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 TION
NG,
UIPMENT,
ETHODS

• ROBERT L. PEURIFOY I CLIFFORD J. SCHEXNAYDER

ROBERT L. SCHMITT I AVIAD SHAPIRA
 About The Authors vii

International (Association for the Advancement of Cost Methods (2006, 2011), which was also translated to Chinese
Engineering), and educational member of the local and Portuguese. His research in construction engineering
chapter of Associated General Contractors of America. and management has focused on equipment planning,
selection, operation, productivity, and safety. He is the
Aviad Shapira is a Professor of Construction co-developer of an innovative crane-mounted video
Engineering and Management in the Faculty of Civil camera system that serves as an operator aid; this system
and Environmental Engineering at the Technion-Israel has been used on most of the high-rise building projects
Institute of Technology. He received his BSc, MSc, and built in Israel since 1998. Dr. Shapira has conducted
DSc degrees in Civil Engineering from the Technion. He his research in Israel, the United States, and Germany;
spent one year as a post-doctoral fellow at the University he is an avid visitor of construction sites all over the
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign under a grant from the world, where he likes to engage in discussions about
US Air Force. Over the years he was also a Visiting Pro- local construction equipment cultures. He is a Fellow
fessor at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque of the American Society of Civil Engineers, an active
and at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Dr. Shapira member of Committee 347 Formwork for Concrete of
accrued his practical experience as a project engineer the American Concrete Institute, and the Chair of the
and project manager in a general contracting firm prior various formwork standardization committees of the
to pursuing an academic career. He has taught construc- Standard Institution of Israel. Dr. Shapira is the recipi-
tion equipment and formwork design in Israel and the ent of both the ASCE Construction Management Award
United States since 1985, and authored or co-authored and the ASCE Journal of Construction Engineering and
various texts addressing these subjects, including Management Best Paper Award. In 2009 he was recog-
Peurifoy's Construction Planning, Equipment, and nized by ENR as a Top-25 Newsmaker.
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Mass Diagram 77

Machines Make It Possible 1 Using the Mass Diagram 78
Structural Excavation 85
A New Construction Environment 1
Pricing Earthwork Operations 88
The History of Construction Equipment 3
Summary 91
The Construction Industry 10
Problems 91
Safety 11
Resources 94
The Contracting Environment 13
Website Resources 95
Planning Equipment Utilization 14
Summary 16
CHAPTER 4
Problems 16
Resources 17 Soil and Rock 96
Website Resources 17 Introduction 96
Glossary of Terms 97
CHAPTER 2 Soil and Rock Properties 97
Equipment Economics 19 COMPACTION SPECIFICATION AND

Important Questions 19 CONTROL 108

Equipment Records 20 Compaction Tests 109
The Rent Paid for the Use of Money 21 Soil Processing 114
Cost of Capital 27 Summary 119
Evaluating Investment Alternatives 28 Problems 119
Elements of Ownership Cost 30 Resources 121
Elements of Operating Cost 37 Website Resources 121
Cost for Bidding 42
Replacement Decisions 50
CHAPTER 5
Rent and Lease Considerations 51 Compaction and Stabilization
Summary 56 Equipment 122
Problems 57 Compaction of Soil and Rock 122
Resources 60 Glossary of Terms 123
Website Resources 60 Compacting Methods 124
Types of Compacting Equipment 125
CHAPTER 3 Intelligent Compaction 137
Planning for Earthwork Roller Production Estimating 138
Construction 61 Soil Stabilization 139
Planning 61 Stabilization of Soils with
Graphical Presentation of Earthwork 66 Lime 141
Earthwork Quantities 69 Stabilization of Soils with Cement 143

