy .
is achieved by appropriate action in that sub-station ,
Details about transient stability limit are covered in Chapter 44.
 14 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTS 15
1.19. HVDC OBTION INTRODUCTION
kV iinks and sub-stations were established in India during 1970V . Tin . 1 '?\
, POWER SYSTEM NETWORK CALCULATIONS AND LOAD FLOW
' transmission
aVC have been executed (1992). By the year 2000, about five HVDC projects arv numerical problems in power System Analysis deal with the power system variables V, I,
f C Projects
to be commissioned in India. HVDC transmission systems are selected as an alternative . like , ( } f
1 sTnd network constants Z, Y, R . A network has several and buses and interconnecting
t fill ’ Basic Kirchoffs laws network theorems , fundamentals electrical equations and mathe -
for specific projects . 1, l ill!ch1 ?n ls are applied to solve numerical problems in power systems. The Network Calculations
and UHV a .c transmission system for any one of the following reasons only
I — Long distance high power transmission lines (say above 1000 MW and 800
'
‘
km) for econon, nl!. .•molified by writing the Kirchoffs Current Law in terms of Nodal Voltage Equations,
advantage. HVDC links are economical for long distance high power transmission , lM
when the saving in line cost is more than the additional cost of conversion sub-station lin I = YbusV
;

backbone AC network, generation transmission and distribution AC is definitely superF

. r1 , v are current and Voltage matrices . Y bus is the Bus-Admittance Matrix for the given
and continues . * lie
. v
Asynchronous interconnection (Tie) between two a.c. systems having methods of Network Calculations have been explained dearly Ch. 19 to 24 and in Ch. 57
quen ycontroUjsle .
their own load - fV. .
the help of several solved numerical problems
'
Back-to- back asynchronous tie sub-stations between two a.c. systems
without tie-line .
Ld Flow Calculations
d Flow Studies deal with calculation of the following variables for the various busses and
Underground/submarine cables at voltages above 66 kV and length
more than 25 km ft
technical reasons. branches of the given network (power system) under given steady state operating conditions of
—Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems.
The HVDC obtion introduced in electrical network during early
generation and load.
Variables associated with a Load flow study are:
—— .
faster and accurate control of real power (e g. 30 MW/minute),
higher power system stability-limit for transmission of power
1970’s provides.

without limit of sin 8, am

Vk Bus voltage magnitude
8k Phase angle of voltage
( P/ Real Power entering/leaving bus-k
Qk Reactive Power entering Leaving bus
improved stability of the connected AC Networks. Complex power = P + jQ Pmn Real power flow in branch mn
—HVDC line has no reactive power flow and therefore no need of
substations. The line losses are reduced HVDC Line losses are intermediate
. compensating Imn Branch Current Qmn Imaginary power flow in branch a

II
about 5% of power transft These variables influence each other and their co- relation is expressed in terms of the Load
as against 25% line losses for equivalent AC power Transmission.
Three Phase, 50 Hz AC Systems will continued universally for power system Flow Equations. Load Flow Studies are the used for evaluating the steady state performance and
generation, trail' provide valuable data to power system engineers for operation , control and system planning and
mission and distribution networks as it has natural tendency
for load -frequency stability ar‘ design. The Gauss Siedel Interactive Method and Newton Raphson Interactive Method of Load Flow
several economical AC Voltages Levels through Transformers.
studies have been clearly explained in Ch . 58 with the help of solved numerical problems.
Modern Power System is a combination of Interconnected AC Systems
Multi Terminal 2-Pole HVDC Interconnecting System.
with a few HVDC Con
P mg Stations ; a few Long Distance 2 Terminal Bipolar HVDC Links and possibly a high powe .
1.22 OBJECTIVE AND TASKS
Every electricity supply company aims at the following:
M
11
Switchgear; Protection and Control of HVDC Transmission Systems
AC system have been illustrated in Ch. 47. and their interaction wit!
—— Supply of required electrical power to all the consumers continuously at all times .
Maximum possible coverage of the supply network .
i i
.
UO POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS
—— Energy conservation and use of Renewable energy sources.
Maximum security of supply. I5
/ Power System Analysis deals with: various network phenomena
work and the machines, stresses on equipment. The , interaction between the net
System Studies evaluate the present and futurt
power system operating performance/reliability/availability —— Shortest possible fault-duration.
Optimum efficiency of plants and the network.
• satisfactory operation and
(

f in separate chapters of this book:

—
and to provide data and guidelines fo:
control. The scope includes the following topics which have been covered —— Supply of electrical power at specified frequency and waveform.
Supply of electrical power within specified voltage limits .
Load flow calculations

———
Load Frequency Control — Supply of electrical energy to the consumers at the lowest cost.
Short circuit calculations
Transient overvoltage studies. ——The work of a power engineer is to cover a wide range of activities such as:
design and development of the products, systems stations for systems stations, products

—
—
Insulation-coordination, Neutral grounding.
Stability studies —— research and development
manufacturing, testing, quality control.

———
project planning, monitoring, execution
Reliability Studies
Voltage Control and Reactive Power Flow Control —— purchase sale of equipment , specifications
Erection , testing and commissioning , safety.

——
-
HVDC and EHV AC Transmission Systems, Interaction with Network.
Economic Operation of the Power System
Computer Aided Power System Studies
—— .
Operation and maintenance, energy conservation
Power system control, operation, automation.
This book covers the basis aspects. For gaining expertise in the activities further study and
experience is necessary.
 17
A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
-
I KiH V OUTAGE
Arc is drawn between the beaker contacts. The
arc is extinguished in the circuit breaker by -
as the arc is extinguished .
suitable techniques. The current reaches final zero

s THE TRIP-CIRCUIT
Fig. 2.1 illustrates the basic connections
of the circuit- breaker control for the opening operation .

High- voltage AC . Circuit - Breakers 7

1. Circuit-breaker
2. Relay
The fault clearing process-Types of circuit breakers Circuit - breaker
— assembly—Operating 3. Trip coil of c.b. (Shunt Release )
mechanism-—Materials—Summary 4. Trip circuit
6
5. Battery s

f
2.1. INTRODUCTION 6. Relay Contacts

-
ofcircuit breakers have been briefly discussed . T|
(
* c 4 7. Potential transformer
8. Current transformer
variation of current and voltage, arc
the various of circuit-breakers have-been described in detail in subsequent extinctio
The circuit-breakers are automatic switches which can interrupt fault
chapters.
n process an
b 5
a Auxiliary switch contacts
* Protected element. I
plications like single phase traction system, Single pole circuit currents. In some a; Xi
-breakers are used. The part of tl
-
circuit breakers connected in one phase is called the pole . A circuit-breaker
suitable for three phas Fig. 2.1. Simplified diagram of circuit-breaker control for the opening operation
.
_
system is called a ‘triple - pole circuit-breakers’.
The Protected circuit * is shown by dashed line. When a fault
occurs m the protected circuit ,
E - comprises one or more interrupters or arc -extinguishing char the relay ( 2 ) connected to the CT. and PT contacts (6) Current Amiram a
h e
! thfe
of circuit breaker actuates and closes its
,
^ ?°
c<
9
C
5w

^
by
H^u
of current carrying contacts is interrupted by a suitably
m PH him and
medium W adopting
n n Hby 4' nV
,d ' CFNT ADVAN
RECENT CES
ADVANCLb I
suitable techniques
on the basis of the arc extinction medium.
for arc extinction. The circuit-breaker can be classifie ^ • , „ -oil, minimum„
, , .bulk
Before 1970s in medium voltage range and high voltage range, air-break 3
Oil, air blast circuit breakers ruled the world market. During 1970s vacuum
circuit-breakers were
OO
2.2. THE FAULT CLEARING PROCESS introduced for applications up to rated voltages of 36 kV. Single pressure puffer type SF6
breakers i
During the normal operating condition the circuit-breaker can be opened
or closed w *' re introduced for rated voltages from 3.3 kV to 760 kV. SF6 Gas Insulated Substations ( GIS) sr-
operator for the purpose of switching and
the relays sense the fault and close the trip circuit of
bv
the circuit-breaker. Thereafter the
breaker opens . The circuit-breaker has two working positions
a statin
-
maintenance. During the abnormal or faulty conditio were introduced for 12 kV to 760 kV. Fault levels * and rated voltages m the
* * The bulk-oil breakers, minimum oil breakers, air-blast breakers
circuil
, open and closed . These correspond y u wil1 find them in the existing installations during 1990 s .
have
system
become
have increased ,
obsolete . However $

I
o open circuit-breaker contacts and closed
circuit-breaker contacts respectively. The operation o: ° The vacuum breakers and SF6 breakers are maintenance-free and of superior switching per-
automatac opemng and closing the contacts is achieved by means of the operating
mechanism a formance They are now preferred for various switching duties in new installations. In low voltage
_ _ anism.
mech h Luil h 6
nfther
. bf fker 1 °
cl se
° the trip circuit is closed and the operatic range Air break circuit-breakers and contactors rule the market.
Sta rts the Penind’ operation. The contacts of the circuit-breakei -
nnrin „ i q 70 „ anH 1980s the research and development was focussed on in various
switching

current reaches final zero value. The fault when the arc is extinguished
final zero value. The fault is said to be cleared. The process of and the current reache; CBs’ SF(3’ GIS' . . . . trirr , concept
The Standards on circuit breakers were totally revised with the introduction of TRY
(

fault-clearing has the following se

quence:
,
a„d „gmo»s testing. Sheet circuit
— .
Fault occurs As the fault occurs the fault impedance being low, the currents
the relay gets actuated. The moving part of the relay move increase ano
because of the increase in the D 6
operating torque. The relay takes some time to close its contacts.
^
insulated Substations (GIS) are now manufactured and installed in India for various rated
v.
voltages from d .b kV to AZU >CV

—— -
Relay contacts close, the trip circuit of the circuit breaker closes and trip
coil is energized
The operating mechanism starts operating for the opening operations. The circuit
contacts separate. -
breakei.
* Fault MVA =
43 x V x !, where V is the service voltage in volts and I is the fault current in amperes.
106
 19
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT [( lGn VOLTAGE
A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
18
^ .
Table 2.1 Comparison of Circuit -
breakers
In low voltage range air-break circuit breakers/contactors ; miniature circuit breakers , moulds
case circuit breakers and solid state switching devices, HRC fuses have been developed to meet tl
requirements of control gear.
The Circuit Breaker technology has matured and circuit -breakers are available for every fault
level*, rated voltage** and switching duty in power system.
p
— Type

break - -
Pi Air beaker atmospheric
circuit-
Air
Medium
at
Voltage- Breaking
Capacity
430-600V, 5 15 35
MVA recently 3 6
, 12
Design Features
Incorporates :
-
Arc runners arc
splitters
--
Remarks
Used for medium low
voltages A.C . D.C .
Industrial
pressure kV , 500 MVA -
circuit breakers.
magnetic coils
Have current
2.5. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ARC QUENCHING MEDIUM limiting features .
The a .c circuit-breakers can be classified on the basis of rated voltages. Circuit- breakers beloy
"

