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 The Agony of Masculinity

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 <<0VAmRt>QI/Vt$ ►>
Studies in the
Postmodern Theory of Education

Joe L. Kincheloe and Shirley R. Steinberg

General Editors

Vol. 351

PETER LANG
New York • Washington, D.C./Baltimore • Bern
Frankfurt am Main • Berlin • Brussels • Vienna • Oxford

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 Pierre W. Orelus

The Agony of Masculinity

Race, Gender, and Education

in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy

PETER LANG
New York • Washington, D.C./Baltimore • Bern
Frankfurt am Main • Berlin • Brussels • Vienna • Oxford

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 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Orelus, Pierre W.
The agony of masculinity: Race, gender, and education in the age
of "new" racism and patriarchy / Pierre W. Orelus.
p. cm. - (Counterpoints: studies in the postmodern theory of education; v. 351)
Includes bibliographical references.
1. African American men - Race identity. 2. Men - Identity.
3. Racism. 4. Sexism. I. Title.
E 1 85.625.074 305.38'896073- dc22 2009037345
ISBN 978-1-4331-0416-9 (hardcover)
ISBN 978-1-4331-0417-6 (paperback)
ISSN 1058-1634

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek.

Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the "Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie"; detailed bibliographic data is available
on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de/.

Cover art by Nicholas Naughton

The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability
of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity
of the Council of Library Resources.

© 2010 Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York

29 Broadway, 18th floor, New York, NY 10006
www.peterlang.com

All rights reserved.

Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm,
xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited.

Printed in the United States of America

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This book is dedicated to my first-born and only daughter,
Asha, who I hope will greatly contribute to this world to
make it a little better than it was when she first entered it.
This book is also dedicated to all men and women,

particularly men and women of color, who have been

victimized by racism, sexism, homophobia, and other forms
of oppression.

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/';-=09 )(8* =-0/']

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 Table of Contents

Acknowledgments

Foreword

Introduction

Chapter
From Naïve Complicity to Critical Awareness and Praxis

Case Studies

Aford's Critical Analysis of the Expression "Be a Man"

and Its Implication for Men of African Descent

Fritz's Understanding of and Experience with Maleness

Dwame's Definition of Man and Experience with Institutionalized Racism

Frantz's Position on the Expression "Be a Man"

Joseph's Early Exposure to and Criti

Masculinity

Walt's Understanding of "Being a Man" and Experience with Racism

Eley 's View of What Being a Man Means

Comment on Case Studies and S

Students in Issues Revolved Around Maleness and Racism

Chapter 2: Black Masculinity under W

Exploring the Intersection betw
Slavery, Racism, Heterosexism, and Social Class

Case Studies

Thomas' Take on the Intersection between Gender, Sex, Race,

and Social Class in the Context of Black Masculinity

Dr. Joe's View about the Link between Bla

Colonialism, Capitalism, and Sexual Orientation

Fritz's Approach about Black Masculin

Colonization, and Whiteness

Ben's Experience with

and Institutionalized Racism

Jon's Take
Racism and Homophobia in the Black Community

Comment on Case Studies and Suggestion

Revolved around Issues Addressed in this Chapter

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viii The Agony of Masculinity

Chapter 3: Tied Against the Ra

Men of Color Resisting Hege
the "Other," Cultural Norms, and Religious Dogmas

Case Studies

Dr. Joe's Stance on Black Masculinity, White Supremacy, and the Media

Tom's Experience with Institutionalized Racism at Sch

of Sexist Practices taking place in Fraternity and R
Other Settings

Alex's Experie
for Drug Tra
and Responsibility

Comment on Cas
Toward Social Change

Chapter 4: Beyon
An Achievable Goal or a Utopia?

Case Studies

Fanon's View about Male Roles and Experience Growing up

as a Black Man in the Forties

Marcel's Stance agai

of Male and Female Roles

Mario's Experienc
as an Immigrant Black Professional

Comment on Case Studies and

the Dialogue about Inter-Rac
in Schools and Beyond

Chapter 5: Examining Maleness through the Racial Line

Afterword: The Inescapable Socio-Politi

A Critical Analysis of President Barac
Professor Henry Louis Gates's, and Sg
Racial Controversy

Bibliography

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/';-=09 )(8* =-0/']

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/';-=09 )(8* =-0/']

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/';-=09 )(8* =-0/']

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/';-=09 )(8* =-0/']

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Peter Lang AG

Acknowledgments
Source: Counterpoints, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. ix-x
Published by: Peter Lang AG
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Accessed: 02-02-2021 12:00 UTC

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Counterpoints

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 Acknowledgments

This book was written under challenging circumstances,

academic. I started working on this book in spring 2008 w
my dissertation and looking for a university faculty posit
year, as I was getting ready to defend my dissertatio
Cruces, New Mexico, to start a new faculty position at
University, I learned that my partner was pregnant with o
Furthermore, as I was settling down in Las Cruces, I h
dissertation and design syllabi for the three courses that I
This left me with very limited space to continue workin
of this book. However, with the support of some incredi
to continue working on it and finish it. I feel indebte
materialization of this book.

First, I want to thank my partner, Romina Pacheco, for supporting me

throughout the difficult moments I experienced while working on the
manuscript of this book. The sacrifice she made taking care of our daughter,
Asha, while I was spending long hours, days and nights, on this book is
sincerely appreciated. I also feel indebted to her for spending incredible
amount of hours formatting the manuscript to meet the publishers' format
guidelines.
Second, I am immensely grateful to Professor Shirley Steinberg and the
late Professor Joe Kincheloe for their support. Without their strong support,
this book would not have been in print, at least not this year. Third, I want to
sincerely thank Sophie Appel and the other staff members at Peter Lang
Publishing for their hard work. They are amazing!
Fourth, I wish to sincerely thank all the informants who took part in this
book project, particularly Dr. Enoch Page, the first informant I interviewed
for the book. In addition to making time to share his breadth of knowledge
about white supremacy, his own experience with homophobia, and institu-
tional racism, he read and gave me constructive feedback on the second
chapter of the book. Had he and the other informants not made the time to
share their moving and inspiring stories with me, this book would not have
been possible. Their stories are the core of this book.
Fifth, I want to express my gratitude to the faculty of Women's Studies
at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst for challenging me to think
deeper about the harmful effects of sexism, homophobia, and the patriarchal

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X The Agony of Masculinity

system on women and the LBG

queer) community. I also wan
understand the intersection bet
Sixth, a heartfelt thank you to
his help in transcribing some
Seventh, I am truly indebted
West, Pedro Noguera, and Char
true brothers. I have been prof
aimed at challenging and eradic
others has also been a true inspi
Eighth, I am grateful to Nich
beautiful painting for the cove
and his artwork is admirable
Glazewski for introducing me t
friends and colleagues such as
Garcia, Marisol Ruiz, Rudolfo
helping me think through the
gested title was particularly he
other colleagues in the Curri
Mexico State University for the
Leanne Adelson, my older bro
Orelus, and late sister, Clautil
that I could get one. They all h
intellectual, professional, and, m

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Peter Lang AG

Foreword
Source: Counterpoints, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. xi-xvii
Published by: Peter Lang AG
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42980549
Accessed: 02-02-2021 12:00 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

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 Foreword

Writing this book was the most emotionally challenging

have ever had. Specifically, while writing this book I fou
ally confronting my own maleness. That is, I found myself
unpleasant, and hurtful things that I did to women, includ
truly cared for me. This painful experience helped me re
male behavior that I learned and the patriarchal socie
socialized have led me to reproduce oppressive sexist b
such as misleading and lying to women. Critically refl
tioning my male privileges, I decided that I would challen
and encourage other men to do the same. Thus, I hope th
an inspiration to all men to take actions against their ma
hope that it will challenge individual whites to take a sta
tional racism and white supremacy. Finally, it is hoped th
inspire heterosexual men and women to challenge their h
leges and fight against sexism, homophobia, and the oppre
patriarchal system.

The Source of Inspiration for This Study

I must make clear that the idea of writing a book abo
context of men of African descent was not in the forefron
was not the core of my research interest. Although my i
studies led me to pursue and earn an advanced graduate c
studies, writing my second book on maleness in the
African descent was beyond my wildest imagination. An
ter with a feminist philosopher and activist in a classroom
happen.
While taking a course on feminist theory in fall 2006 with a professor
named Ann Ferguson, I told her that for her class I would like to do a
research project on masculinity, which I ended up not doing. Instead, I wrote
a theoretical paper on the socioeconomic conditions of "Third World"
women in which I articulated how sexism, Western capitalism, and patriar-
chy have impacted the life of Caribbean women, particularly Haitian women.
However, as I continued talking to Professor Ferguson about gender issues,
she mentioned to me the name of a Caribbean student whose research
interest focused on masculinity. I already knew that this student was inter-

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 xii The Agony of Masculinity

ested in the topic but still did n

considering it as interesting. I als
was and still is interested in mas
while I was finishing my course
sity of Massachusetts at Amherst
Both of these students have inv
ing this topic. They both wrote a
international conferences on ma
was involved in gender training
men develop some level of aware
Through this training, he also h
the performance of their malen
themselves. Both the Caribbean and the African students showed a lot of
passion while talking about this topic. I was fascinated by their passion, but
such fascination was insufficient to stir in me a deep desire to explore the
issue.

In addition to these two students, my partner sometimes used the word

maleness when she wanted to challenge some of my male behavior. She
often lamented how my maleness made it hard for her to be truly intimate
with me. The maleness wall that I consciously or unconsciously used to
repress my emotions and mask my inner self shadowed my life for more than
two decades. The main reason was that I did not want to show my vulnerabil-
ity, weaknesses, and emotions to women or men. The secondary reason was
that I was afraid of questioning and challenging my own maleness, which has
granted me some unearned privileges throughout my life trajectory from the
Caribbean tropical island, Haiti, to the U.S imperialist land.
My struggles challenging my own maleness and masculinity helped me
test and confirm a theory: challenging one's privilege is the greatest chal-
lenge one can ever face, and the toughest decision one can ever make or the
hardest task one can ever take on is to try to make one challenge his/her
privilege, let alone give it up. The underlying reason for this is that privilege,
be it earned or not, often leads to a sense of blind entitlement.
I used the masculinity and maleness wall for over two decades as a self-
defense to survive in this patriarchal society. This wall did not shatter until I
finally realized that liberation begins first and foremost with oneself and
more specifically with one's inner self. This realization led me to the road of
introspection and self-questioning, which in turn challenged me to unveil the
masculine and maleness mask that I had been wearing for over two decades.

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 The Agony of Masculinity xiii

This then led me to explore an i

believe is worth examining not
color but also for people of othe
In January 2008, while I was in
sertation and looking for a facul
started crafting some ideas not k
should focus on and explore. H
wanted to explore some aspect
explored in the literature. This is
context of men of African desc
and intellectual imagination. This
However, after deciding on th
focus on, I was faced with the ch
alize the conceptualization of th
theoretical book about masculini
scholars such as Michael S. K
Seidler, Bob Pease, Jason Katz,
problem that I anticipated facing
many studies that link masculin
my book. Having realized this d
many men of African descent
understand and perform their m
what has been their experience w
The stories that the informant
life experiences illuminate how
maleness and the extent to wh
women and to themselves. Their
ity has been socially, historicall
way that maintains the patriarc
much they have suffered from
due to their racial background
challenges I faced conducting
challenges.

Challenges Faced and Lessons Learned

I faced some terrific challenges while conducting this study. Many men of
African descent involved in the study hesitated to talk about their maleness.