ix
X Contents

Summary 146 CHAPTER 8

Problems 147 Scrapers 224
Resources 148 General Information 224
Website Resources 148 Scraper Types 225
Scraper Operation 230
CHAPTER 6 Scraper Performance Charts 231
Mobile Equipment Power Scraper Production Cycle 234
Requirements 150 Scraper Production Estimating Format 235
General Information 150 Operational Considerations 248
Required Power 152 Scraper Safety 250
Available Power 158 Summary 250
Usable Power 164 Problems 251
Performance Charts 168 Resources 253
Summary 174 Website Resources 254
Problems 175
Resources 178 CHAPTER 9
Website Resources 178 Excavators 255
Hydraulic Excavators 255
CHAPTER 7 FRONT SHOVELS 259
Dozers and Graders 179 General Information 259
Introduction 179 HOES 266
PUSHING MATERIAL 185 General Information 266
General Information 185 LOADERS 275
Project Employment 190 General Information 275
Dozer Production Estimating 192 DRAGLINES AND CLAMSHELLS 285
Dozer Safety 199 General Information: Draglines
RIPPING ROCK 199 and Clamshells 285
Rippers 199 Draglines 285
Ripper Attachments 205 Clamshell Excavators 291
Ripping Production Estimates 207 ANCILLARY ExcA v A TORS 294
Graders 210 Backhoe-Loaders 294
General Information 210 Trench Safety 295
Grader Operations 214 GRADALLS 297
Time Estimates 216 General Information 297
Fine Grading Production 218 Safety 298
Grader GPS Control 218 Summary 298
Grader Safety 219 Problems 298
Summary 220 Resources 301
Problems 220 Website Resources 302
Resources 223
Website Resources 223
 Contents xi

CHAPTER 10 Commercial Explosives 376

Trucks and Hauling Equipment 303 ANFO 380
Trucks 303 Primers and Boosters 382
Rigid-Frame Rear-Dump Trucks 305 Initiating Systems 384
Articulated Rear-Dump Trucks 306 Rock Fragmentation 386
Tractors with Bottom-Dump or Side-Dump Blast Design 387
Trailers 307 Powder Factor 400
Capacities of Trucks and Hauling Trench Rock 402
Equipment 308 Breakage Control Techniques 402
Truck Size Affects Productivity 310 Vibration 405
Calculating Truck Productivity 311 Safety 407
Production Issues 318 Summary 409
Tires 319 Problems 409
Truck Performance Calculations 321 Resources 412
Truck Safety 327 Website Resources 413
Summary 328
Problems 328 CHAPTER 13
Resources 330 Aggregate Production 414
Website Resources 331 Introduction 414
PARTICLE SIZE REDUCTION 416
CHAPTER 11 General Information 416
Drilling Rock and Earth 332 Jaw Crushers 419
Introduction 332 Gyratory Crushers 424
Glossary of Drilling Terms 334 Roll Crushers 430
Drill Bits 336 Impact Crushers 433
Rock Drills 337 Special Aggregate Processing Units 437
Drilling Methods and Production 343 Feeders 437
Estimating Drilling Production 348 Surge Piles 439
Drilling Soil 356 Crushing Equipment Selection 441
Removal of Cuttings 358 SEPARATION INTO PARTICLE SIZE
Trenchless Technology 359 RANGES 443
Drilling Design and Guidance Systems 365 Scalping Crushed Stone 443
Safety 367 Screening Aggregate 445
Summary 368 OTHER AGGREGATE PROCESSING ISSUES 451
Problems 369 Belts 451
Resources 371 Log Washers 451
Website Resources 372 Segregation 452
Safety 454
CHAPTER 12 Summary 455
Blasting Rock 373 Problems 455
Resources 457
Blasting 373
Website Resources 458
Glossary of Blasting Terms 375
xii Contents