Small size , Used for Low and

rated voltage of 1000 V are called low voltage circuit-breakers and above 1000 V are called hipi Miniature C.B. Air at
-
430 600 V
current limiting Medium Voltages.
voltage a .c. circuit breakers.
- atmospheric feature
The type of the circuit - breaker is usually identified according to the medium of arc extinction
pressure Getting
^

obsolete used
12 kV, 3.6 kV One tank upto 36
The classification of the circuit breakers based on the medium of arc extinction is as follows: Bulk-Oil Dielectric oil kV, 3 tanks upto 12 kV, 500 MVA.
2
-
(1) Air break circuit breaker/Miniature circuit-breaker.
( 2 ) Oil circuit-breaker ( tank type of bulk oil)
circuit-breaker above 36 kV,
fitted with arc
control devices
-
(3) Minimum oil circuit breaker .
'

Minimum oil Dielectric oil Preferred for 3.6 kV The circuit

breaking
Used for metal
enclosed switchgear
( 4) Air blast circuit -breaker , 3. to 145 kV upto 36 kV , Outdoors
circuit-breaker chamber is
(5 ) Sulphur hexafluoride circuit- breaker. (Single pressure or Double Pressure ). separate from type between 36 and
245 kV, Now
(6 ) Vacuum circuit -breaker . supporting
superseded by SFg
chamber. Small a
Each circuit- breaker will be studied thoroughly in the subsequent chapters. These circuit- size, Arc control CB. 9
breakers employ various techniques to extinguish the arc resulting from separation of the cunvi: - device used.
carrying contacts. The mode of arc extinction is either ‘high resistance interruption’ or ‘zero-poini | SuitabiefiwaST EHV
interruption’.
High Resistance Interruption. In this process the resistance of the arc is increased 1.1
lengthening and cooling it to such and extent that the system voltage is no longer able to mainla;, |
.1
'
AhfokudT
circuit-breaker
Compressed air
-
( 20 30) kg / cm
245 kV, 35,000 MVA Unit type
upto 1100 kV,
50 ,000 MVA
construction
several units per
pole, auxiliary
fast
applications ,
opening closing. Also
for Arc Furnace !
the arc and the arc gets extinguished . The technique is employed in airbreak circuit breakers and \
-
d .c. circuit breakers.
Low Resistance or Zero Point Interruption. In this process, the arc gets extinguished a;
- compressed air
system required.
Duty. Now
Superseded by SF6
CB for 145 kV, and
1
above
natural current zero of the alternating current wave and is prevented from restriking again by
rapid build up of dielectric strength of the contact space. This process is employed in almost all a .c, ) One interrupter Suitable for SFg
145 kV, 7500 MVA
-
circuit breakers . HVDC circuit- breakers employ ‘artificial current zero method’. . 5. SF6 circuit-
breaker Single
SF6 gas
2
(5 kg/ cm )
245 kV, 10,000 MVA pole upto 245 kV switchgear and
Medium voltage
i
-
Each leading manufacturer of circuit breaker develops two or more types of circuit- breaker 12 kV, 1000 MVA swgr . EHV circuit
pressure 36 kV , 2000 MVA
for every voltage class. ( Ref. Table 2.1). The construction of the circuit breakers depends upon its )
- puffer type breaker .
420 kV, 40 kA
type ( arc-quenching medium ), voltage rating and structural form. SF6 GIS Maintenance free.
-
Air break Circuit-breakers. Utilize air at atmospheric pressure for arc-extinction (Ref. Ch. 5).
Preferred for indoor Variety of Suitable for a variety
-
Air blast Circuit-breakers. Utilize high pressure compressed air for arc extinction (Ref. Ch. 6). (i . Vacuum Vacuum
switchgear rated designs, long life, of application from
3.6 kV to 36 kV
They need compressed air plant. circuit-breaker upto 36 kV, 750 modest
maintenance.
Bulk-oil and Minimum-oil Circuit-breakers. Utilize Dielectric oil (Transformer oil ) for an MVA
Used for Metallic
Artificialswitching
current
’

extinction. In Bulk -oil circuit breakers, the contacts are separated inside a steel tank filled with Oil or Air-Blast 33 kV, 2kA
7. H .V.D.C. ! zero by Return Transfer
dielectric oil . In minimum oil circuit-breakers the contacts are separated in an insulating housing -
Circuit breaker in capacitors. Breaker ,
( interrupter ) filled with dielectric oil .
single pressure puffer type.
- -
SF (j Circuit breakers. Sulphur hexa -fluoride gas is used for arc extinction. There are two types This type has been superseded by inside a permanently
In Vacuum circuit breakers, the fixed and moving contacts arearehoused
- separated in high vacuum.
— Single Pressure puffer type SFe Circuit breakers, in which the entire circuit breakers
- - interrupter. The arc is quenched as the contacts
scaled Vacuum
is filled with SF6 gas at single pressure ( 4 to 6 kgf /cm 2). The pressure and gas flow required? ( Ref. Ch 9 ) .
for arc extinction is obtained by piston action.
2.6. TECHNICAL PARTICULARS OF
A CIRCUIT-BREAKER
— Double pressure type SF6 Circuit-breaker, in which the gas from high-pressure system ? following particulars :
is released into low pressure system over the arc during the arc quenching process. A circuit breaker is identified by the
-
f x F x/ (1) Type of medium for arc extinction
. -
highest power frequency voltage between
phase to
-
* Fault MVA =
106
where V is the service voltage in volts and I is the fault current in amperes. ( 2) Rated voltage This .
corresponds to
, 36 kV, 72.5 kV, 145 kV, 245 kV.
phase, e.g. 3.6 kV, 7.2 kV, 12 kV
¥V
- .
Rated Voltages of circuit breakers refer to higher system voltage e g. 3.6 kV , 12 kV, 36 kV, 145 kV ,
245 kV , 420 kV, 800 kV , rms ph. to ph .
T
20 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 21
(3) Rated breaking current HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
RC Suppressors
( 4 ) Other rated characteristics, ( Ref . Ch. 3)
Motor Switching SF6 or VCB with
( 5 ) Type of construction : breaker assembled on a common frame. The
In Fig. 2.3 we see three identical poles of a circuit between their conducting parts. The current
—— Indoor metal-clad type, draw -out type
outdoor type
distance between the poles is determined
carrying parts are supported by dielectric
by the voltage
materials. The current is interrupted in closed chamber
( Fig. 2.3, item 3) or interrupter.
— Metal-clad SF6 gas insulated type.
( 6 ) Type of operating mechanism .
Known as arc extinction chamber
The contacts (10 ) are generally in pairs of fixed contact
and moving contact . The moving contact
this operation of closing and opening, an Operating Mechanism
is moved mechanically . To achieve .
( 7 ) Total break - time e .g. 2 cycle, 3 cycle, 5 cycle operating mechanism is to open and close the contact when desired
. is necessary. The function of
(8) Structural form three poles or may be separate one for each
The operating mechanism may be common for the
( 9 ) Additional feature for overvoltage limiting.
pole. In addition to the operating mechanism
, there is Control Cabinet or what is known as Switch
— Surge suppressor — Switching resistor . Cubicle , The various control interlocking, indicating connections
placed near the breaker .
are through this control cabinet

.
2.7 ASSEMBLY OF OUTDOOR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS Thus a complete three- phase circuit- phase circuit breaker
consists of the following sub-as-
The design features of an individual circuit-breaker depends upon semblies .
and the type. The circuit - breakers manufactured by different companies its
design patterns . However , a general description of an EHV circuit
the various types . The low voltage circuit-breakers, have
may
breaker
voltage, other ratings
have quite different
can be given to cover ——
•
Three poles
control cabinet
—— auxiliariesmechanism support structure
operating

the circuit- breaker connected in one phase is called ‘Pole

different
capacity and frequency of operation is different from that of the

for power systems is called ‘Triple pole circuit breaker’. of the

EHV
design features
circuit-
as the voltage,
breakers . The part of
circuit-breaker’. A circuit-breaker *7
& -f -
iS *
-
In single phase traction systems, single !
pole circuit breakers are employed.
III
zm
Z 1 S
2 3

4 8
I
Z
2 H5 «
il
3
Z£ 5 2
£ 4
Fig. 2.2. Structural form of a triple outdoor cir cuit
- breaker with one iterrupter per pole. / c
7
Rated Voltage
Below 1 kV
( low voltage ) —
TABLE 2.2. Present Trends in Choice of Circuit
Preferred type
Air break Circuit-breaker
———
-Breakers
Remarks
Metal-enclosed switchgear
Metal-enclosed control gear
•1- ? m 5a s

——
3.6 kV to Vacuum Circuit- breakers Metal-enclosed Switchgear, Indoor use with :

——
12 kV SFg C.B. Vacuum Switchgear preferred
Single Pressure SF6 preferred
36 kV
——— Minimum Oil Circuit-Breaker
Vacuum C.B. SF6 Circuit Breaker
Outdoor Type or in Kiosk MOCB becoming
obsolete. End View
Front View

——
145 kV and
245 kV*
—
—
Minimum Oil Circuit-Breaker out door
SF6 Outdoor Puffer type
SF6 Circuit Breaker Preferred
MOCB becoming obsolete.
1. Circuit-breaker pole
4. Support porcelain
2 . Operating mechanism
5 . Conductor
3. Interrupter
6. Terminals
420 kV* SFg Outdoor Puffer type
— SF6 Circuit-Breaker Preferred. 7. Operating rod
10. Contacts
8. Insulating operating rod
11. Transfer contacts between moving
9. Frame

-
* Puffer type out door SF6 C.B. installed in India 1980 1981.
- f Capacitor Switching VCB or SFg 12. Linkage contacts and terminal.
** Vacuum Switchgear introduced in India 1980 81.
* Vacuum contactors introduced in India 1980.
- Motor Switching SF6 or VCB with RC Fig. 2.3. Diagram illustrating the assembly of an outdoor circuit- breaker.
Suppressors Arc Furnace Duty. VCB/SFg/ABCB
Repeated operations VCB/SF6
 p
22
2.8 . STRUCTURAL FORM OF CIRCUIT SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
HIGH -VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 23
-BREAKERS
Of » peL“;haiSS £ depends on its type,
rated voltage type of design
The operating should be fast , in order to reduce circuit -breaker time . The operating time be -
In indoor, metal clad , type iwoeu instant of receiving trip signal and final contact separation is of the order of 0.03 second , i . e .
switchgear, the three poles
withdrawable truck. Such configuration of the circuit-breaker
1.5 Gycles in modern EHV circuits-breakers. In slow circuit- breakers used in distribution system
15). is commonly used are time can be about 3 cycles.
for rated voltages unto mounted on a
For 36 kV and above, 24 kV (Ref. Cb, While closing, the contact closure should be fast, sure without hesitation , with adequate contact
cuit-breaker depends outdoor circuit-breaker are preferred pressure at the end of contact travel. If these conditions are not satisfied , contact welding can result .
of rated . The structural form of outdoor
mechanism. Circuit-breakers ofvoltage, number of interrupters of per pole and type of cir - 'I’lie operating mechanisms should be capable of giving the specified duty of the breaker ( se -
per pole (Ref. Fig. rated voltages upto and operating quence of opening and closing as specified in standard specification ). The breaker should also pass
2.3) In such a structural 145 kV generally have a
should withstand the power form, the interrupter single interrupter t he operational tests which ascertain the capability Of the operating mechanism . The interlocks are
Ch. 12). -frequency and impulse porcelain and support
porcelain provided between breaker , isolator and earthing switch , so as to avoid wrong operation and to as -
test voltages internally and
externally < Ref. sure operation in a correct sequence. The functions of the operating mechanisms can be summarised
:ls follows:
(1) To provide means whereby the circuit-breaker can be closed rapidly without hesitation at
all currents from zero to rated making current capacity.
( 2) To hold the circuit- breaker in closed position by toggles or latches till tripping signal is
received .
(3) To allow the circuit- breaker to open without delay immediately on receiving tripping signal.
( 4) To perform the auto reclosure cycle .
( 5) To perform the related functions such as indication control.