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xiv The Agony of Masculinity

However, they were eager to talk

topic that gave them a platform to
Because the main focus of this b
context of men of African descent,
centered on this topic. At times, it
desire and inclination to talk about
supremacy seemed stronger than tha
I therefore had to set boundaries.
took into consideration various po
maleness and blackness. Looking b
document and fully capture life even
their masculinity and experience
learned that pure rhetoric or assum
maleness does not tell us much abou
Many confessed that they feel that
masculinity so they can get respe
informants claimed that as men of
hold on to now is their manhood,
during slavery.
They also stated that they refuse t
formance because they fear people
vulnerable side about their manhood
can actually teach them how to be h
can also be a channel through wh
while honoring their strengths. Mor
they have a great relationship with
and that their mothers are their que
being. However, the view that som
disturbingly sexist and empty of hu
I pointed out the contradiction im
cause I wanted to show how the
grammed men's minds to denigr
maintain the status quo. From their
inferred that the more sexist and ho
for the patriarchal system. This sy
inculcated homophobia and sexism
important thing that I inferred from
that the patriarchal system failed m

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 The Agony of Masculinity xv

that in order to be a man and

show toughness, and try to be
Caribbean, I have also been
mindset, which I explore in dep
In part, this study allowed m
can descent with their maleness and racism that is similar to mine. For this
reason, I felt particularly invested in this research. Also, because of this
important factor, I brought a lot of passion and energy to it. However, as a
researcher, I am fully aware that my biases could impact the outcome of this
research. Therefore, I analyzed my representation of the realities and
struggles of the informants by doing a critical analysis of such representa-
tion. I did so by providing evidence for conclusions that I drew from their
stories.

Why Write This Book?

As a heterosexual man who recognizes and challenges the unearned privi-
leges that I have had by virtue of my gender (male) and sexual orientation
(straight), I decided to write this book with the hope that it will help men of
color, as well as white men of all backgrounds, ages, abilities, and "disabili-
ties" to develop some level of awareness about the devastating effects of
sexism and homophobia on women and on the LBGTQ community. More
importantly, I am hoping that the content of this book will encourage many
men to make an effort to unmask and challenge their maleness and start
fighting alongside women against the patriarchal system that has kept
women, especially poor women, as socioeconomic, political, and sexual
hostages. I also hope that this book would stir up the human consciousness of
many whites about the devastating effects of institutionalized racism and
white supremacy on people of color, and that they will take action against
this form of racism. I want to end this foreword with a poem that I wrote
while I was working on the manuscript of this book. It is called They Say and
its content captures some of the issues that this book addresses.

They Say
They say that they can break me,
Because they were the ones who made me.
They say that it is time that I finally realize
That my black ancestors were not civilized

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xvi The Agony of Masculinity

That they were uneducated, st

Like untamed animals that are

They say that I am physically s

So it is ok if they stand on an
Sometimes, they look at my sk
And they say it's ok if I want
They say that my hair is kink
So I can get angry and be un

They have portrayed me in the

When I make my voice heard, t
Recently they see me walking

Without thinking, they arroga

Are you the new housekeeper,
I look at them and say: No. I am

They say that my nose is too big,

To mimic them, they say I must
They say that I eat too much an
So to look attractive and sexy, m
They say that I have AIDS becaus
They also say that it is my fault t

With regard to my identity, they t

My gender, sexuality, and blackness
They say that I am a rebel for refus
As a severe punishment, they say t
They stubbornly refuse to challenge
And they deny their homophobic, ra

As I was walking on the street, they l

Their friends laughed, laughed, and la
The next day they saw me; they looke
I ignored them, but they kept starin
In their brown, black, or blue eye
Which they feel they can use, abu

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The Agony of Masculinity xvii

They blame me for my own miser

As if it I was the one who created
They put me in jail unjustly, make m
So that I won't be a threat to them an

They say that my culture is bar

But they portray theirs as adva
When I speak up against racial, s
They say that I am losing my coo
And when I stand up for those wh
They look at me and say: why

In their textbooks, they lie about m

Which they have put under siege
They have used all kind of tactics,
Which has been oppressed by their
Then they say that I commit too m
But they do not mind enjoying my

They can't stand my blackness, so th

Instead of distributing all the resource
I fight back saying: my African land
It's still a poor land that you imperi
They look down on my cultural her
When I dare call them on their prej

They say: why are they so poor? Why

And they rush to make this conclusion
I respond asking them: Why do you mo
They say, "what?" And I say: Perhaps th

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Introduction
Source: Counterpoints , 2010, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. 1-15
Published by: Peter Lang AG

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range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to

Counterpoints

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 Introduction

Traditionally, studies on gender have focused on the soc

binary between men and women. While showing how wome
from sexism, they have failed to examine in depth ho
suffered from it. Specifically, these studies have not ex
struggle of men of African descent with their own malene
influence that maleness has had on their identity and subje
these studies clearly demonstrated to what tremendous deg
influenced various roles men of African descent feel they
can "feel like a man." "Feeling like a man" is often due to t
historically ascribed gender roles in the community of color
a whole.

Over the past decade or so, other studies on gender have emerged and
looked at maleness from multiple perspectives offering alternative ways to
examine man as a psychological, sociological, cultural, and historical being.
This paradigmatic shift has exerted a great influence on the field. However,
despite this shift there have not been many case studies like the ones pre-
sented in this book, which focus on a considerable number of men of African
descent exploring in depth the disastrous psychological, social, and cognitive
effects of maleness on them, their family, and their community.
Drawing on thought-provoking and heartfelt stories of fifty men of Afri-
can descent who vary in age, social class, family status, sexual orientation,
ethnicity, nationality, and ability, this book aims to cast light on the tradi-
tional concerns pertaining to the gender issue, particularly to the maleness
issue. It goes on to situate maleness in a sociocultural, historical, and
postcolonial context to provide innovative ways to better understand the
profound effects of maleness on men of color. By doing so, this book hopes
to help students and scholars in various fields develop critical awareness
about maleness while simultaneously challenging them to redefine roles
assigned to men. Although this book focuses primarily on maleness among
men of African descent, it addresses issues that concern men of different
races/ethnicities.

The Agony of Masculinity: Race, Gender, and Education in the "New "
Age of Racism and Patriarchy takes on the intersection between gender, race,
sexuality, and social class to push further the issue of maleness. By doing so,
it aims to attract novice students and general readers to the field of gender

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2 The Agony of Masculinity

and racial/ethnic studies wh

studies and black studies ali
representing these fields. Spe
and scholars from many dis
spaces for discussions about m
institutionalized racism fro
multiple ways that malenes
interrogates many assumption
critically engages the various s
masculinity. While some chap
constructions of black mascul
of such constructions. Spec
assumptions and stereotypes a
sociohistorical construction of
the way they have been mis
stereotypes and assumptions.
Drawing on personal narrativ
embedded in their maleness
alternative ways to help men
ness. Insofar as men, particula
book analyzes all the factors m
of a dialogical relationship bet
to-the world. In doing so, th
transcend the artificial bord
between the self and the socie
this book is that, like the self
constant social negotiation wi
from being complete, as it co
and historical forces. I argu
diverse groups of people in soc
Using maleness as the depart
power relations between men
unequal power relations and t
draw on critical pedagogy and
these two perspectives are
deconstruct the informants' v
and examine their experience w

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 The Agony of Masculinity 3

In addition to carefully descr

pertaining to maleness, criti
issues such as racism, sexism,
book. Given the tangible wa
analyzed and presented throug
far more sophisticated know
and white supremacy. The boo
of ideas around these issues.

This book is written in an accessible language with clear definitions of

unfamiliar terms provided for the novice reader. I believe that the topics that
this book addresses matter deeply to people across gender and racial lines
and shape the way we define ourselves and read the world around us. Given
its interdisciplinary dimension, readers interested in gender studies,
race/ethnic studies, postcolonial studies, social psychology, education,
history, sociology, and other areas will find this book germane to their needs.
In the sections that follow, I briefly explain the reasons that led me to use
a case study approach for this book. I then delineate the theoretical frame-
work informing this study and describe the methodology used. Finally, I
summarize the content of each chapter of the book.

Why the Case Study Approach?

Case studies, which are situated within the framework of qualitative re-
search, may help researchers gain an in-depth understanding of informants
involving in a study. Looking at case studies through a similar lens, Nieto
(2004) maintains that, "Cases studies can help us look at specific examples
so that solutions for more general situations can be hypothesized and
developed" (p. 6). Case studies also entail collecting data through participant
observation and keeping a record. This "includes taking field notes, taking
photographs, making maps, and using any other means to record your
observations" (Spradley, 1980, p. 33). Building on Nieto's and Patton's
ideas, I argue that case studies allow researchers to look at an issue closer
and at a deeper level, and afford them the possibility to establish a humaniz-
ing rapport with informants. This rapport would help researchers get a better
sense of the informants' lived experiences. For example, as I was interview-
ing the fifty men involved in this study, they shared with me the way they
were socialized to perform their maleness. They also talked about their
experience with racism and white supremacy. This information can only be

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4 The Agony of Masculinity

obtained through genuine dia

researchers and informants hav
Through dialog, the informa
man." The information that th
to them can be used to help us
behavior and performance. Lik
been discriminated against in
serve as educational, ideolog
psychological, social, and eco
2005). Bonilla-Silva (2005) argu
more sophisticated and subtle t
in maintaining the (contempor
in Leonardo, 2005, p. 18). The
explored through his scholarly
subtle and overt brutal form o
have experienced here in the U
While analyzing the data coll
incorporate in my analysis
whiteness, and white suprem
homophobia, these issues turn
content of this study. The ech
experience with racism and w
that I conducted with them. C
bly led me to take an unfores
take: I ended up talking about
institutionalized racism much
informants' experience with i
the content of this book. In w
work that informs this study.

Theoretical Framework

This study is informed by critical pedagogy (Freire, 1970; Giroux, 200

McLaren, 1999; Kincheloe, 2008; Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1997; Macedo et
al., 2003) and positioning theoretical frameworks (Harré & Van Langenhove
1999; Davies & Harré, 1990; Goffman, 1959). I particularly draw on Paul
Freire' s definition of dialog to frame this study. Through his scholarly work
Freire emphasized the vital role that dialog plays in knowledge constructio

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The Agony of Masculinity 5

and relation building among in

was able to create social and h
study where we discussed is
white supremacy. By interacti
their position on these issues b
Similar to the central argum
1985; Bakhtin, 1986) have ma
critical pedagogy theorists
Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1997;
is dialectically constructed bet
challenge us to be mindful of t
is politically and ideologically
not the private property of an
edge in the empty mind of
(Freire, 1970). Rather, knowl
genuine dialog. Critical peda
knowledge is privileged over o
In the view of critical pedag
(2003); McLaren (1999); Kinc
Macedo et al. (2003), through d
but also develop awareness abo
awareness can help people be
nomic and political problems
understanding, in Freire' s a
action against oppressive pract
Within the framework of cr
acknowledged, and they are
knowledge construction. Fur
encouraged to use the knowled
of the world. As Freire argued
decoding the written word or
extending into knowledge of
emphasize, "Reading the wor
quent reading of the word d
Language and reality are dyna
Critical pedagogy theorists
language (Macedo et al., 200
critical pedagogy theorists h

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6 The Agony of Masculinity

neutral; that is, language is id

challenge people to unpack th
language. Using critical pedago
language that informants in this
LBGTQ community. By doing s
sexism and homophobia embedde
and homophobic words and sente
or women are soft and too emot
gay men. I was also able to cha
homophobia by encouraging them
assumptions they made abou
through dialog I challenged all m
to examine the possible root caus
position on these issues varied,
with and exposure to homophobi
through dialog they were able
individual and institutionalized ra

Positioning Theory
As mentioned earlier, positioning
alist epistemologies, also inform
concerned with the ongoing and
interaction. According to Harré
a discursive process whereby peo
bly and subjectively coherent par
36) The concept positioning has b
sciences field, it was first int
subjective construction and posit
sive practices. Later Harré an
concept positioning to explain ho
positioned through conversations
Positioning is not static; it is fl
depending on the context. Throu
take on new positions while refu
on them. People can position t
powerful, confident or apologe
tentative, authorized or unauth

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 The Agony of Masculinity 7

33). For example, many men i

strong and fearless and position
Given the fluid nature of pos
roles through social interaction
They range from moral, person
ing to deliberate self-positionin
ing of others, and forced posit
1999; Davies & Harré, 1990). For
positioning and institutional po
about the position of men ab
drew on this theory for I was s
such as family, church, and sch
Self-positioning is the positio
sition themselves to defend a p
agency, i.e., to take a course of
position varies depending on th
Self-positioning is linked to ins
the course of action is initial
individual involved.