CHAPTER 14 Manual or Motor-Propelled Buggies 533

Asphalt Mix Production Chutes and Drop Pipes 533
and Placement 459 Belt Conveyors 533
Concrete Pumps 534
Introduction 459
CONSOLIDATING AND FINISHING 545
Glossary of Asphalt Terms 460
Consolidating Concrete 545
Structure of Asphalt Pavements 462
Finishing and Curing Concrete 547
Flexible Pavements 464
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS 550
Asphalt Concrete 471
Slipform Paving 550
ASPHALT PLANTS 472
Paving Production 558
General Operation 472
ADDITIONAL APPLICATIONS AND
Batch Plants 472
CONSIDERATIONS 560
Drum Mix Plants 479
Placing Concrete in Cold Weather 560
Dust Collectors 482
Placing Concrete in Hot Weather 561
Asphalt Storage and Heating 483
SAFETY 562
Reclaiming and Recycling 484
Pumping Concrete 562
PA YING EQUIPMENT 486
Summary 563
Sweeper 486
Problems 564
Asphalt Distributors 487
Resources 566
Haul Trucks 490
Website Resources 567
Asphalt Pavers 492
Compaction Equipment 499
CHAPTER 16
Safety 505
Trimmers 506 Cranes 569
Summary 507 Major Crane Types 569
Problems 508 MOBILE CRANES 571
Resources 510 Lattice-Boom Crawler Cranes 571
Website Resources 510 Telescoping-Boom Truck Cranes 573
Lattice-Boom Truck Cranes 574
CHAPTER 15 Rough-Terrain Cranes 575
Concrete and Concrete All-Terrain Cranes 576
Equipment 512 Other Mobile Crane Types 577
Lifting Capacities of Cranes 583
Introduction 512
Rated Loads for Lattice- and Telescoping-Boom
CONCRETE 514
Cranes 585
Fresh Concrete 514
Working Ranges of Cranes 588
Batching Concrete Materials 515
TOWER CRANES 589
MIXING CONCRETE 520
Classification 589
Concrete Mixing Techniques 520
Operation 593
Ready-Mixed Concrete 526
Tower Crane Selection 603
Central-Mixed Concrete 529
Rated Loads for Tower Cranes 605
PLACING CONCRETE 531
RIGGING 608
Buckets 531
Rigging Basics 608
 Contents xiii

Slings 611 Gas Laws 662

SAFETY 613 Glossary of Air Compressor Terms 663
Crane Accidents 613 Air Compressors 664
Safety Plans and Programs 615 Compressed-Air Distribution System 666
Zones of Responsibility 616 Diversity Factor 672
Summary 617 Safety 673
Problems 618 EQUIPMENT FOR PUMPING WATER 675
Resources 619 Introduction 675
Website Resources 621 Glossary of Pumping Terms 675
Classification of Pumps 676
CHAPTER 17 Centrifugal Pumps 677
Piles and Pile-Driving Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipe 683
Equipment 622 Rubber Hose 684
Introduction 622 Selecting a Pump 685
Glossary of Terms 622 Wellpoint Systems 687
PILE TYPES 624 Deep Wells 689
Classifications of Piles 624 Summary 690
Timber Piles 625 Problems 691
Concrete Piles 626 Resources 693
Steel Piles 631 Website Resources 694
Sheet Piles 633
DRIVING PILES 636
CHAPTER 19
The Resistance of Piles to Penetration 636 Planning for Building
Site Investigation and Test Pile Program 638 Construction 695
Pile Hammers 639 Introduction 695
Supporting and Positioning Piles During Site Layout 698
Driving 649 Delivery of Structural Components 704
Jetting Piles 651 Steel Erection 705
Spudding and Preaugering 651 Tilt-Up Construction 707
Hammer Selection 652 LIFTING AND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT 709
Pile-Driving Safety 655 Cranes 709
Summary 656 Aerial Lift Platforms 712
Problems 656 Integrated Tool Carriers 715
Resources 657 Telescopic Handlers/Forklifts 716
Website Resources 657 Generators 718
Portable Light Towers 720
CHAPTER 18 Portable Welding Equipment 720
Air Compressors and Pumps 658 CONTROL OF CONSTRUCTION NUISANCES 724
Support Equipment 658 Construction Noise 725
COMPRESSED AIR 659 Noise Mitigation 726
Introduction 659 Lighting 729
Glossary of Gas Law Terms 660 Dust 730
xiv Contents

Vibration 731 APPENDIX A

Summary 731 Alphabetical List of Units
Problems 732 with Their SI Names and
Resources 733 Conversion Factors 783
Website Resources 735
APPENDIX B
CHAPTER 20
Selected English-to-SI Conversion
Forming Systems 736 Factors 785
Classification 736
Formwork and The Project Engineer 738
Formwork Design 739
APPENDIX C
Formwork Economics 743 Selected U.S. Customary (English)
Vertical Systems 750 Unit Equivalents 787
Horizontal Systems 762
Combined Vertical and Horizontal Systems 766 APPENDIX D
Shoring Towers 770 Selected Metric Unit
Safety 777 Equivalents 789
Summary 778
Problems 779
Resources 780 Index 791
Website Resources 781