Fig. 2.4. Structural

from of 145 kV, 245 kV
..
2.9 1 Closing Operation ( C )
and 420 kV C.B. Pole. Normally, closing the circuit- breaker contacts during normal load does not cause any difficulty.
245 kV circuit-breakers
number of interrupters per have two or more identical interrupter The operating Mechanism has to overcome friction and accelerate the moving masses. However ,
circuit-breaker. Such pole depends upon
the rated voltage andunits (elements) per pole. The when the circuit - breaker has to close against a short circuit , additional thermal stresses and
single support porcelaincircuit-breaker pole comprises identical rated breaking current of electromagnetic stresses are involved .
twintinterrupter the
preferred in outdoor column in T or Y
minimum oil circuit formation (Ref. Fig.
2.4)
units mounted on a
. Such a structural form .
-
In EHV circuit breakers, the arc is established prior to final contact touch . This is known as
pre - arcing Pre-arcing causes higher temperature stresses and pressure due to vaporisation of oil .
door SFg circuit-breakers
. While MOCBs breakers
and
, air blast circuit
-
breaker and live tank type out
is
The contacts should close with sufficient speed to minimise the prearcing.
SFg circuit-breakers are ABCDs
with one or two interrupters require two to six interrupters per -
per pole for 420 kV. per pole pole; the As soon as the contacts close on an existing short-circuit , breaker is subjected to making cur -
The SFg breakers are for 245 kV rent. The electromagnetic forces set- up by the making current tend to repel the contacts . The circuit
-
In multi break type therefore more economical. and with two interrupters
for equalizing the voltageconstruction voltage grading- .
breaker should have rated making capacity, i e. the highest peak current against which the circuit
shared by the interrupter capacitor is connected across each interr upter breaker can be closed at a given voltage. The making capacity of the circuit -breaker depends upon
Pre-closing resistors are during interruption process
(Ref. Ch 6 ) .
the force and speed with which the closing operation is carried out .
resistors (Preclosing resistors) also connected in parallel whenever While closing the circuit-breaker , the operating mechanism should have enough power to over-
loaded transmission lines (Ref. are necessary to limit
Ch. 18). on come the opposing forces and accelerate the moving contact assembly rapidly within specified short
Circuit-breakers for rated voltage un - time .
operating mechanism of above 245 kV generally The opposing forces during closing operation
each pole is independent have
separate relay. Independent and each pole canindependent
be tripped independently. The
pole operation
system (Ref, Sec
44.8).
pole operation is
desirable for improving by a
.
( а ) Electromagnetic forces between contacts When the contacts touch during
the closing
operation , electromagnetic forces appear at the instant of contact touch , their magnitude being
Structural form of EHV metal the stability of the power
-
clad SFg insulated - proportional to square of the current and the direction being opposite to the direction closing. These
tional equipment switchgear forces are large if the breaker is closing on existing short circuit. Breaker should be capable of clos-
discussed above (Ref. Ch. 7). is quite different than
conven - ing on short circuit ,
.
2.9 OPERATING
MECHANISMS .
(б ) Action of operating spring The moving contacts of circuit-breakers are opened by spring
pressure. While closing these spring oppose the closure .
Circuit-breakers have two
circuit-breaker contacts working positions-open .
(c ) Inertia of movable subassembly The movable parts are contacts their holders tension
opposing forces. During . During the closing operation, the
close against and close rods, operating links of operating mechanisms, etc. The mass of these sub-assemblies is quite large
tacts are separated as early the opening operation, the in EHV circuit -breakers. And their inertia tries to oppose rapid acceleration. In modern EHV cir -
and closing operations as possible. Operating closed con-
operating mechanisms
. Operating mechanisms
mechanisms are also necessary are provided to achieve the cuit- breakers, these parts are made as light as possible.
must be capable of dealing
reliability even if the circuit for
with large forces atisolator. The circuit opening
breaker
( d ) Opposing forces due to medium such as oil, .
SFe gas The movable sub-assembly has
breaker has remained idle high speeds t o move in dielectric medium which is, in some cases, compressed air/gas/oil at high pressure and
for a prolonged duration. with complete density.
 25
24 C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTI®
illCH LTAGE A.
- Vf )
The total forces of the operating mechanism should be more than are called independent operating mechanisms as
tioned opposing forces.
the sum of the above men st 'ircd energy type operating mechanisms of the operator. In such mechanisms
of continuity of power supply or the skill compressed gas hydraulic oil.
; .
(e) Friction Static and dynamic. llu v. am
the energy
independent
required for closing in stored in a charged spring
or in -
are used in all high voltage
..
2.9 2 Opening Operation (O)
Stored energy type independent automatic operating mechanisms
:
The opening operation is significant in the fault-clearing pro 200 MVA. These can be classified as follows
cess . As the trip coil is energize cirniit -breakers above
the opening operation is initiated . The energy required
one of the following methods : -
for the opening operation is obtained fi 0Ir"
—
--
Spring opened , spring closed Mechanism
Solenoid closed, spring opened Mechanism
.

———
Opening springs charged during the closing operation Hydraulic Mechanisms
A Pneumatic Mechanisms etc.
High pressure hydraulic oil stored in accumulators
High pressure compressed air stored in auxiliary
air receivers.
-
(a ) Spring Opened Spring
closed Mechanism. In such a mechanism the
opening and closing
of separate springs.
The functional requirements of the opening mechanism are
follows: operations are achieved by means
energy level and is charged by motor driven gear . When
closing m
(1) To accelerate the moving masses
opening characteristic ( Fig. 2.6).
( 2 ) To achieve desired speed of
to 7 m/s ) .
including contacts and linkages rapidly to achieve

contact at contact separation and during the opening stroke (

desired
and
The closing spring is of higher closing spring energy is utilized in closing the moving contacts
signals is given to the closing coil, the
also for charging the opening springs . During the opening operation ,
system is unlatched and the energy of the opening
the opening signal is given
spring is released to
Ia
3 to I rip- coil. The movable spring is automatically charged after each
closing operation. Hence
(3) To damp the speed at the
end of the travel by dampers.
The forces and energy should be adequate to ,
obtain the opening. The closingreclosing
em'i'gy is always available for
the breaker. The oil-dashpots are provided
maximum
for damping the
force
and closing strokes. Springs have disadvantageous in closing
at the begin-
I
Opposing forces during opening operating
overcome the following: -
forci K at the beginning of opening
ning of travel and the force reduces at
the end of the travel . This is
and closing operations are initiated by high speed , electromagnetic
operation . Both opening
38 1
(a ) Electromagnetic forces
due to contact
tacts to movable contact is illustrated in Sec. 8.9.-grip. The current transfer from fixed finger-con- opera!ed latches.
grip oppose the movement of moving contact. The finger contacts are spring-loaded and their
16 ) Pneumatically closed spring-opened
- .
Mechanism Pneumatically closed spring- tripped .
During the short-circuit condition , the electromagnetic oil circuit breakers and SF@ circuit-breakers
,

forces tend to increase the grip of the finger mechanism are used for extra-high voltage minimum
in proportion to square of current. Hence it -iscontact assembly. The forces of contact grip increases . The
is closed by means of pneumatic cylinder and piston in-
significant during higher short-circuit currents
. hi such mechanisms, the circuit breakers
jssed air required for the closing operation is obtained
from a local air -receiver mounted 3
*
( b ) Friction. The various operating
links, bearing surfaces mating surfaces between movabW
and fixed parts, etc. offer static friction. The
frictional component depends upon the coefficient ol
friction, smoothness of mating surfaces, configuration
side the mechanism cubicle . During the
ping spring is released by a latch operated by
closing stroke , the tripping springs are charged. The trip-
high speed electromagnetic energized by the trip coil
, which admits
. a
t
of moving parts etc. High friction can reduce of a solenoid operated pneumatic value
the initial speed of moving contact which may The closing operation is initiated by operationDamping is provided in pneumatic cylinder . l il
circuit-breaker to quench the arc. result in disastrous consequence of failure of the ( lie compressed air into pneumatic cylinder .
-
(c) Solenoid closed Spring opened Mechanism In
- . such mechanism the closing operation d
. When direct current is passed through the S
movable sub-ass
^ ^eJuifeTs
mbirehto
^ ed . ^ °