Harré and Van Langenhove (1999) argue that "institutions are interested
in positioning persons in two cases: when the institution has the 'official'
power to make moral judgments about people external to the institution, and
when decisions about people inside the institution have to be made" (p. 26).
In the first case of institutional positioning, the "institution has the moral
power to make moral judgments about persons and about their behavior, it
will ask people to account for what they are doing or not doing" (Ibid). And
in the second case, the "institution classifies persons who are expected to
function within that institution, performing a certain range of tasks in
coordination with the task load of others" (p. 27). Harré's and Van Langen-
hove's (1999) statement illuminates the institutional pressure deriving from
family and the Bible by which many of my informants seem to abide. This
institutional pressure informs how they view and consequently position
women. While some position women as weak and soft, others position them
as too emotional. Finally, through their narrative the informants in this study
express how they felt about being stereotypically positioned in this society
because of their racial background and how they have resisted the misrepre-
sentation of their identity through institutional positioning.

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 8 The Agony of Masculinity

Methodology
I started soliciting participants for this study in February 2008 after I finished
crafting ideas about what should be the main focus of this case study. I made
a list of about 60 men who I thought would be willing to participate in the
study. Only fifty of them agreed to take part in it. I emailed potential partici-
pants, including university professors, graduate and undergraduate students,
and blue-collar workers, inviting them to take part in the study. Furthermore,
I designed a questionnaire that contained queries about blackness, masculin-
ity, and maleness. In addition, I wrote a consent form soliciting the permis-
sion of participants to publish what they shared with me in the interviews and
questionnaires and assuring them that their identity will be protected.
For example, I sent the consent form along with the questionnaire to an
African professor who I thought would be willing to participate in the study.
I was hoping that I would get some insights from him about the way he
understands and performs his maleness as well as how he has coped with
racism in this country. The African university assistant professor replied to
my invitation saying, "Hi Pierre, I looked at the questions, but I just don't
connect with the questionnaire. I think I will pass on this one. Sorry about
that! Maybe the next study." The invitation letter that I sent to everyone
including this African professor reads as follows:

Dear . . .

I hope this email finds you well. I am working on a book project that focuses
on the deconstruction of maleness/masculinity among men of African
descent. Toward this end, I need to interview about 60 men of African
descent (i.e., Africans, African Americans, Caribbean and Afro-Latino men)
of various ages, social classes, and sexual orientations. Hence, I am writing
this letter to humbly ask you if you would be willing to give me 20-30
minutes of your time so I can ask you a few questions either through an
interview or a questionnaire. I also need your permission to quote and use
whatever you say in the questionnaire or in the interview in the book.
Your real name will not be used in the book; I will use a pseudonym for
each participant. I believe this research will contribute to a better under-
standing of the impact of maleness/masculinity on both men and women of
color and on our community of color as a whole. This research will also help
us question and redefine the gender roles that have been assigned to us since
adolescence. As many of us know, these gender roles have prevented many of

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 The Agony of Masculinity 9

us from being in touch with ou

many of us have felt that we a
we try to "be a man, " we know
our feelings and others ' well- b
I have attached here a conse
wish to participate , please si
answer the questions in the qu
prefer to be interviewed, pleas
face-to-face conversation with

The questions that I designed

naire were the following:

1. Please say a little bit about y

you do not mind, you can say
your status (single, married,
age, and what social class (w
you feel you belong to.
2. What does the expression " b
3. Has there been any time in y
and/or you felt that you cou
How did you feel living this m
4. In your family, your com
some of the things that are ex
seen and treated as a man? W
things they want you to do b
5. Has it been difficult or re
society? If so, why? If not, why
6. Do you think a homosexual
orientation? What is your op
black (African American, Car
nity?
7. How would you link black masculinity to the legacy of colonialism?
8. Do you think such a legacy influences how men of African descent
behave?

9. How about institutionalized racism? How do you think it shapes the

masculinity /maleness of men of African descent?
10. Is there anything you wish to share about your experience as a man of
African descent in the U.S and other countries?

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10 The Agony of Masculinity

Though disappointed that the

relate to these questions, I acc
part in the study. Unlike him, o
to take part in it. However, ma
up a time to interview them. O
naire but never answered the qu
not even acknowledge the recep
questions formulated in the q
invited informants responded p
take part in this study.
Teenagers, young adults, and s
willingly and happily participat
backgrounds in terms of their
cal locations, cultures, and sex
able-bodied men of African d
disability. Moreover, I interview
bisexual, transsexual, straigh
students; who were university
not formally educated and doi
school and college dropouts; wh
had a college degree; who wer
boys and girls; who were adviso
at a community college; who use
for drug trafficking; who own
who were immigrants from Afr
not English; and Haitian men
black men who were single, divo
Only a few of these men answ
tionnaire; the majority were int
questionnaire and additionally m
later. While I interviewed some
and cultural events, I interviewe
of a few men who were and
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Port
setts, most of the men were an
chusetts such as Amherst, Holyo
All the interviews were face-to
done over the phone. Before I b

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The Agony of Masculinity 11

introduced myself and clearly e

told them that they should not f
do not feel comfortable answerin
taperecord the interview. Once I
to ask them to briefly talk about
My set of questions focused pr
follow-up questions, I asked the
I also tried to obtain their insigh
ism, racism, and white suprema
the interview as interactive as p
talk about their experiences with
I needed to ask for clarification.
Moreover, throughout the inte
space so they could talk about th
friends with sexism and racism
members to behave and act like a
parents, relatives, and friends
about how they expect women
behave. Still others pointed out t
I interviewed each participant
views lasted for over an hour
interviews, which were transcri
not all of the participants had th
they were conducted. Only a few
views, though my goal was to ha
could, if they deemed necessary
lived close to where I did allowe
From this category of participa
questions that I was not able to a

The Case Studies

I carefully went through and did a thematic analysis of all interviews. Som
of the themes that emerged from my analysis were: blackness, colonialism
masculinity, white supremacy, and racism. I arranged each chapter by them
At the end of each chapter, I included case studies that cover similar them
addressed in the chapter. A few case studies whose content provides invalu
able insights about various themes are used in more than one chapter whil

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 12 The Agony of Masculinity

others are not presented at the

only used excerpts extracted fr
points and/or my positions abo
presented at the end of a chapte
significantly deviated from the is
The stories of participants in
they ran through the interview
information about their private
provided a short biographical n
sense of the informant's lived e
bia, and other pertinent issues t
was to connect the core of each
chapter.

Interpretation of Informants' Stories

After I presented the case studies, I briefly commented on them and made
some suggestions as to how educators can use the case studies to engage
students in class discussions about pertinent issues such as maleness, sexism,
racism, homophobia, and white supremacy. While my goal was to interpret
as accurately as possible the stories of the participants, I do not intend to
claim here that I fully captured the core of their stories. My interpretation of
their stories is partial.
The people who are in the best position to deconstruct meanings embed-
ded in their stories are the participants themselves. As a researcher, I felt that
it was my responsibility to ground my interpretation and claims based on the
evidence drawn from their stories. This explains my decision to present their
stories as they were constructed throughout the interviews so that the reader
can refer to the texts and seek the evidence for any claim that I may have
made about their personal narratives.
To avoid possible distortion of the meaning embedded in their stories,
while editing the interviews I only left out most common interjections such
as you know, overuse of but statements, and um. I also fixed some run on
sentences that I felt might be a bit distracting to the reader. However, I
avoided making too many grammatical corrections, as I was concerned this
might affect the core meaning of the participants' stories. Finally, while
conducting this study, I made validity and ethics my chief concerns.

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The Agony of Masculinity 13

The Importance of Validit

Validity, a key term in qualitat
debated, and even redefined. Va
and understood differently in m
example, the way validity is d
anthropologic studies might not
in disciplines such as Math or
takes or the method one uses, va
Researchers sometimes disagre
often do not concur on a sing
researchers then evaluate the va
debatable and contested? In othe
base their research so they can
readers that the outcome of the
biasesand their agenda? In or
researchers must provide a de
research is conducted. More spe
data are collected and analyzed,
experience of informants invol
need to demonstrate step by st
from their data; they also need
evidence, which readers should
Being aware of and taking in
doing this study, I made sure t
1973) of my methodology. Mor
issue can impact the credibility
out the particularity of this st
cally, I clearly noted that the ex
racism and maleness does not n
African descent with these issue
about his experience with mal
be taken as such. As much as
background of informants who
wanted to the reader to be able
mant. Furthermore, to ensure t
study, I wrote a consent letter
over, I informed them about th

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14 The Agony of Masculinity

Finally, I told them that they have t

that they did not feel comfortable a
Another key concept that goes h
Like validity, ethics challenges
tions/behavior while doing research
ethics make the effort to reflect o
impose their belief and ideology on
with things related to their person
the possibility that biases might in
they try to constantly question t
reflexivity. Finally, they make sur
protected and not revealed to anyon
manipulate the informants to prov
biases. Also, I tried not to say an
answers that they provided throug
them. Finally, I tried as much as
informants by not using their real
they shared about their lives to frie

Outline of Chapters
In the first chapter, I use the Caribb
women, including female relatives
patriarchal system. Drawing on
describe how boys and men in
perceive and treat women as subo
experience I talk about how the sch
some Caribbean women including
history. I go further to examine
heterosexism in the Caribbean ha
lesbians. Furthermore, I explain h
phobic views that were inculcated i
and rejected those views. Finally, wh
unearned male privileges, I recount
nated against because of my racial b
The second chapter explores the in
slavery/ colonization, institutionali
this chapter illuminates how black

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 The Agony of Masculinity 15

factors and the ways in which

sented in the media, targeted
result. At the end of the chap
Colin Powell, and Clarence Th
classism and heterosexism ca
examine to what degree homop
of Afro descent who are gays, l
Chapter 3 takes on the hegem
shows how this discourse has f
have prevented many marginal
for and being involved in th
examines how religious beliefs
shaped their sexist views abou
analysis of the manner in which
and articulate" have been used b
indirectly demonize other men
quo.
Chapter 4 analyzes in depth how many forms of oppression (racism, sex-
ism, classism, homophobia, and patriarchy) are interrelated and have
negatively impacted women, particularly women of color, men of African
descent, and other marginalized groups. After critically examining how these
forms of oppression are linked to one another, I make an appeal for inter-
gender and racial alliances/relations among people from different races,
genders and sexes to collectively fight against these oppressions.
Chapter 5 consists of an open letter to men including privileged hetero-
sexual white males and men of color. In this letter, I first analyze how the
patriarchal system has led to the subordination of women and the way in
which whiteness has granted whites unearned privileges. I go on to call on
men of all races to transcend their maleness and individual whites of all

backgrounds to go beyond their whiteness and join the battles against

sexism, racism, and white supremacy. Finally, I invite all men of color to use
their inner strength and try to transcend the venomous socio-economic milieu
that has led many to engage in self-silent physical and psychological death.
The afterword provides a critical analysis of the racial and socio-political
nature of the controversy in which President Obama, Professor Henry Louis
Gates, and Sgt. James Crowley were involved.

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CHAPTER 1: Unmasking Male, Heterosexual, and Racial Privileges: From Naïve
Complicity to Critical Awareness and Praxis
Author(s): Pierre W. Orelus
Source: Counterpoints , 2010, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. 17-62
Published by: Peter Lang AG

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Counterpoints

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 Chapter 1

Unmasking Male, Heterosexu

and Racial Privileges
From Naïve Complicity to Critical
Awareness and Praxis

I think women are to be treated with equal respect, but unfortunately it is not the
same case in many cultures. A lot needs to be done regarding "laws" that should
protect women's rights. We can talk blah blah, but without establishing real "laws"
and have people abide by them, there won't be too many changes. Also, home is the
first institution. Most of the time, it is the "mother" herself who portrays a sort of
sexual inferiority by empowering the boys only. So, I think this is something quite
important for a couple to think of: both boys and girls can learn how to cook because
both need food; both boys and girls can clean the house because they live in the
house, etc.
- An excerpt from an interview with Marcel, an informant

Most black men remain in a state of denial, refusing to acknowledge the pain in their
lives that is caused by sexist thinking and patriarchal, phallocentric violence that is
not only expressed by male domination over women, but also by internecine conflict
among black men. Black people must question why it is that as white culture has
responded to changing gender roles and the feminist movement, they have turned to
black culture and particularly to black men for articulations of misogyny, sexism,
and phallocentricism.
- bell hooks

In concealing our vulnerability to others and to ourselves, we learn to present a cer-

tain image of ourselves. We become strangers to aspects of ourselves. This reflects
itself in our relationship to language as we distance and disown parts of ourselves.
We refuse to experience parts of ourselves that would bring us into contact with our
hurt, need, pain, and vulnerability, since each threatens our inherited sense of mas-
culinity.
- Victor J. Seidler

In this chapter I use my narrative as a form of self-critical reflection and

interrogation to talk about my experience with maleness, heterosexism, and
homophobia in the context of the Caribbean where, for the first two decades
in my life, I was socialized and taught how to "be a man," which I explain
later. To retrace and fully recapture my journey as a boy, and later as a man,

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18 The Agony of Masculinity

I first reconstruct and interrog

of, and exposure to, patriarchal
Sigmund Freud (1995), childhoo
shape people's characteristics an
by reflecting on memories da
was able to locate where and h
sexist views that I held for m
community. Despite my level o
battles that women and the LBG
I still have some self-questionin
the sexist views, the stereotype
and this community. Second, I
virtue of being a man. Third, I
with their maleness, men of Af
position because of their raci
chapter with some case studies.
studies and suggest practical st
in dialog centered on issues suc
homophobia, among others.