Web resources to accompany the book can be downloaded from www.mhprofessional.com/

peurifoy9E.
 PREFACE

Technologies used across all phases of the constructed complete the tasks identified during project planning.
project life cycle continue to evolve at an ever increas- This text describes the methods used to investigate
ing rate. Existing and emerging technologies can assist equipment productivity and it provides equipment
with overall project planning, design, construction, application understanding. Proficiency in analysis and
and maintenance activities by providing efficient data familiarity with appropriate applications are critically
retrieval and information in visual formats. Construc- important to those wishing to compete in the acceler-
tion equipment telematics now provide operators and ated project environment.
managers with real-time equipment positioning, pres- A machine is economical only if used in the
sure sensing, fuel rate consumption, automated path proper manner and in the environment in which it has
guidance, alerts, and other specific measures to opti- the mechanical capabilities to function effectively.
mize machine performance. Technology planning tools greatly enhance our ability
Owners play a vital role in seeking new ways to to formulate equipment planning and construction deci-
accelerate project delivery and this edition of the text sions, but to use the tools to an advantage, an equip-
addresses the key to successful execution of an accel- ment planner must have an understanding of individual
eration effort-planning. The Critical Path Method machine capabilities and how to properly apply those
(CPM) and the Project Evaluation and Review Tech- capabilities to construction challenges.
nique (PERT), planning tools developed in the late This ninth edition follows in the tradition estab-
1950s, are still the mainstays for project scheduling. lished by Robert L. Peurifoy over 60 years ago, and like
Building Information Modeling (BIM), an idea dat- the previous eight editions, provides the reader with
ing from the 1970s, did not receive wide acceptance the fundamentals of machine selection and production
until 2002 but is now commonly used to support estimating in a logical, simple, and concise format.
both building and infrastructure construction. CPM With a grounding in these fundamentals, the engineer/
and PERT are scheduling algorithms while BIM is a constructor is better prepared to evaluate economic
digital representation of the building process. Lidar equipment application options.
(light and radar) sensing technology, sometimes written Significant changes have been made to this edition.
LIDAR or LiDAR, now allows the engineer to rapidly The construction market place has experienced a shift
create a DTM (Digital Terrain Model) of a project in project types, with more work involving reconstruc-
site. This model of the existing site can be overlaid tion of aging infrastructure and more projects being
with the proposed project grading. Together, the DTM executed in congested urban environments. Equipment
and the design drawing provide another planning manufacturers have responded to these market dynam-
support tool. There is still one other new piece of ics with new machines and with changes to existing
equipment to support planning, or more specifically machines. Contracts for projects in urban environments
surveying and machine guidance, the Unmanned continue to require more intense planning in order
Aerial Vehicle (UAV) or what is commonly called to accommodate restrictive regulations concerning
a drone. UAVs have the potential to become tools construction nuisances particularly vibrations, light,
as important as individual pieces of yellow iron and noise. Additionally, new government regulations
because they can provide the engineer accurate data designed to protect the environment, particularly emis-
or imaging almost instantaneously. They can be used sion rules, have caused equipment manufacturers to
to inventory jobsite materials and equipment, and to develop a new generation of engines and seek ways to
monitor site safety. reduce fuel usage. While energy savings yield fuel cost
In spite of the aforementioned technologies, it is savings, the effect of these engine modifications on
still necessary to understand machine capability and to maintenance costs is still a question. Because of these
compute the most economical grouping of machines to market changes this text includes additional material