The operating mechanisms should be capable of

peratmg mechanism is utiIised in accelerating the is obtained by energising a solenoid by direct current
solenoid , the plunger is attracted. The plunger sets intoduring
closing of the breaker. The opening springs are charged
maximum force of attraction when
advantageous in closing operation.
plunger is fully inserted
motion the link mechanism
the
and
closing operation .
resulting
Solenoid
the air-gap is minimum . This is
in
has
5 :

achieve desired opening characteristic of contact overcoming these opposing forces and should battery or rectifier . The solenoid is sup-
travel during normal and short-circuit opening The solenoid requires d.c. , supply which it takes from relatively high. Solenoid mechanism can
operations. (Refer Note at the end of this plied at 110 or 220 V d .c. The current taken by solenoid is
Chapter )
.
2.9.3 Closing followed by Opening Operating ( ) be suitable for auto-reclosing.
the front of the circuit-breaker .
The rated operating sequence of the circuit
CO Solenoid operating mechanism is a separate unit mounted on which in turn sets into motion
-
The operating mechanism should have enough breaker (Sec. 3.19.8) demands the operation ‘CO’. When current is passed through the solenoid it attracts the plunger
.
tion and rated operating sequence under short stored energy and capability to perform CO opera- the link mechanisms resulting in closing of breaker
-circuit condition . , When the tripping signal
2.9.4. Types of Mechanisms When the breaker is closed , it is held in latched or toggled position . Generally the links have
is received , the latch is released and the breaker opens by spring action
The operating mechanisms in circuit-
Dependent operating mechanisms dependbreakers
closing. They are accordingly called as :
are either ‘dependable’ or ‘stored energy type’,
on continuity of power supply or manual forces during
—
three positions tripped, reset, closed.
Solenoid closing mechanisms are used with low voltage and medium
mechanism
voltage circuit breakers .
tends to be too large ( above
-
On FHV circuit-breakers, the power requirement of solenoid
— dependable manual operating mechanisms
dependable power mechanisms.
50 kW in some cases). Hence they are not preferable.
id) Pneumatic Operating Mechanism. Pneumatic operating
mechanisms are preferred in
stations where compressed air supply is available i .e . where air blast circuit-breakers are installed.
 26
HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT ;, 27
Air blast circuit -breakers are invariably provided with pneumatic ^
operating rod is linked with the piston in pnenniatic cylinder
in
operating mechanisms Tin
the controi cubicle of the opera I ,, Indicator or indicating device indicates whether the switching device is in ’open’ or ‘closed’
mechanisms.
Compressed air at thigh pressure is used for closing , S meansrf
U e P Sltl of clrcu t'breakerS and
receiver of the breaker . The air comes m the
. High pressure air is stored in the ai , '“"If IXeake”? PaneTta instaliS iJceSroomT ' ° “
^
reservoir from the compressed air system
the air at high pressure (18-30 kgf / cm ) is
is pushed by compressed air. Thereby
matic operations are achieved by means of
the levers move the closing operation is
solenoid operated pneumatic valves.
In SF6 circuit - breakers spring assisted pneumatic
. While closinj lsol
admitted in the pneumatic cylinder. The closing pistor
obtained ' The auto

mechanisms are preferred for opening ano

f n

S
^ xn
positions
ry switches

such as:
‘open ’ and

.
‘
have
close’
standard number of pairs of contacts ( 6, 8, 12). Auxiliary switch has
correspon -
ding to the position of the circuit breaker . In each position ,
TIP auxiliary circuits are opened and some are closed. The auxiliary circuits serve several pur -

( D Indication Breaker open or closed by lamps , near circuit-breaker and at a remote place .
closing.
In air blast circuit-breakers the high pressure
.
( 2 ) Electrical Interlocks The breaker is interlocked electrically with isolators. The connec-
air
moving contacts are pushed against spring pressure is admitted in arc extinction chambers. The tions to solenoids in operating mechanisms are made through the auxiliary switch.
(Details in Ch. 6) . (3) Connections for relaying, auxiliary circuits of operating mechanisms.
Pneumatic operating mechanisms require the auxiliary
air . set up for the supply of high pressure- The various terminals are connected in a terminal blocks in the operating cubical.
-
In some hybrid operating mechanisms, the pneumatic
pressure is utilized to charge the 2.11 . CIRCUIT-BREAKER TIME (TOTAL BREAK TIME) (Ref. Sec. 3.19.23)
spring. Then the stored energy of the spring
is utilized for closing the breaker . Such closing
mechanisms are called pneumo spring mechanisms
- . operatic, Fault clearing time is the sum of relay time and circuit-breaker time. Circuit-breaker time is
(e) Hydraulic mechanisms. also called total break time.
The hydraulic system comprises the following The rapid fault clearing of extra-high-voltages transmission lines improves the power system
ponents: essential com -
stability. Hence faster relaying and fast circuit-breakers are preferred for extra - high-voltage trans-
—motor driven hydraulic pump, accumulators mission lines, the circuit -breaker time being of the order of 2.5 cycles, 2 cycles .
K

———
Hydraulic valves and piping For distribution system such a fast clearing is not necessary. Discrimination is obtained by
Oil tank graded time-lag. Hence Slower Circuit breakers , 3 to 5 cycles are used .
Hydraulic cylinder, piston, etc. Remember the Time Events :
The oil is maintained high pressure in [Fault clearing Time] = [Relay Time]
the accumulators (300 to 350 kgf / cm2). + [Circuit-breaker Time]
be moved with high pressure by opening of
the accumulator into the cylinder . This
,

movement is utilized to operate the links so

The piston can
hydraulic valves and letting in the hydraulic
oil from J [Relay Time] = Instant to fault]
[ to [Closure of Trip Circuit]
jQjrcuit-Breaker Time] = [Closure of Trip Circuit] to [Final Arc Extinction]
circuit- breaker contacts. as to close the
During opening, the high pressure oil acts
on upper area of piston and opening
= [Opening Time + Arcing Time] mm
tained . stroke is eb-
Relay time is the time elapsed between the instant of occurrence of fault and instant of closure i
of relay contacts i .e. closure of trip circuit .
2.10. INTERLOCKS, INDICATION AND
AUXILIARY SWITCH. (Ref. Sec. 26.3) Circuit-breaker time is the time elapsed between the instant of closure ot trip circuit and the 1
•instant of final current zero. Circuit breaker
Interlocking devices are those which make to - time is the sum of time required for operating
the position or operation of other equipme operation of the switching device me chanism to open the contacts and the arcing time. Total break time is equal to the sum of opening
dependen
. Interlocks are provided as a safety measure t upon
erroneous operation of a switching device. nt The against time and the arcing time .
terlock, Mechanical Interlock. interlocks are of the following forms: Electric al In - Thus the fault clearing time is elapsed time between the instant of occurrence of fault and the
F1 , . . 1 insl ant of final arc interruption ,
foTthe
provided onera Hn
comprises coil end nlt-
^
oiln
i
^
bet
v ° °
n remote equipment , mechani
7fv
f th , two adJacent equipments. Thecal interlock can be c cles

"Tx
electrical interlock /
The circuit-breaker time is of the order of a few cycles . One cycle equals 1/50 seconds in 50
Per second system. Circuit-breaker time of EHV circuit-breaker of the order of 2.5 cycles .
,

^
” Citcait.breakers of time more than 5 cycles can be considered ns slow .
switch to ensure the following sequence : P ‘
Detween circuit-breaker, isolator and earthing
:
While opening 1 2.12. AUTO RECLOSURE (Ref. Sec. 44.5 and 44.132)
First to open: Circuit- breaker
— Then the earthing switch (if any ) to close
While closing :
—Next to open - Isolator
'
Many faults oh overhead transmission lines are transient in nature . Statistical evidence shows
l i ; t about 90% of faults are used by lightning, birds, vines , tree
' branches etc. These conditions
—— Open earthing switch
Then close circuit- breaker
Close isolatorr
°
result in arcing faults and the arc in the fault can be extinguished by de-energizing the line by
simultaneous opening of circuit-breakers on both ends of the line or on one end of the line . Since
^
ie cause f transient faults mentioned above disappea
rs after a short time the circuit - breakers
° as soon as the arc in fault has been extinguis
This seauence must h6 f 11 J u von be reclosed hed and the path has regained its
e au8e T
not have breaking- canaritvy » n nr o ey ave solators are no load disconnecting devices. They do dielectric strength. Reclosing of lines restores the supply continuity of service is the major ad -
Tib
and closing duty ^ making capacity. Hence breaker performs
-
the opening vantage of Auto enclosure. If the fault is transient one the normal condition is restored by auto
reclosure.
 28
C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
29
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT HIGH-VOLTAGE A.
Fault Occurs ^ ( i jj.’s at both ends of the line should reclose simultaneously .
aspects such
.... Deionization time for arc space in fault on overs-headofline depends on several
line wind condition , spacing of con -
; ismagnitude of fault current, service voltage, length
Breaker Trips voltage of line and is as follows:
ductors etc. Generally the time allowed is based on rated

Breaker Reeloses — 1'he circuit-breakers should be capable of withstanding

they are reclosing on an existing short circuit
reduces after the first opening, thereby there
.
is
The
a
the
pressure
reduction
electrodynamic stress in case

in
in the reservoir generally
breaking capacity for the
. This aspect should be taken care of while designing the circuit-breakers
If fault persists St ' sequent opening
—
< OR >— <-If fault is cleared su :able for auto- reclosure .
Minimum Deionization time
rjTRTpSQPl^ N Voltage of Transmission line (kV) Rated voltage of C,B , (kV ) necessary , Cycles
REMAINS CLOSED
Fig. 2.5. Sequence of Auto 72.5 5
reclosure for EHV, bulk of power 66
High speed tripping and high transmission lines. Single Shot Scheme. 145 9
speed reclosing improves 132
the circuit-breakers and the stability of power system*.
high voltage systems relaying on EHV lines are provided with Hem, 220 245 14
have shown that a auto reclosing feature. Tests
depending upon the time necessary to reclosure in 12 cycles (0.24 sec) is practical the porion- 400 420 18
dissipate the ionised air of
tempted. -
The Auto reclosing of EHV
lines is high speed and arc path . :
single shot, i.e, only one .
reclosing is al. 2 . i 4. AUTO RECLOSURE FOR DISTRIBUTION LINES
(upto 33kV)
2.13. AUTO RECLOSURE la rural distribution overhead lines are used. The spacing between conductors
is relatively
OF EHV CIRCUIT
BREAKERS FOR TRANSMISSION LINES close. The disturbance on such lines are generally trasient , as described earlier . Auto reclosure is 8
The timing of EHV Auto
—— It is a single-shot - reclosure
Reclosure.
the arc in the fault should de
is based
ionise
the order of 0,2 seconds is provided -
on

before
the following requirements

allowing reclosure. Hence certain

(Ref. Sec. 44,
121
therefore, suitable in improving the continuity of service
cuit - breaker three times between 15 to 120 seconds .
. The usual procedure was to reclose cir -
a
s
— the operating mechanisms of between opening and reclosing
sequence can be
of C .B.
Looking Fig. 2.6 the following c. b. to open and to close as per desired operating
’Dead Time’ of

sequence ,
*
SHORT CIRCUIT
4
INSTANTANEOUS
observed: TIME DELAY TIME DELAY
(Refers
Table 2.2
to Fi g. 2.6) (Ref. Sec.
3.19.23)
CLOSED
$ m
Sequence
Time in
1 / 100
Second
Operation
Remarks
wm
1
2
0
04 -
Fault occurs
Relay time
Cjrcuit-brealcer
closedTProtoctive gear
, starts operating.
OPEN
1 SEC 1 SEC 1 SEC LOCKED
l3 - I
3 Fast relaying OPEN
4 Trip circuit closed
4 4- 9 Operating mechanism starts to open
Opening time of breaker . Fig. 2.7. Auto reclosure cycle of a 12 kV c.b. for rural distribution .
5 9-12 Total break time
Breaker is of 4 cycles If the breaker trips after the third reclosure, it opens and remains open . The attendant thereby
6 12 36 - Dead time knows that the fault is permanent and sends electricians to locate and correct the fault . The auto
12 cycles for rvi'lnsure cycle is illustrated in Fig. 2.7 , but the sequence may vary in other cases . This practice is
7 27 Contacts start closing deionization. CB remains open.
no more favoured in modern distribution systems.
8 36 Contact touch for reclose
9 40 2 15. WEIGHT OPERATED RECLOSING , POLE MOUNTED CIRCUIT- BREAKERS
Circuit-breaker reclosed
Will be opened again if -
10 Single shot is complete, fault persists and will locic-open, Much circuit- breakers were used in rural distribution . An endless chain passes over a pulley
again if fault persists the circuit-breaker will remain closed, if
and will remain loclced fault ha8 vanished CB will open on the end of ah operating shaft . The operating shaft is brought out through the side of the breaker
-open. top plane. A weight is attached to the chain . The energy required to reclose the breaker is derived
from the weight falling due to gravity . The timing mechanism controls the open-circuit time ( about
30 sec. )
a for strongly
 30
2.16. TRIP-FREE FEATURE
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION , , ;,
1( VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 31
Material Applications Remarks
Suppose the breaker has been instructed to
close by manual instruction by pushing of Electrolytic Copper Bus-bars Main contacts conducting Ref. Sec. 17.16
button. The operating mechanism will start push
operating for closing operation . Meanwhile 99.9% purity) parts, terminals
taken place and a relay close the trip circuit of a fault has (