Situating the Conte

In the community where I was
most men and women were far
located about 15 miles from P
community, men usually worke
their children, especially when
female farmers spent all day wo
still had to cook, clean the hou
dren's clothes when they retur
women who were not primarily
drivers, and carpenters. My paren
Although my father was train
the side; he hired people to cult
he was in charge. Similarly, eve
goods, she also did some farmin
corn, beans, and sweet potatoes
take care of her animals like co

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The Agony of Masculinity 19

her female cousins and other wome

expected by my father to assume d
washing our clothes, including m
home from work. It did not mat
expected to fulfill this domestic task
Like many boys in my communit
from my parents. "Being a man" in
my father's, was to have as many w
sign of weakness, and be in charg
even though my sisters were old
"being a man" also reflected and tr
were divided in my house. My m
sisters ironed my clothes, cooked
focus on my studies. At no time do
brother, to help her with any type
school and had their own homework
all domestic tasks, while my broth
male friends.

I could spend almost the whole da

soccer, hunting birds, or fishing w
worry about any chore that needed
have to be concerned about the me
my father would not be mad. I coul
with no worries, for I knew my si
cooking, the washing and the ironi
not allowed to spend too much t
needed to be home to take care of
that they would be playing with bo
freedom was often taken away fro
sexual and gender roles.
My sisters were not the only ones
my brother, other boys, and I enjoy
girls and women who were also opp
who tried to control every angle of
sex, and body were under "surveill
mean a set of established institutio
and codes designed to psychological
and control subjugated subjects (Gr

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20 The Agony of Masculinity

At a young age, three, the dif

made clear to me and inculcated
dolls, but playing with fake gu
became a teenager, this differe
fight and be good at it though
sports such as soccer. I could ha
praised for it by my male frien
mother. However, my sisters co
they would have been called diff
and ridiculed and severely puni
would have been taken out of s
rarily with another relative, wh
sending them back to my parent
In fact, something similar hap
ing" the principal of her school
than my sister who was at that
for about a year until my fath
stopped paying for the educatio
school for about a year. Inste
principal who abused his power
actually a victim of the bold ma
Distorted view of masculinit
pacted the daily life of girls, wo
in the community where I wa
good my male friends made
girlfriends, who were good frie
My father somehow learned ab
about it, who in turn welcomed
him at his shop.
My father had about ten peop
men. They often made sexist jo
Most of these men had a wife and at least one mistress. That was and still is
the norm in Haiti, particularly in the neighborhood where I was born and
partially grew up. Their daily "dirty" gossip was mostly about women, whom
many of them perceived as sexual objects. In their view, generally women
were good for sex and taking care of men and children. From the age of 7
until 191 was exposed to this discourse on a regular basis. Even though I was

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The Agony of Masculinity 21

a kid, they felt quite comfortable

about women, especially the poor o
They talked "nicely" about wome
tially equated to having a big as
Women without a big ass did not
They also often talked about both w
in bed with and those who were n
who cheated on their husbands o
women, "bouzin," which is the equ
Both men and women in my n
"bouzin" even though most of the
these men, sleeping with any of th
pie, for in their eyes these women
whose wives or girls happened to c
upon as less than a man.
The only way these men could sa
or wives publicly in the communit
and could be reentered in the cat
brutal, and abusers of women. B
could not beat their unfaithful wiv
afraid that they would get their a
brother, father, or male cousin or
act of violence against women. The
often called names like sissy by
women.

The beating of women by men was a violent act that bec

in the community where I spent the first decade or so of m
well-known case was the wife of a truck driver. That brave woman trans-
gressed the social norm that expects women to be faithful to their partners,
husbands, or boyfriends who, on the other hand, are allowed by social and
cultural norms to have mistresses and are praised for it. She was caught
several times cheating on her husband, who beat her numerous times but was
never punished for his brutal act. There was never a legal action taken
against this violent man. After being physically and psychologically abused
by her husband, this woman left Haiti and went to live in the Dominican
Republic for about a year. When she returned to Haiti, she ironically went
back to her abusive husband who continued beating her until her family
helped her leave this violent relationship. That woman was my mother's

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22 The Agony of Masculinity

distant cousin. It is worth noting

hood merely left their abusive men
spouses who were abusive.
In my neighborhood, both men
spectators of the brutality against
and the reason that led a man to be
relative of the wife or girlfriend w
beaten or killed by her husband or
case of my mother's distant cousin
who got beaten for cheating on her
their daughter or sister from bein
normal thing for a man to sever
girlfriend who cheats on him.
Another reason for the justificat
of women in my community is th
daughter, or female cousin who ch
community, men through their
perpetuated and strengthened the p
their advantage in that they did n
upon, scorned, being rejected by t
or girlfriends if they deliberately ch
It is worth emphasizing that whi
were called names and horribly loo
nity, male cheaters were praised an
knew how to sweet talk women to
in bed. Ironically, these men would
friends and their fathers but also
these male cheaters were the ones w
Many of these women wanted to b
knew they were cheaters. In most
with men who were abusive and
circumstances. That is, men with
surrounding communities exploi
seducing and sexually exploiting t
Many of my family members lik
ins fell into this category of men.
ing my mother knew that these m
their mistresses. For example, t

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 The Agony of Masculinity 23

married, she had three children

one of my older sisters, and I
born out of wedlock, and he co
it.

I argue that the poor choice of my mother and the mother of my half
brother to become my father's mistresses is informed by and linked to the
oppression rooted in a patriarchal system that has afforded men more
opportunities than women and normalized male abusive and sexist practices.
The institutionalization of the patriarchal system was such in my community
that it was quite normal for men to have a wife and one or more mistresses,
especially men with some form of economic capital like land and other
assets. This is still happening in my community and other communities in
Haiti and in other Caribbean countries like Antigua and Puerto Rico, as many
informants involved in this study attested.
It is worth pointing out that my mother's horrible social, economic, and
psychological plight and those of many women are the end result of a
capitalist system instituted in the Caribbean that has contributed to the
perpetuation of patriarchy. This capitalist system does so by putting in place
a labor force that enables men to have more job opportunities than women,
although this would later change with the Western form of globalization.
With this form of globalization, many factories were implanted in the
Caribbean, particularly in Haiti, Jamaica, and the Dominican Republic,
where there is a great concentration of women. The women work long hours
like modern slaves in these factories selling their cheap labor to the CEOs of
Disney and Nike who have maximized their profits. As I argued elsewhere,
Orelus (2007):
Although I was fortunate not to have to work in factories owned by western corpora-
tions, at the age of 14, I witnessed first hand the impoverished and inhuman eco-
nomic conditions that family members and neighbors found themselves in while
working in these factories. As a working class boy, I remember visiting several
times one of my female neighbors who was selling juice daily to factory workers at
a factory located in my neighborhood. While sitting next to my neighbor who was
selling juice to these factory workers who were predominantly women, I was able
witness at first hand their frustration, anger and hear their complaints about their
inhuman working conditions. Some of them complained that they did not get paid on
time and, therefore, had to borrow money from neighbors to buy food and for trans-
portation. Others were complaining not only about their poor salary but also about
their male supervisors who were harassing them. My cousin, Joceline (a pseudo-

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24 The Agony of Masculinity

nym) always complained about this

even though she told him that she wa

It is worth mentioning that t

women to gain some sense of
opportunity to have "a job" that
fact, in some households, wo
women doing other type of sur
the main providers of the famil
their hard work and some econ
their husbands who feel that th
fact they are not able to financi
of these factory workers and s
and take care of the children wh
from selling goods on the stree
book reported what a Haitian wo
tion designed to protect women

... when I went to Haiti in 2001 and

learned that men are throwing gasoli
the kids in the house because, in one
that the husband wanted. So he was al
five in the morning, went to the mar
less other examples of this kind.

Other Haitian women have b

My mother, my older sister, an
them. For example, while my s
was in college studying. As will
do with the fact that my father
not support my sister with hers.
Older men like my father wer
patriarchal system. Younger me
young men reproduced the sexis
male cousins. I am ashamed to s
school and college years in my
most popular "bon jenjan." I had
it, but I was neither criticized b
family members. In fact, I was
my female friends who always

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The Agony of Masculinity 25

female friend knew I was goin

with me as well. Nor did I feel

From My Gender-Base
to Critical Consciousness

My high school and college experiences did not help me develop critical
awareness to challenge the patriarchal system. Let me explain. Throughout
my high school and college years in Haiti, I never came across a teacher who
discussed and interrogated anything related to male sexist and/or homopho-
bic practices. Although gender was part of the class dynamic in that boys
were expected to be smarter than girls and be a lot more advanced in science
than girls, none of my teachers ever brought the gender issue to the fore of
classroom discussions. As a case in point, when a girl made first or second
honor, this was always a surprise to many people, including male teachers
who expected boys to be on top of the list of highly achieving students. Male
students who were not good at math, physics, or chemistry were sometimes
looked down upon and ridiculed by their female and male classmates and
their teachers. Many of my female classmates internalized the myth that men
are biologically and mentally wired to be better at science than girls. One of
my close female high school classmates and friends, Dorval Marie Gael,
sometimes made fun of me because she was a lot more advanced in math,
chemistry, and physics than I was.
In fact, she once made me feel embarrassed when she, three of my male
classmates, and I were trying to solve some problems in our physics and
math textbooks. She said to me, "What happens to you, Pierre? How come
you don't know how to solve these problems?" I was embarrassed in front of
my male friends and also felt that my maleness was questioned and threat-
ened for not being able to solve a math problem that my female classmate
was able to solve. This experience troubled me psychologically for years.
Even now when a woman approaches me and asks me to help her solve a
math problem and I find myself unable to do so; it triggers the inadequacy
about my maleness that I felt when I could not solve the math problems that
Dorval expected me to.
In my history classes, my teachers, who were mostly males, constantly
referred to male heroes such as Toussaint L'Ouverture, Jean Jacques Des-
salines and Henry Christophe who fought for the independence of Haiti.
Heroines like Defile who played a very significant role in our historical life

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26 The Agony of Masculinity

were rarely mentioned. No na

male heroes in their bloody fig
mentioned in my history classe
was in my Haitian and Frenc
French and Haitian male write
seau, Oswald Durand, Etzer Vila
Anténor Firmin, Jean Price M
Alexis. These male writers were
In other words, they left great
I have been looking up to. So
Stephen Alexis, and Jean Price
there were and are many incr
Manigat, I did not know much
teachers rarely mentioned thei
older male friends and mento
Haitian writers.
I did not feel the incentive to t
my maleness was represented t
When I had to refer to my ance
subject pronouns "he" and "she.
only "he," for it was the unive
history and literature textbook
who shaped my historical and c
they were all males. The sub
vocabulary when I was talking
their lives for the independenc
great scholarly work.
What about my high school
they have in terms of femal
certainly many Haitian female
many of the students due to th
gender biased. Many of my fe
the lack of recognition of fe
literature and history. This disto
dynasty of Haitian male presi
controlled the political, educa
My former female high school
continued to witness the perpet

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 The Agony of Masculinity 27

despite a short-lasting shift in

emergence of Ertha Pascal Trou
acting Haitian female Preside
turmoil that destroyed the cou

Although shortly lasted, her preside

women to be politically active. In fac
Haiti became visible in the public s
tion of Haitian women (AFAB) and
of Women's Rights led by Haitian
fending Haitian women's rights both
often these organizations are inadequ
cal structure that is male dominated
and political rights of women, (p. 93

In spite of some of the sexist

Pascal Trouillot has broken, t
many Haitian girls and women
like anywhere else in the Caribbe
of being born male, one's ch
political and economic ladder
males. This happens despite
elsewhere are essentially the b
noted earlier, they labor long h
goods, and at home cleaning
because of gender inequality
capitalist system, their voice
access to adequate resources
bisexual men and women hav
Caribbean countries such as Ja
experience with and exposure
experience and exposure have i
nity.