xv
xvi Preface

about small machines used on urban projects and for at CONEXPO-CON/AGG sponsored by the Associa-
building construction. tion of Equipment Manufacturers in Las Vegas and at
All chapters have undergone revision, ranging from the BAUMA in Germany. Previous editions of the text
simple clarification to major modifications, depending are now available in English, Chinese, and Portuguese.
on the need to improve organization and presentation of While the book is structured primarily as a text-
concepts. Many photographs in the chapters have been book for a college-level construction equipment course,
updated to illustrate the latest equipment and methods, it continues to enjoy wide use as a practical reference
and more pictures of operating equipment have been by construction professionals. The use of examples
used in this edition. Safety discussions are again pre- to reinforce the concepts through application has
sented in each of the chapters dealing with machine or been continued. Based on professional practice, we
formwork use. have tried to present standard formats for analyz-
This new text has 20 chapters. Chapter 11 "Finish ing production. Many companies use such formats
Equipment" of the eighth edition has been eliminated to avoid errors when estimating production during
with the essential material moved to other chapters. The the fast-paced efforts required for bid preparation.
grader information is in the "Dozers and Graders" chap- We are deeply grateful to the many individuals and
ter, gradalls are discussed in the "Excavators" chapter, firms who have supplied information and illustrations.
and trimmers moved to the "Asphalt Mix Production and Mr. Scott Sanders at Manitowoc Cranes has always
Placement" chapter. While dozers are still used as high made himself available to discuss crane developments
production machines on some projects, it is more common and we owe him a special thanks for his guidance. To
to find them in support roles. Therefore, the "Dozers and Mr. Aaron Cohen, CPC, AGC Lecturer, in the Del E.
Graders" chapter has been modified accordingly. Many of Webb School of Construction at Arizona State Univer-
the details concerning dragline and clamshell excavators sity we offer our sincere thanks for his insightful com-
have been condensed because of the specialized nature of ments. His help with the development and testing of the
their employment. To reduce environmental harm utility chapter problems in his construction equipment classes
providers have begun building wind farms. The erection has added to the quality of this text. However, we take
of large wind turbines for generation of electricity has full responsibility for all content.
initiated new models of lifting equipment. Such machine Most importantly we express our sincere appre-
advances are discussed in the "Cranes" chapter. ciation and love for our wives, Judy, Lisa, and Reuma,
Equipment manufacturers are making greater use of who proofread too many manuscript pages, kept us
the Internet as a means of making machine data and gen- healthy, and who otherwise got pushed farther into the
eral information available. Therefore, this text follows exciting world of construction equipment than they
the practice of the eighth edition by calling attention to probably wanted. Without their support this text would
Web resources. Problems at the end of each chapter rein- not be a reality.
force the concepts and an electronic solution for most We solicit comments on the edition.
problems has been developed in spreadsheet format. Cliff Schexnayder
These solutions and individual chapter Powerpoint™ Del E. Webb School of Construction
presentations are available as Web-based supplements. Tempe, Arizana
Videos of select equipment in both English audio and
Spanish subtitle have been exclusively developed to Robert Schmitt
enhance delivery of textbook content. University of Wisconsin-Platteville
Construction equipment is manufactured and used Platteville, Wisconsin
globally, and we continue to search worldwide for the A viad Shapira
latest ideas and trends in machine application and tech- Technion-Israel Institute of Technology
nology. Every three years the authors are participants Haifa, Israel
 Construction Planning,
Equipment, and Methods
This page intentionally left blank
 List of Abbreviations
AAI average annual investment CII Construction Industry Institute
AASHTO American Association of State CPB Contractors Pump Bureau
Highway and Transportation Officials CPMB Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau
AC alternating current cy cubic yards
AC and AR asphalt grade designations dB decibel
ACI American Concrete Institute dBA A-weighted decibels
ACPA American Concrete Pumping DRI drilling rate index
Association
EVW empty vehicle weight
ADT articulated dump truck
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
AED Associated Equipment Distributors,
FOG fuel, oil, grease
Inc.
fpm feet per minute
AEM Association of Equipment
Manufacturers fps feet per second
AGC Associated General Contractors of ft feet
America, The ft-lb foot-pound
AISC American Institute of Steel fwhp flywheel horsepower
Construction fwhp-hr flywheel horsepower hour
ANFO ammonium nitrate and fuel oil mixture g acceleration of gravity
ANSI American National Standards Institute GA grade assistance
ASA American Shotcrete Association GC General Contractor
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers glee grams per cubic centimeter
ASME American Society of Mechanical gph gallons per hour
Engineers
gpm gallons per minute
ASSE American Society of Safety Engineers
GPS global positioning system
ASTM ASTM International (formerly
American Society for Testing and GR grade resistance
Materials) GVW gross vehicle weight
AWPA American Wood Protection hr hours
Association Hz hertz
bey bank cubic yards I.D. inside diameter
bhp belt or brake horsepower IME Institute of Makers of Explosives, The
BV book value in. Hg inches of mercury
ccy compacted cubic yards ISEE International Society of Explosives
CECE Committee on European Construction Engineers, The
Equipment ISO International Organization for
cf cubic feet Standardization
cfm cubic feet per minute kip 1,000 lb
kN kilonewton RAP reclaimed asphalt pavement
kPa kilopascals RCC roller-compacted concrete
ksi kips per square inch rev. revolutions
lb/sy-in pounds per square yard-inch ROPS rollover protective structure
LCD liquid crystal device (standards)
Icy loose cubic yard RR rolling resistance
If linear foot SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
LGP low ground pressure sec second
LL liquid limit sf square foot
MARR minimum attractive rate of return SG specific gravity
mph miles per hour SG, specific gravity of explosive
ms millisecond SG, specific gravity of rock
NAPA National Asphalt Pavement SPCAF single payment compound amount
Association factor
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational sqm square meter
Safety and Health SR stiffness ratio
NIST National Institute of Standards sta. station
NPW net present worth sta.-yd station-yards
NRMCA National Ready Mixed Concrete s½, relative bulk strength compared to
Association ANFO = 100
NVW net vehicle weight sy square yards
O&O ownership and operating (cost) TMPH ton-miles per hour
O.D. outside diameter TNT trinitroluene or trinitrotoluol
OMC optimum moisture content tph tons per hour
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Act TR total resistance
(Administration) TRB Transportation Research Board
PCA Portland Cement Association USCAF uniform series, compound amount
pcf pounds per cubic foot factor
PCI Prestressed Concrete Institute USCRF uniform series, capital recovery
PCSA Power Crane and Shovel Association factor
pen penetration grade measurement unit USPWF uniform series, present worth factor
PETN pentaerythritol tetranitrate USSFF uniform series, sinking fund factor
PI plasticity index VHN Vickers hardness number
PL plastic limit VHNR Vickers hardness number rock
PPV peak particle velocity vpm vibrations per minute
psf pounds per square foot of pressure WF wide flange
psi pounds per square inch of pressure XL extralong
PWCAF present worth compound amount yd yard
factor yr year
 C H A T E R