the circuit-breaker to be tripped by the protective breaker. The Trip-Free mechanisms, permits
the
(j metrical grade Busbar, conducting parts, casting, Ref. Sec. 17.16
This feature is called Trip Free feature. Another relay even if it is under the process of closing. aluminium terminals Enclosures of SF6 GIS ,
‘Pumping’, i .e . alternate tripping and closing feature of operating mechanisms is to Enclosures of busbars Eclosures of
if the closing button is held closed during a prevent busducts
In oil circuit-breakers and puffer type SFg fault.
circuit-breakers, the contacts should be allowed 'fungsten Copper Arcing contacts 80 % Tungsten , 20 % copper , sintered
touch during the end of the closing stroke
before the start of the opening operation . to 7.
material
2.17. MATERIALS 8. Stainless Steel Enclosures of SF6 GIS parts enclosed
circuits
The materials are important in switchgear
are tested in the factory before acceptance
standards of material specifications.
.
manufacturing. Normally all the incomingmal ; ,|,
The manufacturer maintains with him ri
all the necessnn
. 9 -
Copper bismuth ,
Copper-Chromium ,
Main Contacts of
interrupters , Contactors
vacuum High conductivity,
welding-tendency. Ref. Sec. 9.9.5
low

, • Copper-berrylium
Currents Carrying Parts
These include contacts, contact stems, flanges Design and development of Prototypes, The structural configuration ( Sec . 2.8) is
( 21
design of conducting parts is based on
the following requirements:
-
bus bars, bushing-conductors connectors etc.
The decided first. Then the various sub-assemblies are designed
' and finally the complete breaker is

———
temperature rise during normal continuo designed. Full scale prototypes are manufactured .
us current. ( 3 ) Development Testing. Various development tests (Sec. 10.1) are carried -out on sub-as-
temperature stresses during short-time
current , ( rated duration of short-circuits) semblies poles , mechanism and complete breaker .
mechanical stress during opening and closing j
— mechanical stresses due to electromagnetic
Insulating Parts
operation.
forces under short-circuit conditions. :
( 4 ) Type Tests for Certifications (Sec 10.1) These are exhaustive test as per standards.
(5) Actual Installation in system for observing performance.
These include interrupter-enclosures, insulatin Summary
insulating pull-rods connecting the operating g supports for interrupters , supports
to bus-bars Circuit breakers are classified on the basis of the arc quenching medium as : Air break ; bulk -oil;
enclosing the arc-control devices etc. mechan ism to the moving contacts, insulating tubih Minimum oil; Air blast; vacuum ; SF6 . While various types are in service; the trends in new instal -
lation is in favour of;
2.18. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT Low voltage ( upto 1000 V): Air-Break CB and Contractors
The development of a new circuit- breaker Medium Voltage (upto 33 kV): VCB and SF6 CB
12.3 ). comprises the following major
activities (Ref. Sec) High Voltage (33 kV and above): SF6 and SF6 insulated GIS.
(1) Research. The research
on arc quenching techniques,
cal stresses under various switching various thermal , electrical, mechani-
ried out in research laboratories.
conditio ns, design principle for arc quenching etc. This is cur QUESTIONS
- 1. With the help of a neat sketch, describe the configuration of an outdoor , triple pole circuit beaker for
Table 2.3 Material Used in Circuit
-
Breakers and Metal Enclosed Switchgear, Controlgear
36 kV application. Name the parts and explain the operation of the circuit breaker during fault clear-
ing.
Material Applications
Remarks 2. Explain the functions of operating mechanism of a circuit breaker and describe the motor Charged
1. Porcelain Enclosures for Interrupter support Spring Mechanism.
Compres
Procelain , support for bus )
sion strength 6000 kg/ cm 2.
insulating tubes solid rods etc.-bars Tensile Strength 3000 kg/ cm 2. Ceramic
.
3 Describe a trip circuit and the fault clearing process.
material made by firing clay, glazing a ml 4. Explain the purpose of Auto Reclosing of an EHV Circuit Breaker controlling an over head transmis-
firing again. Suitable for outdoor use , sion line. State the sequential events in a single shot auto reclosing scheme.
2. Epoxy Resin .
5 Explain the functions of isolator , earthing switch and circuit breaker . State the sequence during open-
Support Insulators for indoor ]
applications , enclosures covers Used in solid form. Obtained by maxing ing and closing of circuits. State the interlocks necessary to prevent accidents .
encapsulation etc. with suitable hardener and curing a

3. Glass fibre reinforced Insulating drive

suitable temperature , suitable filh ' i -.
used. Not suitable for outdoor use.
rods , insulating , High tensile
-
synthetic resin tubes for interrupted strength , withstand
pressure , dielectric strength.
4. Polytetra Nozzles for SP'6 Breakers, bearings ,
fluroethelene PTFE Low friction ; arc resistant ; can be ,
Piston lings etc. moulded / machined . Pure PTFE is !
insulating used with various filters. I
 33
.
[’l ’ N DAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
Energy in inductance L henry at the instant when the current in it is i amp. is given by ,
Wm = l / 2 Li 2 joules .( 3.3)

3 (1 joule = 1 watt second )

In an inductive circuit current cannot change instantaneously . Hence when the e.m. f is applied
at. t = 0. The current is zero at the instant of closing the switch
. Also we know, that the current lags
lii’dind applied voltage by 90 ° in the inductance .
Fundamentals of Fault Clearing, Switching Considering sinusoidal voltage applied to an inductance, the current lags by 90°, therefore, the
voltage of the circuit has maximum instantaneous value at the current zero.
Phenomena and Circuit - Breaker Ratings While interrupting the current flowing through an inductive circuit such as a transformer on
no load, a transformer loaded by an inductor , etc. the circuit-breaker should
interrupt the arc at
Transient phenomena during fault clearing-Shortcircuit
-
bteady otate —Current and voltage variation during -
Current Transient , Sub - trasient and natural current zero of the altenating current wave . If the arc extinction takes place at the natural
— —
voltage Switching phenomena Circuit-breaker ratings
. —
arc extinction process Transient Recovery
1
2
cunrent zero, the energy in the inductance (1/2Li is zero. However, the
) if arc
current ,
is suddenly inter-
say i amperes , the
n i pted before the natural current zero, at the instantaneous value of
3.1. INTRODUCTION energy 1/ 2Li is suddenly interrupted by the chopping of current to an artificial zero value . Due
2

The following phenomena can be observed during the

fault clearing process : to such a phenomenon. The interrupting of low magnetising currents of transformers, reactors need
1. As the fault occurs, the current increases to a high n particular attention. The circuit-breaker should be capable of interrupting such currents without
value
wave and thereafter the amplitude of the wave goes on reducing during the first half cycle of the getting damaged or without giving rise to over voltage above the permissible limits .
the sub-transient, transient and steady state. The waveform of as the waveform passes through ( ii ) Capacitance. The well-known definition of the capacitor is: “Two or more conductors
the normal zero axis . the current is asymmetrical about separated by dielectric (insulating) medium .” The capacitance C is given by C
2. The voltages across the circuit-breaker pole after the ...( 3.4) Si
recovery voltage) has a relatively high amplitude and rate final arc extinction (called the transient farads
C~
of rise. The voltage has a high frequency dv
transient component superimposed on a power frequency component
In this chapter the above mentioned phenomena have been
haviour of circuit-breaker. For the purpose of analysis, simple
.
studied with reference to the be-
=
where C capacitance farads ; q = charge, coulombs ; v = voltage, volts.
From the above definition, it is understandable that transmission lines, bushing, circuit-
1
RLC networks have been considered . breakers etc. have inherent capacitance between phase and ground. In some cases the capacitance Q
The generator has been represented by an e.m.f source. may be negligible . In h .v. circuit it becomes important and may not be negligible , In circuit -breaking x
been solved by simple rules of differential calculus. The equations of voltage and current have
phenomenon , capacitance plays an important role. The voltage across capacitor is given by
The analysis of short-circuit current and transient
Breaker Ratings (Sec. 3.19)
recovery voltage is followed by Circuit - volts
l
3. Overvoltages can be generated while closing
- jdq = ± jidt
^
circuit breaker on capacitor banks or loaded v=
transmission lines. These are minimised by pre-closing
resistors and surge suppressors.
m
3.2. NETWORK PARAMETERS : R, L, C
An electrical network comprises the following network
Energy in a capacitor is in the form of electric field and is given by

Wc Cv 2 joules .. .( 3.5)
I
— Inductance
—
Capacitance
parameters:

The resistance can be neglected as a first approximation

.
—
Resistance.
where C is in farads
v is in volts, q is the charge in coulombs.
(i ) Inductance. Inductance is defined
as There exists a distributed capacitance between conductors and between conductor and ground
in case of transmission lines. The flow of alternating current in the transmission line is associated
L = ~ henry with alternate charging and discharging of this capacitance. The currents taken by the capacitance,
...(3.1) for charging
— are called
i .
charging currents The charging current flow in transmission line, even if
r

where L = Inductance of circuit, henry. 0

the receiving end is open circuited. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously .
A = Flux linkage due to current i, weber turns
While closing a circuit-breaker on a predominantly capacitive circuit like a capacitor bank, the
i = current in the circuit, amp. current flowing in the capacitance is given by
The e.m.f. induced in an inductor is given by,

e=
dA T di
~ volts where
il -
~C
dt —
i = Instantaneous value of current amperes
di dt ...(3.2)
C = Capacitance farads
dv / dt = Rate of change of voltage, volts/sec.
!
 34
The current inrush during the closing of capacitive circuit can occur during pre-
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTlof I 'l N O \ MBNTALS
’ ' OP FAULT CLEARING
35
'I
arcing between
the circuit-breaker contacts . The following duties can produce severe
stresses on the circuit- breaker Integrating, log i +
J t -k
— Paralleling of two capacitor banks
— Closing and opening capacitor banks . logi - - j~ t + k
— Closing and opening unloaded transmission lines on no
load
where k is a constant
,
of integration given by k = loge A , where A is some
other constant . Further ,