Coming to Terms with My Homophobic Upbringing:

A Long Walk toward Self-awareness
My earliest memory of homophobic attitude toward gays and lesbians goes
back to my first two decades living both in Beauge and Port-au-Prince,
where I spent my teenage years and early parts of my young adult life. In
Beauge there was one of my mother's male cousins named Sera. Everyone

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28 The Agony of Masculinity

suspected that he was a "masisi," t

refer to gays. People from all ages
behaved and talked and his age
often made fun of by the whole c
ever being a victim of physical vio
gender. But he was subject to "sy
assumed by Sera's gender express
simply different and not afraid to
including myself felt that they ha
times so people would not assume t
or not, he was liked for the most
work ethics, and his caring attitude
I know many people, including m
as Sera but are not called homopho
Christians. The assumption that m
that Christians cannot be gay. If
declared that he is or she is lesbian
tion, and he/she would be chastise
was attending. During my time liv
any Christian or, for that matter,
out as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. My
many people, Christians or otherw
forced by societal pressure and soc
so they would not be isolated and r
In Port-au-Prince, I never witnes
ual men and women being physi
individuals. However, those who
were isolated by their family and f
was abandoned by his father who c
be gay. As soon as his father sus
paying for his school and kicke
suspected to be gay, this 19-year
distanced themselves from him afte
This young man attended the sam
friends and I did. In gossiping abou
friends agreed with the father wh
son's education who was suspected
friend's homophobic view about

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The Agony of Masculinity 29

still holds some homophobic

about the LGBTQ community l
My second interaction with p
sexual woman; she was secretl
was somewhat tolerant about
what was going on between his
typical thing that men in my
education and social class. In
and lesbians were and still are
orientation, they have become
species. While many straight H
ately attack someone in their c
they would tacitly or overtly
disagreement between a straigh
identified straight person often
such as "masisi," "madivin," or
Otherwise, gays and lesbians ar
singled out in many communiti
As for the bisexual woman tha
friend's sister for a few mon
friend's brother. According to
half-brother for economic s
employed and earning a decent
want to have a child with a man
and economic and social inequ
women to a greater degree than
I feel fortunate to have gotte
was suspected of being gay. I am
who was abandoned by his fa
Finally, I am glad that I got to
was bisexual. They were all w
tion of any of them. They wer
despite this early exposure, I h
child until I developed some
the LBGTQ community.
In my early stage of self-awar
homophobic world where I was
myself making inhumane jok

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 30 The Agony of Masculinity

even more challenging for me t

my male Caribbean friends wh
LBGTQ community. Specifically,
consciousness about this issue as
because I am aware of my own
community, especially during th
tion" (Freire, 1970), I have been
members, and some informan
understand the root causes of th
mants state that being gay is a c
An African American university
the argument that being gay
African American professor goe
know confessed that he became
from his father when he was a child."

I have tried not to judge those who claim that homosexuality originates
from some kind of a mental disequilibrium, as I am aware that homophobia
is engrained in the mind of many men since adolescence or even earlier. This
does not mean that I have not challenged some of my male and female
friends when they make homophobic statements. As I have became more
exposed to and familiar with the literature on women studies and the LBGTQ
community, which has enabled me to challenge my own homophobia and
sexism, I have gained a lot of confidence and have become fearless in
challenging my close friends about their homophobic and sexist views while
continuing to challenge mine. While I have tried not to miss any opportune
moment to dare many of them to challenge their sexist and homophobic
views about women and the LBGTQ community, I have refused to blame
them for their own victimization, that is, blaming them for acquiring through
the patriarchal system homophobic views and misconceptions about women,
gay, lesbian, bisexual, transsexual, transgender and queer people. This does
not mean I have tolerated homophobic and sexist statements my friends,
students, and classmates made about women and people who are not straight.
I must admit that my self-awareness and consciousness about women's
struggles against sexism and those of the LBGTQ community against
homophobia and heterosexism are ongoing. My partner who has a higher
level of awareness about these issues often challenges me when I make a
homophobic, heterosexist, or sexist remark. She never hesitates to call me on
any unintentional sexist or homophobic comment that I make. Her reminder

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 The Agony of Masculinity 31

has helped me to continue to c

and sexism through self-crit
challenge her as well when I ca
had the unique privilege of in
students enrolled in the same
(SJE), as she was in the School
at Amherst.

My constant exposure to and

lenged me to further question
ism. Specifically, by interacting
were queer, I quickly realized
treating me with fairness becau
sexism did not seem to prevent
was treated as a person but not
felt a little bit uncomfortabl
them, especially with the ma
definition of maleness. They, o
showed no sign of fear or reluc
My social interaction with them
logically enslaved and enclosed
from consulting my inner self
to be accepted and treated.
By continuing to attend num
and students organized at th
friendship with many of the
completely baseless and empt
ences, which characterizes an
my awareness and knowledge
nity, I sometimes have to make
bic, sexist, and heterosexist mo
world ever since I was a child.
By having the opportunity to know my partner's classmates and friends
who are different, I have learned that nobody should be feared, regardless of
how different or strange he/she may look in one's eyes. It can be a challenge
for many people to have such an attitude toward others because we have all
been indoctrinated through schools, families, the media, and churches to look
at people through certain lenses, which are sometimes erroneous. All in all,
my experience has taught me that we need to find ways to expose ourselves

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32 The Agony of Masculinity

to be respectful, understanding
but share the same human thre
respect, and acceptance are gi
others.

Confronting My Mal
I am reminded of when I was 1
told me that there was a wom
about my relationship with her
this relationship because she fel
education; that is, because her d
concentrate on her studies. She
her daughter's inconsistency i
clothes for her brother. She s
father that since I started going
time in the house as she had bef
leave her daughter alone.
Instead of having a conversati
my father ridiculed her in fron
"My son is a boy, and that there
daughter to leave him alone." I
my male friends for being a "b
ways to have as many girlfrie
girlfriends' mother upset abo
Because I had more than one gi
father and his employees. Gett
father, brother, and my male
firmed that I fit in the categor

We are under the constant careful sc

us, grant us, and grant our acceptanc
onstrated for other men's approva
ance... Think of how men boast to on
latest sexual conquest to the size of t
the markers of manhood, wealth, pow
desperate for their approval (Kimmel

As Kimmel made clear, I was u

ther who expected me to behav
path he paved for my older bro

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The Agony of Masculinity 33

nor looked down upon for havi

were reprimanded for having a
expected to have as many girls
was beaten by my father, who
if she continued seeing her boy
stopped supporting my sister's
As I mentioned in my previou
want to invest in my sister's e
before graduating high schoo
having three girlfriends, and n
was free to have as many girls
tion in my community from
telling my sisters, my older br
and they would not have a prob
dare to take such a risk, for th
their male friends most likely
male cousins and some boys in
were welcome to my house, tho
Because of sexism, my siste
and not appreciated by my fat
also questioned their intelligen
one of my sister's middle scho
in her class. While I was attend
teacher, who was also my t
brother? I responded yes. She t
studious student and you're no
homework; otherwise, you will
my sister was a very good stud
focused as she was. However,
women's intelligence, I kept den
woman, and therefore did no
result, I failed her class and had
Because of my father's consta
and refusal to financially and
stopped going to school. My mo
school, but financially she coul
from seizures that my father u
continuing to support her in s

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34 The Agony of Masculinity

father's tactic was that he did no

education of my sister, assuming
ing high school.
Had my sister been given the s
support that I did, she would ha
college. Because of a lack of oppo
in school, my sister ended up do
did for over 40 years, that is, bu
am now a university professor
education, my sister's choices ar
move up the economic, social, an
mine are not.

Furthermore, if I were to go b
immigrant experience, I would h
been able to immigrate to the U
ple, when it was time for my m
the US to seek a better life, she
and my older brother. Traditio
families are making a sacrifice b
send their children overseas lega
if not always chosen over the yo
In the case of my mother, she
friends to choose my older broth
older brother was stronger an
decision was gender-biased. One
made was that my older brother
my eldest sister. What my moth
was that my older brother was m
because he had more opportun
Furthermore, the fact that my sist
my older brother did not necess
Finally, there was no concrete e
than my eldest sister.
A fixed expectation that man
their children whom they finan
better life in the US or elsewhere i
to join them once they are est
expectation that my mother, my s

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 The Agony of Masculinity 35

having lived in the US for five

immigrate here. The hope or, t
here I would be able to support
fairness, my brother should h
to the US. Instead, I was chosen
favor.

My father and my mother believed that I was the best "candidate" to join
my brother in the US supposedly because of my age (even though I was three
years younger than the sister that I followed) and my higher level of educa-
tion than my sisters'. Again, what my family members and my brother's
friends grossly failed to understand was that I had a higher level of formal
education than my sisters because my father supported me with my schooling
while he did not support them.
My maleness allowed me to leave my native land, to attend college, to
go to graduate school, and later become a university professor at the expense
of my sisters who did not finish high school. In fact, the eldest one did not
even attend high school. She was jobless for almost all her adult life and
depended on my mother with her two children until she died, even though
she supposedly had a husband. She lost her life due to the mistreatment that
she received from the father of her children who materially exploited her and
my mother and psychologically abused both of them. My other sister, who is
still alive, has been unemployed for several years and dependent on her
Christian, homophobic, and controlling husband who has had made her
powerless. He did so by convincing her to quit her little business she had
buying and selling goods to merely become a housewife. In my view, this is
a form of control.

Although most women in my neighborhood were hardworking people

who worked long hours on the farm, in factories, and in the street selling
goods to feed their families, they were not treated with the level of respect
and dignity they deserved. Many of them were merely treated as "women,"
that is, as weak individuals who should not be trusted to make important
decisions for the family. Their husbands were the decision makers even
though many of these women were the breadwinners in their house.
Let us take the case of my own mother who is the hardest working
woman I have ever known. Even though she was an independent woman
who put us to school with her sweat and hard work, she always felt that my
father had to be the one who decided for the family. It was not until she
finally realized that my father was unreliable and irresponsible that she

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36 The Agony of Masculinity

decided to start making some d

never approved my mother's
thought out; he often ridiculed
he thought was poor, like sellin
Port-au-Prince so my older bro
My mother made that decisio
high school in the countrysid
Therefore, in order for my old
move to Port-au-Prince, a decis
that it was a waste of money t
not get any financial support f
her lands so she could rent an ap
Three years later, we were fo
cause my mother was not able
father was happy about this, an
ended up dropping out of high
back to Port-au-Prince due to t
allowed us to stay at their h
brother stopped going to schoo
and the rest of the family. T
brother. My sisters stayed in th
It is worth noting that I am al
families, including mine, whos
and upper middle class Haitian
and women might be different
at varying degrees all women i
witnessed its most harmful ef
this question: what is the releva
Let me try answering this qu
bean man who had the opportu
about my own maleness, I believ
share my personal experience w
which I was exposed as a child.
through socialization and from
home, which is often if not al
treat women humanely or inhu
the very first notions of how