Machines Make
It Possible
Construction is the transformation of a design into a useful structure. This
transformation is accomplished by men and women directing the employment of
machines. The proper application of machines can prudently convert an
engineer's plan into reality. Machines continually evolve to meet project
requirements. Today, projects have become more constricted and as a result it is
necessary to make machine application decisions only after visualizing what may
not be apparent without careful attention to the environment. This book describes
the fundamental concepts of machine utilization. It explains how to economically
match machine capability to specific project conditions. With the expanded array
of useful machines, it is important to have both a knowledge of construction
methods and equipment economics.

A NEW CONSTRUCTION ENVIRONMENT

There is an ongoing change in project delivery methods, with owners seek-
ing ways to accelerate project deliver while shifting risk and financing to the
contractor. This is especially true in the case of large/complex infrastructure
projects. While the majority of projects are still let using the Design-Bid-
Build (DBB) method, owners are letting their large projects using Design-
Build (DB) or Public-Private Partnership (P3s or PPP) methods. As a result
the Design-Build Institute of America (DBIA) was formed in 1993. By 2010
the design-build contracting method was used on about 40% of non-residential
construction projects in the United States. In 2014 alone public-private financ-
ing for transportation, energy, and water infrastructure projects in emerging
economies around the world amounted to $107.5 billion.
These changes in contracting methods are forcing project planners to be supe-
rior critical thinkers. Critical thinking about planning is the key element leading to
successful project execution. Planning must include detailed analyses of equipment
utilization with consideration for the physical constraints of a project site, impacts