3.3. VOLTAGE EQUATION OF AN RLC SERIES

CIRCUIT we know that Joge =
ex
x Hence
{ R / L) t
The voltage equation of an RLC series circuit is given by logt, i = loge e + logA
{ ~ / L) 1 . . . ( 3 , 10)
i =A e R
j idt volts 'faking anti-log

where = impressed voltage

e

L~ = voltage across inductor

= L~t + Ri +
^ . . . ( 3.6 )

D . C . Component . The
or negative depending
magnitude of constant A
upon magnitude of e at t = 0.
i . It is an exponentially decaying component called
This is complementary solution of currentdepends on initial conditions. A may be zero, positive

Particular solution of i ( ip) Take a trial solution

Ri = voltage across resistor . . . ( 3.11)
i = C cos (co t + 0) + D sin (a) t + 0)
J idt = voltage cross
^ capacitor. Such a trial solution is taken because the R .H. .
S of Eq. (3.8) is of the form Em sin (co t + 0).

fand
^
For an alternating e . m . f . the induced voltage e is given of Eq . (3.11)
by Obtain
e = Em sin (ok + 0) get
. . . ( 3.7 ) of like terms from both the sides to
~

where, Em = V2 Erms and co = 2 nf . Angle 0 depends on

magnitude of e at t = 0 . If e is Zero at i 0,
=
and ibtitute in Eq . (3.8). Equate the coefficients
coL ...( 3.12)
111
then 0 = 0 if e = Em at t = 0 then 0 = TC/2. C = - Em 2
R + co2 L2 3
R . . . ( 3.13)
3.4. SUDDEN SHORT CIRCUIT OF R.L.
SERIES CIRCUIT D =E *0
Let us see , what happens, when switch S of
?I? FH
circuit shown in Fig. 3.1 is suddenly closed. Substituting these values of C and D in Eq . ( 3.8) we get 3
4 a . . . ( 3.14) v
Em sin (co t + 0)
'THTOW' WW — S
R + 2

hot <j> be the angle of impedance triangle

3
. 3
e -~ Em Sin(COt + &) i <j> = tan
~1
&

Fig. 3.1. RL series circuit under study .

co L
J=
COS < )
A
l
<4
Writing as equation for current i on the basis Substituting sin (j> and cos <|> in Eq. ( 3.14),
described in section 3.3,
Em sin <j> cos (co t + 0) +

^ ? cos sin (co + e)

~ f

^ ^
>
i= 2 2
LJt
+ Ri = e = Em sin ( co t + 0)
. .. ( 3.8 ) R + CO2 L
2 2

We shall solve this equation to obtain an expression The R .H .S . of the above Eq. is of the form
for current i .
Eq. (3.8 ) is a non-homogeneous differential equation sin (A - B ) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
of first order . The complete solution is the
sum of complementary solution, i .e . and particular
solution ip i .e . i=
Em sin (co t + 0 - <|>) ... ( 3.16 )
i = ic + ip + GJ
( ) 39 Component.
Eq. ( 3.16) is particular solution of Eq. ( 3.8). It is sinusoid called A. C.
S . deEq
0
”
tZt^ Z Sr " ‘V 0
' ” 0blai“ed “”e thS***«
P“ Complete solution
i — ip + ic
i .e . di
Lft + R i - 0 From Eqs. ( 3.10) and ( 3.16), we get ~

Rearranging the terms,

diR
i = AJ
- R/ L) t E
^ sin (cot + 0 - <j>)
theTnitial condition to evaluate A.
...( 3.17 )

i Ldt = 0 This is a complete solution ofEq . ( 3.8). Let us put

 37
36 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTR i \ .
[ ['N
'
nAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
At t = 0; i = 0. Because the current in inductive circuit does not change instantaneously . . .. - .
Example 3.1 A C transient R L circuit A 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage
of implitude 400 volts
circuit of resistance 10 ohm and inductance of 0.1 H . Find an expression for
is applied to a series at any instant after the voltage is applied , assuming the voltage is zero at
Assuming R to be too small as compared with coL;
Vi?2 + a 2L2 = coL
)
the value of the
current
coL the instant of application . Calculate the value of the transient current 0.02 sec after switching on
and co = tan l
X = 9° rp. Sm . )
9

.
Case 1 Switch closed at e = 0 Solution. Refer to the derivation in section 3.2
( liven : it! = 10 ohm
Hence e = 0 at t = 0
L = 0.1 henry
0 = 0. f = 50 Hz
Also i = 0 at t = 0. 2 itf = 314
From Eqr(3.17 ) 0=A+ Em ' fR 2
+ L = VlO + (31, 4) = 33 ohm
CO
2 2 2 2

.
Angle 4> = tan lo)L / R = tan SI.I/ IO
”

’
A=+ —GOLE From the mathematical table, we get
|< > = 73.35° = 1.26 radians
This is maximum value of A, hence the d.c. component is maximum when switch is closed
voltage zero. This case is called Doubling Effect. Because peak value is 2 / (nL , at the peak at e = Em sin (co t + 0)
Em
first current loop. There is as slight drop in the instantaneous value of the current from £ 0
of
£ = 0, e = 0
= to nl
since the switch is closed at voltage zero.
the t = Therefore, the peak value can be considered to be approximately 1.8i? / coL instead| 1

m o 0= 0
2Em / wL. 1 :[ence
The equation for R-L circuit current is f v k
Case II . Switch closed at e = E max

i = 0 at t = 0 we get
e = Emax att = 0.
0 = 7t / 2

0 = A + Em / aL sin(7t / 2 - n / 2 ) .
^
L + Ri = e = Em sin (co £ + 0).

The solution ( Eq . 3.17) is i = Ae

- ( R / L )t +
+ co2L
2
Vi?
Putting the value of i at t = 0 and other given quantities
2
Em
sin (co t + 0 + (|>) O
8
A=0 Em
Hence A is zero , if switch is closed when e = E
-
max Thereby the d .c . component is also zero. °
0 = A(e ) +
From cases I and II we observe that the magnitude of initial value of d.c. component Ae ~ lK / Lt
depends upon the moment of closure of switch, or voltage at the A~
Vi?2 + U 2L2 ^
72' 35 =
W (0' 953) = 12 1 (0- 953)
'

!
instant of occurrence of short circuit.
Let us interpret result of the solution.
-
When an R L series circuit is closed with an alternating voltage source, the resulting
consists of two components, the d.c. component and a.c. component. The current: fence i = 12.1(0.953e 100i + sin (314£ - 1.26)] .
~

.
imposed on the d.c. component. The magnitude of d.c. component a . c . component is super- ngle in the bracket is given radians . This is the required expression for current . Ans
instant of closing the switch . When the switch is closed at voltage depends upon the voltage at the he magnitude of (d .c. component)
, the d .c. component is max-
imum ( Fig. 3.2 ). If the switch is closed at voltage maximum , dzero . c. component is zero and the ! 11 = 0.02 second is given by
waveform is symmetrical about the normal zero axis as shown in Fig. 3.3.
idc = Ae
{ R / L )t
~
= 12.1 x 0.953e
~ 100 x 0 2
= 1.56A Ans , .
I ..
O C COMPONENT .
Example 3.2 A 50 -cycle alternating voltage is applied to an R - L series circuit by closing a
i
i
ti /i
switch. The resistance is 10 ohm. Inductance is 0.1 Henry. The r.m.s. value of applied voltage is 100
volts .
..
(a ) Find the value of d c component of current upon closing the switch if instantaneous value
of voltage is 50 at that time
(b ) What value of instantaneous voltage will produce a maximum d . c . component of current upon
t- closing the switch ?
(c ) What is the instantaneous value of voltage which will result in the absence of any d . c . com-
ponent upon closing the switch ?
t
(d ) If the switch is closed when instantaneous voltage is zero, find the instantaneous current 0.5,
Fig . 3.2 Switch closed at voltage zero,
d .c. component maximum .
Fig . 3.3 Switch closed at voltage maximum ,
no d . c. component .
1.5, 5.5 cycles later .
r
38
.
Solution Let us calculate the quantities for Eq. (

i = Ae R / L» +

R = 10Q
L - 0.1 H
^
3.17) i.e .

R9, + ffl2L2
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION;

sin ( at + 0 + 4»)
FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
39

1 I
I
e- ( R / L )t
_ e- too' W/L£ £ MAAAA
+ co L9 — VlO 2
+ (0.4) 2
= 33 ohm
-
2n radians = 360°
72.35° = 1.26 radians
£,.ms = 100 V
= tan- '
^ = 72.35

Emax = E , = V2 x 100 = 141.3

^ /wuf y VAAAAA
j.
- e 100 i + ~
-
^ sin (314 t + 0 - 1.26)
i = Ae 100 « + 4.3 sin (314 t Q -
~

This is the equation of current in the + 1.26) . ..( « )

circuit.
( a ) Switch closed at t 0,
stantaneously. Therefore,
= when e = 0 and in an inductive circuit, current does not change
in-
i = 0 at t = 0 PHASE S S
.
From Eq (1), we get a
0 = A + 4.3 sin ( 1.26) - *0
A = 4.3 sin 1.26 (Note 1.26 is angle
in radians)
= 4.3 x 0.953 = 4.1
.'. D.C, component at t 0 is given by 35
Fig. 3.4 Waveforms of currents in 3-phase short circuit of an alternator.
= t!
3
Ae ~ { R / L )t = 4.1c 1001 4.1e 4.1 is no definite number , it depends on the machine) cycles is least and the short circuit current is
°
"