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The Agony of Masculinity 37

African descent that I interview

"don't show any sign of weakne
I am telling these stories beca
father wanted me to be, that is,
or not I am hurt physically and
the way he always wanted me to
before making a decision becaus
men in my community they
capable of offering the advice t
I must confess that even thoug
male employees expected me to
and sexist behavior and tende
image and definition of malenes
other family members passed
ingrained in my mind to an ext
ingsome of the sexist behavio
home when I was a child: sex
female partner to cook and cl
have expected my female partne
I come back home from school
pointed when I come home and
when I knew she was home all d
Another inherited male behav
socially constructed belief that
or simply not to cry at all becau
father, crying is a sign of weak
front of me, not even when hi
or unconsciously my father's f
years ago. Nor did I ever cry w
personal and professional life. M
emotions through crying, foun
and I still have not cried yet in fr
Moreover, I have not yet fully
havior and old male mentality,
women's beauty and at times lo
ing myself to internally change
logical battle, but certainly a bat
man like myself who wants to

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 38 The Agony of Masculinity

maleness that had been passed on

Bobbie Harro's phrase, I have no
tion" in which I was born and g
socialization in the following term

Our socialization begins before we ar

brings us a survey, in the womb, inquir
orientation, cultural group, ability stat
identities are ascribed to us at birth thr
own; there is, therefore, no reason to b
ble for the identities we have. (Harro as

Harro (2000) went on to say,

... We are born into a world where all

and structures of oppression are already
ing to do with constructing them. Ther
responsible for the world into which we
already established system. The characte
we existed, based upon history, habit, tr
types, and myths. (Harro as cited in Ada

Harro (2000) is right indeed: "T

guilty or responsible for the wor
contribute to a society that is equi
sions, men, including men of color
maleness that has been inculcated in our mind and has informed our sexist
attitude and behavior toward women. To dismantle this form of maleness,
first and foremost we ought to strive to change, or at least challenge, as
Harro pointed out, "the mechanics, assumptions, rules, roles, and structures
of oppression [that] are already in place and functioning." As long as the
patriarchal system remains intact and is not challenged by both feminist
women and pro-feminist men, women will continue to be victimized by
sexism, which has negatively impacted men as well to some extent. In other
words, even though men of all races have been the main beneficiaries of both
the sex and gender divide that has been established and normalized in
society, it needs to be acknowledged that many men, to some degree, have
suffered of this, too. For example, because of this divide, men are socialized
to hide their emotion and not to be in touch with their soul.

This is why the fight against sexism or, for that matter, against any form
of oppression should not be left only to those who have been victimized and
marginalized by it. Those who by accident of birth happen to belong to the

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 The Agony of Masculinity 39

privileged race, sex, gender or c

align themselves with oppress
want to continue to live in an
miserable and dark villages whe
the eyes of their conscience to
the lifestyle that many privilege
Like whiteness, there are a lot
ness as many informants in thi
areoften taken for granted and
As Leonardo (2005) states, "Privi
cognition that life is made a bit
are the beneficiaries of such pri
even though they did not have t
race/ethnicity, skin tone, sex, g
born into the world of many pr
have access. Those who happen t
privileges have rigorously been
should not be hard to understan
not easily give up their privilege
This logically explains the ev
the disinherited to continue to
However, expecting those wh
because of their sexual and racia
in this battle is in itself social in
and race in which they were bo
the social injustice or for the in
due to their racial and sexual cha
By virtue of my sex (male) and
privileges that women, partic
transgender, and transsexual w
privileges that I have as a hetero

1 . Being able to walk on the stre

2. Working at any male-domina
sexual harassment.

3. Not having to be concerned about getting paid a lot less than my co-
workers for the same amount and kind of work that I do.

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40 The Agony of Masculinity

4. Having no doubt that my g

read in school, in church, an
5. Running for office withou
issue or obstacle, which can p
6. Not having to speak up all
7. Not feeling that I have to
invisible in the eyes of some
ners, bosses, friends, and eve
8. Not being expected to be
follow orders from my boss
9. Not being expected to be se
partner, my spouse, or men i
10. Not having to constantly
care of the domestic chores.
11. Not being offered promoti
12. Not having to worry abou
with my boss, or for challeng
13. Not being concerned about
and other key governmental
14. Not being concerned abo
home.

15. Cheating on my wife or g

called a bitch and looked dow
of my community.
16. Performing with confiden
know they will most likely b
17. Not having to worry abou
attempting to have an "ille
alone with the physical and e
18. Not having to worry about
and strong enough to study
other scientific discipline.
19. Not having to be too conc
partner can run away and le
that we both brought to this w
20. Not being afraid that my p
do in my siblings because of

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 The Agony of Masculinity 41

21. Not being concerned I migh

sports in which I am intereste
22. Not being pressured by fam
abusive relationship to save fa
23. Not being constantly pressu
and have children so I will not
eyes of my family, my comm
24. Not having to worry abo
virginity in early teenage year
25. Not having to worry about
own siblings and parents becau
26. Not having to worry abou
homo.

27. Not being concerned about b

straight.
28. Not having to think about being denied job promotion because of my
sexual orientation.

29. Not having to worry about being denied housing because the landlord
does not like gay, bisexual, transgender, transsexual, and transgender
people.
30. Not being concerned about being murdered on the street and/or by a
group of gay haters because of my sexual orientation.
3 1 . Not being forced to move from state to state and/or from city to city to
find a place where I can marry the partner that I love and live peacefully
as a citizen.

32. Not having to be mistrusted around children, let alone not being allowed
to adopt them because of my sexual orientation.
33. Not having to fight constantly with the legal system for equal protections
and equal rights because of institutionalized discrimination against peo-
ple with my sexual orientation.
34. Not having to be concerned for being judged harshly for showing
affection to my spouse, girlfriend or partner in public.
35. Not being forced to pretend or perform as straight in front of my parents,
friends, and members at my church to protect myself from being chas-
tised, isolated, and singled out.
36. I can run for office and be a part of any institution like the armed forces
and the police and not have to worry about anyone discriminating against
me because of my sexual orientation.

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42 The Agony of Masculinity

37. I can be rude and people w

orientation and/or call me names
38. Not having to worry about
my classmates or excluded f
my sexual orientation.
39. Not having to commit su
afraid to open up to my parents
ent, that I am not the straight p
40. Not having to be constantly
a movie where they ridicule,
people who share the same or s

Of course, this list can be muc

ing to make is that as a heteros
in the context of the patriarch
privileges. At the same time it
man who is from a poor cou
"foreign accent" and who doe
political, and cultural capital th
men have, I am subject to ma
women, particularly women o
transsexual people have been
sexism, and homophobia are int
lyzed separately; they all need t
about sexism, heterosexism, and
For example, the patriarchal w
turies, has not impacted white
of color. Nor has it benefited b
especially the privileged ones. B
established and run by the whit
more privileges than enslaved
relation between slaves and non
plantations and cotton fields, g
black men and white women
married wealthy white men o
control over their lives. As Silv
their social origin, white wome
ranks of the white power str

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The Agony of Masculinity 43

owners of slaves themselves,

work." (p. 108)
By virtue of their skin, white
post-slavery and postcolonial
during slavery. Although men o
their masculinity and maleness
position in comparison to some
a few privileged black men lik
black man I may have the same
has; however, by virtue of hi
have a better chance of access
In fact, as it has been historical
have been denied a position tha
qualified than they are. Simil
more opportunities to fulfill t
many women and men of Afri
white women are from privil
tend to have a much better cha
similar backgrounds might not
racism. As Pease (2000) eloquen
There are sites, as identified earlier
least their equals. The intersection of
produces sites where dominant-sub
ple, where white heterosexual wome
of homosexual women or politically
men have power in relation to all w
as are all women, since power is ubi

I am fully aware that what I a

are a few men of color who
political spectrum and at som
sexism. I argue, however, that
used as tokens in this white pa
ideological, economic, and polit
tive white men. I expand on the

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 44 The Agony of Masculinity

Case Studies

Background Information about Case Studies

As mentioned in the introductory chapter, most chapters in this book are

followed by case studies that address similar issues explored in the tex
preceding the case studies. Also, as previously noted, for each case study, I
provide a short biographical note about each informant. As the reader will
notice, the content of some case studies is longer than others. This is due t
the fact that some informants decided to talk more about their experience
than others, since they could afford to spend more time conversing with me
about these issues than others. Furthermore, the reader will notice that
include more case studies in this chapter than in others. The reason for this i
that in conducting interviews with the fifty informants, I was mainly inter
ested in finding out how they all define maleness. However, while bein
interviewed, many informants brought to the fore racial and social cla
issues and linked them to maleness.

All informants define masculinity and maleness through their own

lenses, but their definitions overlap. Since these are the first case studies, I
felt that it would be important to include as much as possible of the infor-
mants' opinions that revolved around the maleness issue, although most of
them connect this issue to other issues such as whiteness, blackness, racism,
homophobia, social class, and white supremacy. As I explained in the
introductory chapter, the informants' irresistible desire to talk about how
racism and white supremacy have impacted their lives led me to take a
longer road than I anticipated. That is, I incorporated issues such as racism
and white supremacy in my analysis of maleness, particularly black mascu-
linity

Aford's Critical Analysis of the Expression "Be a Man" and Its

Implication for Men of African Descent
Biographical Note: Aford is an African American man in his early 20s. He
was an undergraduate student at a major university in Massachusetts. He was
engaged and expecting a baby at the time of this study. He identifies himself
as heterosexual. He thinks that his class status would be considered working
class - he is not financially dependent on his parents, apart from financial
aid. He comes from a working poor background; in fact, his parents still live
below the poverty line. His mother is a waitress and makes $18,700 a year,

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The Agony of Masculinity 45

and his stepfather is unemplo

identity - so some would ident
turns 24, while others would
community as the most amb
generous with his time for par
study, he was considered to be
men on campus. However, he
maleness and black masculinity

The expression "be a man" mea

understanding of what it m
wisdom, it means to be strong,
aggressive, identify as a leader
I have a different interpretatio
loving partner, to acknowledge
knows how to interpret and res
It also means to know how to
means understanding your o
positive masculinity. It oftentim
I often feel conflicted as a m
believes in gender equality. Bein
when you believe in something
and behaviors of society. When
against or challenge the social o
both external and internal resi
father, and a major part of tha
partner being a Latina, a fem
name the baby after a Peruvian
say - one that I am interested
likes.

Additionally, my family, m
religious family wants the baby
college and do many things tha
what a young black man can do
tionary to them!). So when I te
detest it and continue to remin
son after me. They thought th

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 46 The Agony of Masculinity

fortable naming our first son a

father. It was incredibly tough e
the first son after the father is
son inherited land from his fath
is a manifestation of the system
against. I don't want to dissuade
child, especially since they have
am trying to resolve my inclinat
rooted in the way that I was rais
is being a bit self-centered. This
strates how insidious gender rol
role in our everyday life. To dea
myself as I possibly can and at
outside of my control to mainta
have to stay true to what I believ
love and I am close to are very m
being.
To be treated as a man, regardless of how well people identify with me, I
have to be intentional about not looking beyond peoples' self- concept as a
way of connecting and communicating effectively with people. Regardless of
the criticisms that people might have about me, I have been willing to respect
where people are in their understanding and process of self-actualizing. With
that said, I feel that all I have to do to be seen as a man is to show people that
I have values, and be clear that my values are connected to theirs, and that I
am not afraid to stand up for what I believe. All of the other preconceived
notions such as being hard working, or responsible, or a leader, etc., are
secondary to how I think I am perceived as a man.
As a man of color, I feel that it has not been relatively easy for me con-
sidering the social hierarchy and the fact that I am a member of a "target"
group. I recognize the structural inequality (and am way too familiar with it!)
and how it shapes the lives of my people, but I also recognize certain
privileges that I inherit as a male as well as the educational privilege that I
have gained. To say that I am certain I will in fact achieve "upward" mobility
comes with the recognition that I have transcended certain assumptions made
about black men. I know very well that economic security does not absolve a
humble black man from institutionalized racism, but it does mean that I have
expanded my social capital in a way that makes me even further removed
from the social constructs that I am "supposed" to be kept in. So it has been

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The Agony of Masculinity 47

easier in comparison to other

whole, my life has had its trials
support and love to conquer it a
The way that the cycle of op
hurt from the oppression as w
think that women have been tr
unethically. There is nothing
which men have treated other
opposed to the way in which w
in the process of undoing both
result of violence and centuries
are of absolute priority to both
with dignity, trust, love, com
believe that gender oppressio
equality and equal access to reso
In my experience, I have lear
definitions of masculinity and n
assume that men don't care o
courage where it is necessary to
still, challenge, men to listen
women to articulate the ways i
violated, and dominated by m
hurting because of violence that
facing. I have internalized the n
edge/wisdom that I have; there
issues in my life and in the soc
men stopped being afraid of con
believe that we would alleviate
oppression.