1
2 Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods

to the surrounding community, sustainability requirements, and the skill level

of available labor. Additionally, backup plans must exist for possible disruptive
events-weather or accidents. Success in the execution of construction endeavors
requires imagination and a knowledge of equipment productivity with an ability to
think deeply in an age of information overload.
This text introduces the engineering fundamentals for machine plan-
ning, selection, and utilization. It can help you analyze operational prob-
lems and arrive at practical solutions for effectively completing construc-
tion tasks. The focus is on the application of engineering fundamentals and
analysis to construction activities merged with an economic comparison of
machine options.
A construction contractor's ability to win contracts and execute work at a
profit is determined by two vital assets: people and equipment. To be economi-
cally competitive, a contractor's equipment must be superior both mechani-
cally and technologically. An older machine in need of costly repairs cannot
compete successfully with new equipment's lower repair costs and higher pro-
duction rates.
In most cases, a piece of equipment does not work as a stand-alone
unit. Machines normally work in a linked production system. An excava-
tor will load a fleet of haul trucks for moving material to a fill location. At
the location where the trucks dump the material a dozer or other machine
will be employed to spread the material the trucks dumped into piles.
After spreading, a roller compacts the material to the required density.
Therefore, a group of machines-in this example an excavator, trucks, a
dozer, and a roller-constitutes what is commonly referred to as an equip-
ment spread.
Optimization in the management of an equipment spread is critical,
both in achieving a competitive pricing position and in accumulating the
corporate operating capital required to finance the expansion of project
performance capability. The basic operational characteristics of the major
construction equipment types are explained and the fundamental con-
cepts of machine utilization are presented in detail. An understanding of
machine capability matched with an ability to calculate production allows
the planner to economically match machine capability to specific project
requirements.
There are no unique solutions to the question of selecting a machine
to work on a particular project or task. All machine selection questions
are influenced by external environmental conditions. The noise and vibra-
tions caused by construction operations and a machine's impact on those
adjacent to the project are additional factors effecting machine selection.
Nearby residents complain about noise and the glare from temporary
lighting systems, and city codes may restrict operations. Therefore, while
selecting a machine for a project involves an understanding of the physical
environment of the project in terms of soil type and moisture conditions,
it also requires planners to think in terms of the surrounding environment
impacted by the construction operations.
 Chapter 1 Machines Make It Possible 3

THE HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION

EQUIPMENT
Machines are mechanical/electrical systems used to amplify human energy and
improve our level of control. Today many machines have on board computers.
These instantaneously process information and automate many operational func-
tions of the machine. The modem machine is a vital resource necessary for the
rapid accomplishment of most construction projects (Figure 1.1 ). One of the most
obvious problems in constructing a project is how to transport heavy materials.
Machines provide the solution. The proof of how well the planner understands the
work and selects appropriate machines is revealed by counting the money when
the contract is completed. Did the company make a profit or sustain a loss?
From the time the first man decided to build a simple structure for pro-
tection from the elements and to improve his ability to grow food through to
the construction of the Egyptian pyramids, the 25,000 mile Inca road system,
and continuing into the mid-nineteenth century, work was accomplished by the
muscle of man and beast-ponder the legendary John Henry with his ham-
mer. The development of construction equipment followed major changes in
transportation modes. Where travel and commerce took place via water sys-
tems, builders dreamed of machines with the ability to dredge ports, rivers, and

FIGURE 1.1 Construction equipment

4 Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods

FIGURE 1.2 The Otis steam shovel; this machine was mounted on steel wheels that
ran on rails 1

canals. As early as 1420, the Venetian Giovanni Fontana was dreaming of and
diagramming dredging machines. Leonardo da Vinci designed such a machine
in 1503, and at least one of his machines was actually built, but the power
source was a lonely runner on a treadmill.
In 1793 a group of men in Massachusetts came together to build the Mid-
dlesex canal, a 27 mile ditch from the Merrimack River to Boston. Finally in
December 1803 water flowed the length of the canal. Then on July 4, 1817,
at a site near Rome, New York, ground was broken for the 363-mile-long
Erie Canal. It was another long ditch excavated by local laborers and Irish
immigrants-human labor. However, by the 1830s, construction in the United
States was changing from canal building to railroad construction. The eco-
nomic life of the Middlesex Canal was only 32 years as it came to an end
in 1835 when the Boston & Lowell Railroad, one of the earliest railroads in
the United States, opened for service. Nevertheless, construction, be it building
canals or railroads, was still achieved by the brawn of man and beast.