(6 ) The maximum d.c. = = amp high. This reactance is called sub -transient reactance and is denoted by X The first few cycles
component will be produced
zero at the instant of closing the
switch.
if instantaneous value of applied voltage
is -
come under sub transient state.
il
(c) The d.c. component After a first few cycles the decrement in the r .m.s. value of short circuit current is less rapid
will vanish if e = Emax i .e . V2 x
stant of closing the switch. > 100 = 131.3 V (instantaneous ) at the in
- than the decrement during the first few cycles. This state is called the Transient State the reactance S
in this state is called transient reactanceX ' . The circuit-breaker contacts separate in the transient
( d ) Like Problem 3.1,
0.5 cycles = 0.5 X 0.02 second
state.
Finally the transient dies out and the current reaches a steady sinusoidal state called the
\
1.5 cycles = 0.03 second Steady State The reactance in this state is called steady state reactance Xd . The Aid is called direct
.
5.5 cycles = 0.11 second axis synchronous reactance.
Substitute in Eq. (1) taking A 4.1 from part Since the short circuit current of the alternator lags behind the voltage by 90°, the reactances
= (a). involved are direct axis reactance.
. -
3.5 SUB TRANSIENT, TRANS Consider Fig. 3.4; the d .c. components in the three phases are different; hence the wave forms-
IENT AND STEADY STATE of the three phases are not identical. If voltage of phase, say, Y , is maximum at the instant of short
The analysis of sudden short circuit circuit, d .c. component of short circuit current is zero. Hence the waveform is symmetrical as shown
- -
three phase short-circuit of an alternato of an R-L series circuit (section 3.4) will now be applied to in Fig. 3.5.
tance and reactance. If we neglect .
r An alternator has stator windings
having Referring to Fig. 3.5 draw an envelope enclosing the waveform .
the armature reaction and variation in field currentcertain resis-
flowing in an altenator phase during , the current Ixtend the portions of the envelopes as shown in the figure. NM is extrended to meet the zero
short-circuit current wavafonn given the short circuit has -
waveform similar to that of an R- L circuit time ordinate at point, A. ML is extended to meet the ordinate at B and LC meets the ordinate of
is modified by armature reaction. An in Figs. 3.2 and 3.3. However , in the alternator, the waveform zero time at C. Measure OC, OB and OA.
oscillogram of three phase currents -
When the alternator is short circuited,
high value (10 to 25 times -
full load current ), during the first quarter
is shown
the currents in all the three phases in Fig, 3.4.
rise rapidly to a
NM is a portion of envelope in steady state LM is a portion of envelope in trasient state LC is
- -
a portion of the envelope is sub trasient state and LC is the portion of the envelope in sub transient
airgap is large during a first couple cycle. The flux crossing the
of cycles. The reactance during these state .
first two or three ( there
 40
The currents and reactance are given by
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
the following expressions :
,,, N JAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
! |
41

, OA Ea snbtransient , transient and steady-state reactances can be determined experimentally by conduct-

...( 3.20) ing circuit test .
rilioft
R is clear from Eqs. ( 3.20 ) to ( 3.22 ) that while calculatingThe
subtransient, transient and steady
t ,= O BK
_
12 Xd . ...( 3.21 are given in
; the respective reactances
state currentsSection II of the book . should be considered . examples of short-circuit current

1" - OC
T Ea
~
CURRENT INTERRUPTION IN A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
where I = Steady state current, r.m.s. ^
value
2 X d„ ...(3.22 )
The waveform of the current and the voltage during the arc interruption process will be studied
in this section. This description
I' = Transient current r.m.s. value applies to the circuit- breakers employing the principle of zero- point
I" = Sub-transient current, r. . interruption . Every a.c . circuit- breaker generally adopts the zero-point interruption technique.
m s. value Consider a circuit -breaker connected to a generator on no load at rated terminal voltage. The
Ea = Induced e.m.f. per phase circuit - breaker is in open position and the other side of circuit-breaker is short circuited ( Fig. 3.6 ) .
Xd = Direct axis synchronous reactance C.B.
Xcf = Direct axis transient
reactance
X l" = Direct axis sub-transient
(
reactance
TI £
OA, OB and OC are intercepts
shown in Fig. 3.5. 3 PHASE
SHORT
k.
tZZtTSmT
\
STEAD /
STATE
CIRCUIT
es
o
V" ft
m
£
Fig. 3.6 Sudden-3 phase-short circuit of an alternator.
0
Let the circuit-breaker be closed at the instant when voltage of terminal B w .r.t neutral is zero .
In such a case the short circuit current in phase B will have maximum d.c. component and the
,
waveform of current If will be unsymmetrical about normal zero axis as shown in Fig. 3.7 . The
( I
figure shows the typical waveform of short circuit current in a phase having maximum d . c. com -
$ f
ponent.. The generator is on no load before t = 0. Hence the current is zero before t = 0 . At t = 0 ,
the short circuit is applied and the current increases to a high value during the first quarter cycle .
The peak of the first major current loop (shown hatched ) is OM and this is the maximum instan -
IE I
taneous value of current during the short-circuit the instantaneous peak value of the first major
current- loop is called the Making current. . In the figure the making current is OM . It is expressed
in kA peak .
*1
Let us come to this making current after covering the remaining process ( Sec. 3.19.6 ).
Fig. 3.5 Oscillogram of current The circuit -breaker contacts separate after a few cycles since the relay and the operating
is the phase having zero
d .c. component.
As the short circuit occurs, the short mechanism takes atleast a couple of cycles . Let us assume that the circuit-breaker contacts separate
tacts start separating after the operation - circuit current attains high value. The circuit at t Ty The r .m.s. value of short circuit at the instant of contact separation is termed as Breaking
separate during ‘trasient state of the protective relay. -breaker con
The contacts of the circuit-breaker - current .
.’ The r.m.s. value of the
tion is called the breaking current current at the instant of the contact separa
of the circuit breaker and - After the separation of contacts of the circuit-breaker , an arc is drawn between the contacts.
If a circuit-breaker closes on is expressed in kA. Tlie arc current varies sinusoidally for a few cycles. At t = T 2 a particular current zero, the dielectric
existing
the first, half cycle as shown is Figs fault , the current would increase to a high
. value during strength of arc space builds up sufficiently so as to prevent the continuation of arc. At the current
during the peak of the first current 3.2 and 3.3. The highest peak value of the current is zero, this arc is extinguished and is interrupted.
breaker and is expressed in kA.” Theloop . “This peak value is called reached
making current of the cirrcuit
cussed in details in section 3.19. terms ‘breaking current’ and ‘making current’ have been
dis-
- Meanwhile what is happening to the voltage between contacts ? This voltage is recorded in Fig.
3.7. Before t = 0, the contacts are closed and the voltage between them is zero. After the separation
-
Though the short circuit current
states, the representative values can be varies continuously during the
sub-transient and trasient
iil' tlie contact ( t = Ty ) , the voltage across contact increases. In fact this voltage in the voltage drop
acn iss the arc during the arcing period . The voltage across arc is in phase with current since the
calculated from the equations 3.20 , 3.21, and 3.22. The ore is resistive. The peculiar waveform shape is a result of voltampere characteristic of arc-dis-
42 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION OF FAULT CLEARING 43
Kl ' NDAMENTALS
charge to be studied later . During subsequent half cycles , the voltages across contact increases dm
-
"Ur
- RESTRIK/NG VOLTAGE
to increased arc resistance. Finally at t = T % when arc gets extinguished a high frequency voltage After a current zero, the arc gets ex
if the rate of rise of transient
transient appears across the contacts which is superimposed on power frequency system voltage.
This high frequency transient voltage tries to restrike the arc. Hence it is called Restriking Valtages
recovery voltage between the contacts
Ilian the rate of gain of the dielectric RECOVERY
or Transient Recovery voltage (TRV). The restriking voltage is transient voltage appearing across rongth . The voltage appearing between VOLTAGE
breaker pole after final current zero. The power frequency system voltage appearing between the *1 moment of
I he breaker contacts at the VOLTAGE ACROSS
poles after arc extinction is called Recovery voltage. The transient recovery voltage or restriking
[ m ; ll current zero has a profound in- '' ARC
voltage has a profound effect on circuit-breaker behaviour. The current that would flow in the circuit
if the circuit-breakers were replaced by solid conductor is called prospective current. finance on the arc extinction process. The III
voltage appearing across contacts after
The transient recovery voltage (TRV) appearing across the circuit -breaker pole immediately current zero is a trasient voltage of higher \

after the final arc interruption causes a high dielectric stress between the circuit-breaker couiucls. natura l frequency ( restriking voltage). t t
If the dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts does not build up faster than the rate superimposed on the power frequency
of rise of the trasient recovery voltage, the breakdown takes place causing re-establishment of t lie system voltage (recovery voltage). The 111
arc. If the dielectric strength of the contact-space builds up very rapidly so that it is more than t rasient component vanishes after a short
the FINAL CURRENT ZERO
rate of rise of transient recovery voltage the circuit-breaker interrupts the current successfully
. time! of the order of less than 0.1 mill-sec 1
The rate of rise of TRV, generally depends on the circuit parameters and the type of the switching mid the normal frequency system voltage Fig. 3.8 (a ) Voltages after final current zero
duty involved . The rate of building up of the dielectric strength depends upon the effective design voltage . After current (TRV) (Simplified ). ( Ref. Fig. 3.86 )
is established
of the interrupter and the circuit-breaker. zero t ie voltage appearing across the Ill
While switching capacitive currents, the high voltage appearing across the contact gap contm ;s is composed of transient restriking voltage and power frequency recovery voltage .
cause reignition of the arc after initial arc extinction. If the contact space breaks down within
can
a
period of one-fourth of a cycle (0.02 x 0.25) second from initial arc extinction , the phenomenon
called Reignition. If the breakdown occurs after one-fourth of a cycle, the phenomena is
is ARC VOLIAGE |«
—-
0 002 S —•)
POWER FREQUENCY RECOVERY
VOCTAGE (50 H |
*
WM
*
I

Restrike. (Ref . sec. 3.20)

called I % % i
* \ « l
i
O)

IS t
tik Transient
t T
Fig. 3.8 ( b ) Shape of TRV waveform as seen from Cathode-ray oscillographic record .
s
4 PROSPECTIVE
•RENT “Recovery voltage is the voltage which appears across the terminals of a pole of a circuit-breaker
ibrr - -El
'

S
after the breaking of current. It refers to the breaker-pole first to clear .”
l 3
\0
'The transient recovery (TRV) or Restriking Voltage is the recovery voltage during the time in
which it has a significant transient character. TRV lasts for a few tens or hundreds of microseconds . a
I ( Ref. Fig. 3.85 )

— It may be oscillatory or non-oscillatory or a combination , depending upon the characteristics I

of the circuit and the circuit-breaker.
llr i
RECOVERY VOLTAGE
/ — It is the voltage across the first pole to clear , the same is generally higher than across the
two poles which clear later.
3
Rower Frequency Recovery Voltage is the recovery voltage of power frequency (50 Hz. )
appearing after the transient voltage has been subsided .
, v The transient Recovery Voltage refers to the voltage across the pole immediatley after arc ex-
VOLTAGE
ACROSS
ARC
VOLTA
-
RESTRIK
-
tinction . Such voltage has a power frequency component plus an oscillatory trasient component .
The oscillatory trasient component due to the inductance and capacitance in the circuit . The power
frequency component is due to the system voltage (Ref. Fig. 3.8). The transient oscillatory com-
t 0
-
SHORT CURCUtT
OCCURS
CONTACTS
SEPARATE
t - Tj
CURRENT
ZERO
ponent subsides after a few micro-seconds and the power frequency component continuous . The
frequency of transient component is given by
-
V8 -0 ARC
INTERRUPTED
Fig. 3.7. Oscillogram of current and voltage during fault-clearing.
fn yHz I
.
3.7 TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE (TRV)
whei e fn = frequency of transient recovery voltage, Hz 1
l
L = equivalent industance, hency.
In altenating current circuit-breaker, the current interruption takes place invariably at the
C = equivalent capacitance, farad .
natural zero of the current wave .
1
1
 44 45
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTE < TION
FUNDAI ENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
'