Fritz's Understanding of
Biographical Note: Fritz is marr
ous relationship. He identifies h
family; especially on his mother
his father's side, and a few sibl
Caribbean and he is in his forti
partially grew up there. He spe

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 48 The Agony of Masculinity

high school there. After complet

he decided to go to college. He m
black college in Alabama. He spen
to Long Island University in
political science. After finishing
before he returned to school to obtain a Masters in Public Administration.

Upon completing his Masters, he worked for about three years, and then
went back to school to pursue a PhD in African American history, which he
hopes to finish soon. I met Fritz at a major university in Massachusetts while
we were both graduate students. He and I also worked as mentors and
Learning Coaches with young men of color at a community college. I
interviewed him for this project while we were helping another friend to
move to another state. The interview took place in the backyard of that
friend's house while it was raining.

In the Caribbean you have to be a man. I mean you are raised to be a man;
you are raised to lead the household; you are raised to take care of your
family; you are primarily raised believing that you are the breadwinner of the
family and no matter what you have to provide for the family, your brothers
and sisters. I am speaking from my own personal experience as the oldest
child of my mother and father; specifically with my mother as I was looked
upon as the man of the household after my mom and dad split. . .1 was pretty
young; she went her way, he went his way, and I, my two brothers and my
sister began living with mom. Everyone thought the family was my respon-
sibility, and sometimes you learn of these responsibilities directly and
indirectly. My mom is not too much of a vocal person but she would set
certain things for you to do, and you could basically see the level of respon-
sibility that she believes you should have. Or she relinquishes it to you by the
tasks you do in the household. Because I was older, well... because I was the
older male in the household, I was looked upon as the... I don't want to say
father figure, but the one to replace the father.
The older male in the home, so in that sense I would - and let me say - I
have known other male friends who had sisters who were older than

them... but still the responsibility that brothers and sisters shared w
different, because even if in a family you have an older sister, the brothe
still looked at as the man of the house. The older sister might have certa
things to do, but I can guarantee that the brother who is younger can ba

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The Agony of Masculinity 49

cally tell her certain things that

well. I guess you could look at it
down to it, I guess in the father
like the man of the house. But i
siblings amongst themselves, th
themselves. However, on the par
that is looked upon to run the h
experience. In my home with my
as the male figure, the father f
everyone to do what they wer
cause. . .1 saw this in my mom s
discipline my sister and brothers
Because my father was absent
father figure, that adult, that bi
something she'd tell me. I would
This shaped me in a positive w
benefited from these experien
talking, I could see that she had
to today. If I call my mother a
should be going on with that
to...," she will really listen to w
respect. This shaped the person I
Because that has an impact o
dominant one, that I should be d
a woman. I don't feel that way
credit that to my educational ba
study African American history
always wanted to be an equal par
the woman; she can do whatever
we decide, and then we move on
me in the sense of being more r
in the house and knowing that
on responsibilities, no ifs, and b
take it as if I am the dominan
listen to me. I credit that to my
experience in both America an
ideology, that thought process in
and I take that very seriously.

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 50 The Agony of Masculinity

Dwame's Definition of
with Institutionalized Racism

Biographical Note: Dwame is 48 years old and he identifies himself as a

heterosexual. He is divorced and has two children, two girls. He is from
West Africa. Specifically, he was born and raised in Nigeria. He moved to
the US when he was 18 years old to attend college. He was engaged to
another African woman from Ghana when he was interviewed for this
project. In terms of his academic background, he had earned a PhD in
Chemistry. After he finished his doctorate, he returned to his native land
where he taught Chemistry for about eleven years. Thereafter, he returned to
the US as a visiting scholar and decided to stay here permanently. He was a
visiting professor for a year at the university where he earned his PhD.
Currently he is an adjunct Chemistry instructor at a community college. He
claims that he belongs to the middle class category. I first met Dwame at a
club where they play Latin music such as salsa and meringue. Later we
became co-workers while I was working as a Learning Coach and adjunct
instructor at a community college. I interviewed him for this project at the
learning center where we both worked. He was a Biology and Chemistry
tutor and I was a Learning Coach helping students in reading, writing and
studying skills.

To me being a man means that I possess all the sexual characteristics of the
male as opposed to being a female. It means I have to express less emotion in
everything I do, be it in terms of expressing grief for a loved one who had
just passed on, or if my marriage is in shambles, or if I failed my exams.
Being a man means that I must be firm and resolute in whatever endeavor I
find myself into. It means that I must learn and express leadership skills in
my family, at home, and at work. It means that I am the breadwinner in my
home, making sure everyone under my care is adequately cared for. It also
means that I show relentless zeal in the pursuit of a good life, show compas-
sion to anyone at the appropriate time, display discipline and must be a moral
compass to others.
... It was difficult to handle my emotions when the news of the sudden
death of my loving father was broken to me, for I found myself weeping
uncontrollably for the simple fact he will never be around for me anymore,
and for the fact that I have to forge ahead in life without him. The news was
devastating indeed. How did I feel living this moment? I will say horrible. To

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The Agony of Masculinity 51

cope adequately with my father's

ing services. Through this, I was a
battle life on my own and to move
Now what is my community's ex
munity and family, I must be of g
have a steady spouse. I must hav
must own a home, and drive a goo
man in all ramifications. My attitu
these objectives.
It's been difficult to be a black m
journ in college acquiring a co
according to my expectations. G
college hasn't been easy due to rac
our society. When you only have p
difficult to achieve the set object
man, expectations are often very
that society has clearly defined f
and thus society is less apt to defi
But life goes on.

Frantz's Position on the E

Biographical Note: Frantz is 26
Jersey, and spent the first 17 y
cities/towns of Rutherford, Pat
heterosexual. When I conducted th
start his doctoral work in Social J
Massachusetts. Frantz said that he
the poverty line. However, being
access to knowledge and resourc
middle class category. Frantz orga
addressing the rape of women by
group discussions on this issue
diverse racial and social class ba
discussion. I interviewed Frantz a
was about to start a doctorate p
interview, Frantz filled out a ques

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 52 The Agony of Masculinity

The expression "be a man" u

strong, not a punk or a ladies' m
be a man means for me to unde
have over women and children.
our maleness puts us in a direct
woman. In other words, you
longer think that statement is
means you are different from
physical size or strength, but
oppress women because of it. To
responsibility; you help people
have good relationships with yo
ing your sexuality without judg
emotions other than anger; and
an oppressor.
I think in high school there was this idea of an ideal man, which lay in
being a tough guy or a thug. That wasn't me at all, but I noticed that a good
portion of the women seemed to be 'attracted' to that so I felt compelled at
times to be seen as tough in front of girls. Thinking back to the first time I
cried in front of a girl I liked, I have to say I appreciate her for supporting me
and not reverting to the stereotypes of boys don't cry. Since that point I no
longer have the anxiety of crying in front of women who I have intimate
relationships with, although when I do it seems to make some of them react
in surprise because they haven't seen that much in their lives. I also think the
breadwinner image puts a lot of stress on males. I have this need or burning
desire to help my immediate family out financially. I definitely was taught
that a man needs to take care of his own, primarily his woman, and, if he is
straight, his children by my female family members.
However, a contradictory message was being sent by what I saw as a
lack of male presence in my life. I never really lived with my father, and
some of my uncles aren't the best examples. I think what has stuck in my
mind more is the financial aspect. Since my first stepfather died I was told by
family members and had convinced my mind that I needed to take care of my
family because the "breadwinner" had died. At age 14 or so, I wasn't really
ready to be the "man of the house," and it seemed that in some regards I have
been running away from that. My mother was working at the time, but due to
male privilege my stepdad was making more money. With that said, I know
that the male privilege that I have can allow me to be better situated than my

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The Agony of Masculinity 53

mother or sister to contribute fi

of me being the only four-year
sister currently has an associate
mother only graduated high sch
feel like I still hold on to that "b
myself to take care of the "wom
tion, I don't have the economics
that I hold onto.
One expectation that goes acro
be a heterosexual or straight. I
racial stereotypes I am expecte
player. Despite not living with
would be a ladies' man like him
interested in girls around the age
14 or until the heterosexist socia
having to be straight has bee
wouldn't define myself as gay o
heterosexual man, resisted some
being associated with sin. I hav
times I challenge my grandm
thought my brother was gay bec
In my experience, a man is exp
things, and be a protector. On t
other times I don't do these "ma
me to take out the garbage or li
(2) probably more importantly
perception of what men do. It's n
when my brother and I are in th
sister. There are other times wh
to lift something if I see a woma
need to pay for dinner when goi
of that in my recent relationship
There were other times when I
home crying or I would hear it
there and fight. I haven't had th
notice looking back they were al
my first fights involved me tal
how I slept with her the previou

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54 The Agony of Masculinity

time about mothers, but this s

comment and hit me with a pu
was a joke I had learned and re
it. I did not have sex until some
Since I identify as straight in
lot easier than men who identif
allows me to enter circles that
being treated differently or ev
sexual orientation. When you a
more challenging. Even with
African American male was made to be seen as a threat and low status
symbol to other black or African-descended males because of the stereotypes
and racial hierarchy of America's racially and economically oppressive
system. There are also situations when some black men do look up to
African American males, but those are the ones on television making rap
videos about having all this fun and frivolously spending money.

Joseph's Early Exposure to and Critical Approach

about Maleness and Masculinity
Biographical Note: Joseph is 27 years old; he was about to turn 28 in
September 2008. He grew up in and spent most of his life in the US. He is
originally from Haiti and likes to think that his formative years in Haiti
constituted the core ideals of what makes him a person in terms of shaping
his personality, temperament, and cultural trajectory. Joseph came into
adulthood and adolescence in the US. He identifies himself as Haitian
American. Joseph said that he comes from a poor working class background.
He stated precisely that in Haiti his parents were "dirt poor" and struggled
together. His mom did not go beyond elementary school. His dad struggled
to get through high school after starting work and having kids. There was a
lot of backlash coming from his dad's family when he married his mother
because she already had children. His parents worked hard to gain middle
class status before they immigrated to the US.
At the time of the study, Joseph was the Learning Resource Coordi-
nator at a community college in Massachusetts. While he was the Learning
Resource Coordinator, Joseph organized and led an Emotional Development
program, an academic program designed to support young men of color in
college. Specifically, this program was designed to help these young men of

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The agony of Masculinity 55

color with first year college planni

of going from community college
made sure that all these young
worked as the Learning Resourc
mentor. According to Joseph, this
to develop a critical mind to deal w
way.
Joseph is currently in higher
follow his passion with the hop
education. In essence, this idea cam
student. As he started taking soci
stand inequalities in the world on
think that there is more to do in t
he started questioning his own ge
bia. While pursuing a Masters deg
oped a critical lens around socia
heterosexual Haitian American bla
to really understand himself, his
also the ways he is privileged as a

I would say that my first exampl

my dad, my older brother, and f
say Haitian masculinity is very p
disconnection from and being acc
financial and emotional disconnec
dad was a very violent man. In
father was to be a disciplinarian b
so on. So I experienced him as
mother, brothers, my sisters, and m
off on me if I am very honest abo
kind of attitude. Growing up in
certain way. That male behavior I
as not fully accountable to peop
ways; and not taking responsibility
violence, psychological violence,
against children and women I have

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56 The Agony of Masculinity

While some of those more blatan

tally shifted and grew away from
kind of maleness and masculinity.
writing about maleness and masc
about performing something that is
lot of men, myself included, goin
are in charge, that we are not feeli
think wow! I know these things. I
them. If I am not actively thinking
I may not be doing them in the m
different smaller ways that I can d
someone, and we have a child. Basic
helping to take care of the kid and
used to doing because I didn't see m
to do, partly because I don't feel li
see any example of that while gr
cated to not see the value and imp
family life, except just be around
some cleaning, or maybe fixing a
of being anti-masculinist. But I stil
My partner is a feminist. So she
that are happening and that she is
equality in the relationship. She
recognizing that there is a way tha
and that is something that I saw
replicating a pattern: my dad was
home. He was able to perform the
home he was emotionally absent. A
things and my partner challenges
gets hurt, and we have fights, and
She tells me that I am not emoti
terms of child care, that I need to
and recognizing that work is impo
family. But how do you strike the
have to find a way to do.
The more flagrant patriarchy is v
versive under current patriarchy. I
of what is expected of men that is

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 The Agony of Masculinity 57

dishes; not being the ones to

family orientated things. And i
prioritize work and not family
men have the option and luxur
challenges as a man is to just ge
don't feel like doing it."