Steam Power Machines

William S. Otis (1813-1839), a civil engineer with the Philadelphia contracting
firm of Carmichael & Fairbanks, built the first practical power-shovel excavat-
ing machine in 1837 (Figure 1.2). The first "Yankee Geologist," as his machines
were called, was put to work in 1838 on a railroad project in Massachusetts. The
May 10, 1838, issue of the Springfield Republican reported, "Upon the road in

1"Steam Excavating Machine," London Journal of Arts and Science, Vol. 22, 1843.
 Chapter 1 Machines Make It Possible 5

the eastern part of this town, is a specimen of what the Irishmen call 'digging by
stame.' For cutting through a sand hill, this steam digging machine must make a
great saving of labor."
Development of the steam shovel was driven by a demand for an economi-
cal way to perform mass excavations. In the early 1880s, an era of major con-
struction projects began. These projects demanded machines to excavate large
quantities of earth and rock. In 1881, Ferdinand de Lesseps's French company
began work on the Panama Canal. Less than a year earlier, on December 28,
1880, the Bucyrus Foundry and Manufacturing Company, of Ohio, came into
being. Bucyrus became a leading builder of steam shovels, and 25 years later
when the Americans took over the Panama Canal work, the Bucyrus Com-
pany was a major supplier of steam shovels for the great work. Still, the most
important driver in excavator development was the railroad. Between 1885 and
1897, approximately 70,000 miles of railway were constructed in the United
States. William Otis developed his excavator machine because the construction
company Carmichael & Fairbanks, for which he worked and in which his uncle
Daniel Carmichael was a senior partner, was in the business of building railroads.
The Bucyrus Foundry and Manufacturing Company was organized because
Dan P. Eells, a bank president in Cleveland, was associated with several rail-
roads. In 1882, the Ohio Central Railroad gave the new company its first order
for a steam shovel, and sales to other railroads soon followed.

Internal Combustion Engines

The German engineer Nikolaus Otto is credited with being the first to develop
an internal-combustion engine capable of efficiently burning a petroleum-based
fuel directly in a piston chamber. However, many engineers had obtained
patents for such engines between 1861 and the 1890s when courts of law in
Europe ruled the four-cycle gasoline engine was too valuable an improvement
to keep restricted. Following the removal of the legal restraints, many compa-
nies began experimenting with gasoline-engine-powered carriages. The Best
Manufacturing Company (the predecessor to Caterpillar, Inc.) demonstrated a
gasoline tractor in 1893.
The first application of the internal combustion engine for excavat-
ing equipment occurred in 1910 when the Monighan Machine Company of
Chicago shipped a dragline powered by an Otto engine to the Mulgrew-Boyce
Company of Dubuque, Iowa. Henry Harnischfeger brought out a gasoline
engine-powered shovel in 1914. Following World War I, the diesel engine
began to appear in excavators. A self-taught mechanic named C. L. "Clessie"
Cummins, working out of an old cereal mill in Columbus, Indiana, developed
the Cummins diesel engine in the early 1900s. The Cummins engine soon
replaced the steam boilers mounted on shovels. Warren A. Bechtel, who in
1898 entered the construction business in Oklahoma Territory and quickly built
a reputation for successful railroad grading, pioneered the use of motorized
trucks, tractors, and diesel-powered shovels in construction.
In the winter of 1922 to 1923, the first gas-powered shovel was brought
into the state of Connecticut, and in the spring of 1923, it was employed on a
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Chemistry - Quick Reference
Winter 2021 - Institute

Prepared by: Instructor Williams

Date: August 12, 2025

Background 1: Literature review and discussion

Learning Objective 1: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 2: Experimental procedures and results
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 11: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 18: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 19: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Appendix 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 22: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 25: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 27: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 4: Practical applications and examples
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 31: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 35: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 37: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
Example 40: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 44: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 46: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 47: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 49: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Topic 6: Literature review and discussion
Example 50: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 53: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 53: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 54: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 7: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 65: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 66: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 70: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Introduction 8: Practical applications and examples
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 73: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 77: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 79: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 9: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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