In actual systems the waveform of the transient

recovery Recovery Voltage
quencies ranging from a few hertz to voltage has several component fre
- .7.3. Effect of Reactance-drop on power-frequency
circuit parameters.
several thousand hertz, depending upon the
values of the Suppose V\ is voltage at the location of the circuit breaker
- berfore fault. During the fault the
3.7.1. Effect of natural frequency of TRV current cause an increase inm the
me voltage
vonage drop
uiup in
m the
wv reactance . As a result the voltage
increased
.
urine at the location of the fault, immediatly after fault clearance
say V 2 is • - — less
slightly 1 Tr i.1
than 1 ' i 1- J-1

appearing power
Fig. 3.9 illustrates the slopes of tan- original value Vlt Hence the
.3 2 “i " the system voltage to regain the
time for
J
gents to three TRV waveforms of different
^
•

frequencies ( fn f2 /4,, ). With increase in

> nt
the natural frequency, the rate of rise of
TRV at current zero increases. m J
TP
^
1
i)
fn
TANGENTS
/ NPICATB .
SLOPE OP TRY
ATt =0 -
— ARC CURRENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE

The rate of rise of trasient recovery

voltage across circuit-breaker pole causes
voltage stress on the contact-gap tending
to continue the arc. With higher frequency > t
(say fin ), relatively less time
is available 0
for the building of dielectric strength of wt
Czrrft )
* -
the contact gap. Hence higher frequency
is associated with greater stresses.
j
The breaking capacity of a circuit- - ARC VOLTAGE :
(b ) Zero power-factor : emax at io.
breaker ( r .m .s. value of current, which
the circuit- breaker can interrupt ) is re- TRY WAVES Fig. 3.10 Effect of power factor on instantaneous value of voltage at current zero.
Fig. 3.9 Effect of frequency of TRV on
lated with the rate if rise TRV, and, the RRRV.
3.7.4. Effect of Armature Reaction on Recovery Voltage o
therefore, natural frequency of TRV The . a demagnetising
breaking capacity reduces with increase in The short-circuit currents are at lagging power factor and, therefore, have
quency (Ref . Sec. 3.10. Eq. 3.26). natural fre - nrmature reaction in altenators. As a result , the induced e . .
m f. of alternators reduces during short-
3
circuit currents . The e . m .f . requires some time to regain its original value. Hence the power fre-
“ARC CURRENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE quency component of recovery voltage is slightly less than the normal value of system voltage .
>1
r \ -
3.7.5 . Effect of the First Pole to-Clear- .. 8u
Refer to Fig 3.11 illustrating a three Y CB
j l
phase fault not involving the earth . nrn ? •1
I The voltage across the circuit- breaker 3 Ph. FAULT

'1
eo
Ts
'
0
'

t
pole, first to clear is 1.5 times the
phase voltage. In three-phase a.c. cir- ' I ])
cuit-breakers, arc extinction in the
—— B

R
A Si
three poles is not simultaneous as cur-
/
/
rents in three phases are mutually
1 « !
KJ 120° out-of-phase. Hence, the power-fre- R
3
quency recovery voltage of the phase in
— ARC VOLTAGE - ARC EXTINCTION
Fig. 3.10. (o) Unity power factor
which the arc gets extinguished first, is
about 1.5 times the phase voltage . In
Vi '

: eo at io . practice the recovery voltage of the pole,

3.7.2. Effect of Power-Factor on TRV
The voltage appearing across the circuit
-
lirst-to extinguish the arc is of the order
of 1.2 to 1.5 times . If the neutral is
fluenced by the power factor of the current. (breaker
- -
pole at the instant of final current
Fig. 3.10). The arc gets extinguished zero is in - grounded through reactor and if the
The power-frequency voltage appears at current zero. i'ault involves earth, the recovery volt-
across the circuit-breaker pole. The
the voltage at the instant of current
zero depends instantaneous value of age at the location of the circuit-breaker
age. For unity power factor loads , the upon the phase angle between current
- voltage and current are in phase and
same instant. For zero power factor currents,
and volt - is influenced by the equivalent system >8

- the peak of the voltage (

both are zero at the reactance and can be calculated by the Fig. 3.11. Voltage across the phase , first-to-open.
-
circuit breaker pole at the instant of current
zero . Such
Fmax ) is impressed on the method of symmetrical components.

^
severe transient and has a )high rate of rise of
is a difficult switching duty. TRV. Hence Interrruptiri
currents of lmv power-factor 3.7.6. The First-Pole-to-Clear Factor
To consider, the effect of the first pole-clear on the power frequency component of the recovery
-
voltage, the following factor has been defined in the standards on high voltage a.c circuit breakers. .
 43 47
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION OF FAULT CLEARING
llTNl AMKNTALS
)

|—
8
-
line-to line fault ..
CB

-
jTruwwm

o —
—
JfiRRiTIRRn
R
nnnygyffSTTY
VRVY
i
t
_ i B
—
, -W
L
T
ARC

-
*,&**>(* )
N
B /FAULT
GnTFOTBUtn.

—I—
I
1 $\
nnxmm 6
o .
R
I nnrwnnnnr
R ( b ) Single frequency transient.

—
VRN of TRV.
Fig. 3.13. Explaining single frequency transient
i
is obtained while opening on a terminal fault . In
N such cases the reactance
Fig. 3.12 Explaining the first pole
- -to clear factor (VRY / VRN ).. .
M . Li ( rt ) Such a transient negligible.
between the fault and
the circuit-breaker is
The first pole to clear factor
= h_ealthy_

^^^
faul hase |ge
3.9. DOUBLE FREQUENCY TRANSIENTS
Phase to netural voltage with fault removed
at the location of the circuit breaker
-
during a phase-to-phase fault. of the circuit-breaker as shown in Fig, 3.14. Before
Tin'. circuit may have L and C on both sides at the same potential. After arc extinction both %
-
Ref. Fig. 3.12, first pole-to-clear factor
is the ratio of the clearing the fault, both the terminals, 1 and 2 are
frequencies and a composite double frequency transient
Voltage between healthy and faulty phase
(V y) tiie circuits oscillate at their own natural ( b )].
Normal phase voltage (VIiN ) ^ appears across the circuit breaker pole [Fig. 3.14
L ,
at the location of the circuit breaker
-
for a phase-to-phase fault (Fig. 3.12).
3.8. SINGLE FREQUENCY
TRANSIENT
iZ
The single frequency restriking e c, T .1

;
3.13 (6). The frequency of oscillationvoltage
Le'
where L
transient is produced in the circuit illustrated in
is given by the natural frequency
fn =

^ ——LCHz
- Inductance, henry ; C - Capacitance, farads.
of the circuit.
Fig.

(a)
i a
VOLTAGE B
— n PEAK RESTRIKING
/

|
r«
VOLTAGE
RESTRIKING
VOLTAGE
^
’
S

/
t

/
\ j /
l
t
/ i

These frequencies are of the order of

(a ) ^ VOLTAGE (6)
Fig. 3.14. Double frequency transient of TRV
,

The actual power system is composed of 10 to 10,000 Hz depending upon the value of L and C. value of the TRV depends upon
distributed capacitance and inductance. The circuit con- In general the frequencies and waveform , rate of rise and peak
figuration is also complex. The
ing from a few Hertz to several
TRV for such circuits can have several component
kilohertz. A typical single frequency transient is frequencies rang-
illustrated in Fig . —
several aspects such as
net work configuration —
type of fault —
type of neutral earthing.
 —
The TRV wave can be defined by various methods such as
specifying the peak and time to reach the peak
specifying the TRV wave by defining
.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

the segment of lines which enclose the TRV

.
|' l ' N DAM ENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
Assuming zero time at zero currents when t
e = E cos co t
= 0, and further
49
1
I
The latter method has been now
universally adopted and is described in sec. 3.19.9waveform ,
i=
Em sin cot before opening of c.b.
. I
3.10. RATE OF RISE OF TRV di Em X co cos COt
The rate of rise of restriking voltage dt coL
.
volts per micro-second, represents the usually abbreviated by R.R R.V. is a rate expressed in
rate of increase in restriking voltage. The rate
Trasient Recovery Voltage. (TRV) and the of rise of
rate of the rise of TRV depends on natural frequency of TRV are closely associated . Tim
parameters. The circuit breaker the system L Substituting in Eq. (3.18), we get
should be
terrupting its rated short-circuit breaking capable of in- em d\ ...( 3.19)
the specified conditions of TRV. Hence the current under j

- dt 2
acteristics of TRV are significant: foilwing char- |
— Peak of TRV, time to reach the peak
. Hence the e (/\r The solution of this standard equation is
.[ )
e = E» 1 - c<,s

^ . . .(3.20)
rate of rise of TRV

——
frequency of TRV c
Initial rate of rise This is an expression for restrikmg voltage in which
The term rate of rise of restriking /?„, - Peak value of recovery voltage, phase to neutral volts
plained as follows : voltage is ex-
t - Time in seconds
-
If e is restriking voltage volts L - Inductance in henrys te
R.R.R.V. = C - Capacitance, farads
n
volts / p sec. a
e = Restrildng voltage, volts. i
where t is in p seconds, e is in volts.
The peak restriking voltage is defined
.
Note Rate of rise of restriking voltage to
mum instantaneous value attained as the maxi
by the restriking -
voltage ( ).
em t M Sec. dt

5& ...( 3.211 I

^
Referring to Fig. 3,15, R.R.R.V is given Fig. 3.15 . Measurement of single frequency
by transient. = sin
c 1
R .R.R .V. = ~ . . . V/ p sec. R.R.R.V. is maximum when it derivative is zero (from maxima theorem of differential calculus
) 1
! tm
.
where em = peak restriking voltage,
volts dt
is maximum when
dt 2
=0 ir
tm - time between voltages zero and peak restriking voltage in p sec Em t
i. f .
Ern - peak recovery voltage. LCC0 S TLC °
Amplitude factor = or when
t
1W
n
2
a
Em
Natural frequency = 103 kilo cycles/
— second
,
t = LC< \
..
.(3.18) maximum R .R.R .V. is the value of de / dt at
Since f =
— ~ for any sinusoidal waveform.
Derivation of Restriking Voltage. Consider
t = VLC |
reaches zero at final arc extinction, a voltage the circuit shown in Fig. 3.13 when
current i .e. R.R.R .V.max
Em ...( 3.23)
across the c.b . contacts. The current i which e is suddenly impressed across capacitor and therefore', lie
and inductor. Thus would flow to the fault is not injected in the
capacitor Further, peak restriking voltage occurs when e is maximum
i = iL + ic when
t
= it , i .e ., t = % LC
i .e. when
^
s-i 4 * md peaking restriking voltage is equal to
e = Em (1- cos ic) = 2Em ...( 3.24)
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69 like an

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say pointer

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of as traditions

vegetable
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Southern

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Photo grounds jungle

three of barks

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difference wolves

The ornamental
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that

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are spasmodic

of place the

import
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deserve

of

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in
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this

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The Ruminants attack

permission this

the years 47

Naturalist small

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This gums breeds

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