Walt's Understanding of
with Racism

Biographical Note: Walt was born in Puerto Rico and moved to the US with
his family when he was two years old. He is a 21 -year-old man from a
working class background. He identifies himself as straight. He was into his
second year as a student at a community college at the time of the study and
hoped to transfer to a four-year college to pursue a B.A. in Psychology. His
dream is to earn a PhD in clinical Psychology. I met Walt while I was
working as a Learning Coach and adjunct instructor at the community
college he was attending and interviewed him at the learning center there.
He, on the other hand, worked as a tutor while receiving mentorship from an
African American history professor.

For me, being a man means being independent and being responsible for
your family. You must also be a protector of your family. Being a man
means being tough and not showing any emotions that can make you weak.
In my Puerto Rican community, I am expected to be independent, not to as
for help even though sometimes I need help with things. It is also expected o
me to make more money than my girlfriend and to take care of her. I also
have to have complete dominance over her. I don't like these attitudes
because I don't want to have to dominate women, and I don't want to have
the burden of taking care of a complete adult. I don't know if it would have
been different if my mother did not raise me. She challenges everythin
about our culture and women's roles. So if I were not around my mother, I
would have a different perception of what a woman has to be like. I think in
Puerto Rico and other places in the Caribbean and Latin America masculinity
is a lot more extreme.

If somebody calls you name like "cabrón" - people have been literally
killed because they call others by the name. Basically being called "cabrón"
means your girl is cheating on you. Puerto Ricans over there say this to each

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58 The Agony of Masculinity

other as friends. But you don't

have been killed for doing so. B
man is being disrespected. You
have to protect it. You can't
masculinity, by letting them sa
cheating on you, this means you
in Latin American culture, you
have to be in full control of h
women, especially women in our
... It has been relatively easy f
man I have fewer responsibili
anything I want to without bei
my reputation being at risk. I a
care of all of the household and
I would never want to be a w
tions, but women have much m
it much harder. Women have b
do only certain things, and whe
profession that is predominantly
denied positions of importance.
they can do something as well o
the same positions as men.
In our culture woman is suppo
her roles to play in the house,
not a man. If you have to answ
example I can't go out tonight
to or doesn't let me, then peop
tell me what to do. You have to
In certain situations, like whe
sive to me, I just want to brush
mind I feel that I have to do so
You think about what other p
understand that those things a
know. I guess I have been social
socialized to be somebody like...
am still struggling with that. B
anything. It's just a social const

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 The Agony of Masculinity 59

My experience as a black man in t

I think as men of color we try to
know if it's a defense mechanism.
We want to show that we are powe
belittled by other people, so the wa
think... I don't know how to exp
harder and stuff like that. That's w
way we are looked at by society. I
not men. We have been emasculate
line and a lot of it has to do with t
at school, at work, or just walking
to make you feel like you have b
happen to be, you can be treated lik
I try to cope with that pretty w
am just so used to it; it's as if it's
try hard not to get mad every tim
everyday thing, so you just have to
I get angry and frustrated. You ha
feel at ease, you know what I mea
make you feel comfortable? I can't
that I am friendly and harmless li
some white people move out the wa
them.

Eley's View of What Being a Man Means

Biographical Note: Eley is a 42 -year-old heterosexual male, married, and
has two children. He was born and grew up in Jamaica, where he taught for
many years before he came to the US to attend graduate school. He earned a
doctorate in Education and later was a Lecturer at the university where he
obtained his degree. He considers himself as belonging to the middle class
although he originated from the working class. He currently resides in the US
with his wife and two children. I met Eley while he and I were working for
summer conference housing at the university that we both attended. We
stayed in touch after that summer job. Eley was one of the first informants
that I invited to take part in this study.

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60 The Agony of Masculinity

Being a man for me means that I ha

power to make real choices that wil
would like to serve. There are time
expectations of being a man. Someti
around by what I characterize as ca
that I have little autonomy over th
autonomy, but I question if it's r
Jamaican students in a particular
social realities in that country, I hav
It might be argued that I have the
would compromise my ability to
my family. Yes, I am able to provid
feel like I have actualized my manh
other dimension of my manhood - i
have real control over the choices I
degree I would experience this dilem
Essentially, the society expects m
think I am doing to the best of my
community, especially providing
particularly Jamaicans, but the p
states as well as continued Western
ability to act in this regard.
In light of what I have said above,
providing for my family, and that
it's
very difficult to serve the co
comfortable in my own skin so
whatever benefits I enjoy as a man
for the most part, women have n
respect. Women are largely used
helpers. I am not sure if this is a re
or both, but this particular treatm
Women should be accorded more re
value as equal partners to men shou

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 The Agony of Masculinity 61

Comment on Case Studies

Engage Students in Issues R
The content of these case studi
this chapter: (1) The societal e
way he has to behave in orde
scent's experience with institut
studies acknowledge "the male r
feel it is socially constructed. T
their statements illuminate, f
graphical location influence thei
of "being a man." The statement
patriarchal system has enabled
privileges. However, most of th
these privileges and demonst
patriarchal system. Specifically
combat heterosexism and sexism in their homeland.

All of them admitted that the way women have been treated in society is
wrong and that something needs to be done. However, many of them failed
to clearly articulate what needs to be done to prevent this from happening.
While among these men there was no common understanding of what type of
actions that need to be taken to stop the abuse and exploitation of women and
prejudice against gay men, their testimony about their experience with
racism is similar. In other words, the testimony of these informants shows
that racism complicates the notion of maleness as far as men of African
descent are concerned. For many of these men, their performance of male-
ness is informed by their race. That is, because of racism, some of them feel
that they have to perform their maleness in a certain way so they can get
respect from others. As Walt put it,
For some reason, I think as men of color we try to show our masculinity
even more. I don't know if it's a defense mechanism... We wanna have -

how can I put this? We wanna show that we are powerful, that we are men.
We don't want to be belittled by other people, so the way we show our
masculinity is different. I think... I don't know how to explain it. It is weird
Basically we try to be harder and stuff like that. That's what I think. Part of
is because maybe the way we are looked at by society. It's kind of like w
are worthless. We are not men. We have been emasculated basically. So w

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 62 The Agony of Masculinity

try to be hyper masculine and a lot

in the society.

Dwame and Eley, on the other han

affected their manhood and preven
or similar privileges that white
succeed the way that they could hav
their family the way they want to
caused by institutionalized racism.
be a black man in this society. Aft
college degree, life hasn't changed m
kind of job for me after college has
that's deeply rooted in our society.
feel like I have actualized my manh
other dimension of my manhood - i
have real control over the choices I
degree I would experience this dilem
How then can the testimony and e
and institutionalized racism be us
awareness about these issues? I invi
college, and university levels - to c
classes for discussion about sexism,
social justice issues that confron
elsewhere. Therefore, it is vitally i
about them, is it not a way of bein
justice educators might consider the
the dialog about these issues in thei

• What is the root causes of ag

including men of African descent?
• Why do many men of African de
of their manhood and therefore f
form of masculinity to demand re
• What is the relation between blackness and maleness?
• To what extent do factors such as race impact the masculinity of men of
African descent?

• Why do men feel that they have to be the main provider for their family?
Where does this originate?

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Chapter 2: Black Masculinity under White Supremacy: Exploring the Intersection
between Black Masculinity, Slavery, Racism, Heterosexism, and Social Class
Author(s): Pierre W. Orelus
Source: Counterpoints , 2010, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. 63-111
Published by: Peter Lang AG

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Counterpoints

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 Chapter 2
Black Masculinity under
White Supremacy
Exploring the Intersection between Black
Masculinity, Slavery, Racism, Heterosexism,
and Social Class

I would never deny the historical impact of slavery. I mean slavery impacted us, and
such an impact will last for generations. But I do want to state that after slavery,
other forms of oppression continued the pattern; so if one wants to understand con-
temporary versions of black masculinity, one has to understand that after slavery
there was a continuation of the violence exercised against black men in the labor
market, in the streets, etc. Therefore, black men have to perform two jobs: (1) to be
obedient in public interactions with whites or else suffer from indignities and poten-
tial death and (2), as a response to this, to be hyper masculine at home.
- Excerpt from an interview with Eduardo Bonilla-Silva

We talk about race as separate from class, gender, and all other things. When we do
that, it is an artificial discussion because your blackness, the way you experience
and understand it, is automatically influenced by all your identities.
- Excerpt from the interview with Thomas, an informant

1 think the legacy of slavery has something to do with the way black men nowadays
behave. I think historically black masculinity has been created from a white frame.
During slavery, black families were destroyed; they were separated at the will of
white people; black women were assaulted; black men's masculinity was castrated. I
mean there were lots of traumatic, horrific things to show that I'm in control of you
and your body. At the early part of the 20th century, in the 1900s, whites decided
how black should be. 1 think that there was a need to deviate yourself from that and
show that that's not really true.
- Excerpt from the interview with Ben, an informant

Over the past three decades or so, many studies on masculinity have emerged
and examined man in a holistic way. Specifically, these studies have exam-
ined man from a sociological, psychological, cultural, historical, and spiritual
standpoint (Kimmel & Messner, 1989; Noguera, 2008; Pease, 2000; Kivel,
1992; Leverentz, 1986; Katz, 1990; hooks, 1992; Dyson, 2004, 1993). This
paradigmatic shift has exerted a great influence on the field of masculinity,
providing multiple lenses through which to explore man's identities and

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64 The Agony of Masculinity

analyze his maleness performanc

1989). However, despite this sign
further explore the intersection
eiy/colonialism alongside factors su
tion, and white supremacy. Drawin
frameworks (Ngugi wa Thiong'o,
2004, 1993; Bell, 1992; Lao-Monte
Tatum, 2007; Gilborn, 2001; Leonar
of the informants, this chapter a
establish a historical link betwee
slavery and colonialism by drawing
I demonstrate in what ways and
impact the masculinity of men o
racism influences the way many of
ness. Third, drawing on the examp
sexual black males, such as the
Thomas, General Colin Powell, and
how social class and sexual orienta
masculinity. Finally, I conclude thi
African descent and their allies t
colonial legacy, racism, and whit
relations and material conditions an
and political conditions (West, 2004
At the outset, I wish to pose the f
ter: (1) What does the legacy of s
black masculinity? (2) If slavery
what would it have been like to be a man of African descent in the 21st

century? The simplest answer could be that the plight of men of African
descent would have been very different. However, one might go on to ask:
(3) How different would it have been? (4) How have racism, social class, and
sexual orientation figured in black masculinity? (5) How have they shaped
masculinity and influenced the life experienced by men of African descent?
Answers to these questions will vary depending on one's life experiences,
philosophical stance, one's definition and understanding of masculinity, and
one's breadth of knowledge about world history.
However, it is unquestionable that these factors have shaped the identity,
the behavior, and actions of black men. For example, slavery and coloniza-
tion not only have impacted the life of the slaves and the colonized but

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 The Agony of Masculinity 65

continue to impact the lives of blac

called postcolonial era (Ngugi w
Fanon, 1963). Bernard, a Caribbea
the informants involved in this
states, "I think that some of the b
Caribbean have a lot to do with sla
have inherited those behaviors."
Concurring with Bernard, Mwabe, a 44-year-old informant from Kenya,
who is a doctoral student, maintains,

There is a way in which slavery over time has tended to redefine masculinity, espe-
cially masculinity of men of African descent whose ancestors have come as slaves
and who are forced to serve... to emulate the masculinity of the white person. In my
country (Kenya), there is a sense of... there is an influence of colonialism on politi-
cal parties dominated by men fighting for power.

As both Bernard and Mwabe illustrate in their statements, the ever-lasting

effect of slavery and colonization on black/brown men and women is so
strong that it might be impossible to fully capture the masculinity of
black/brown men without having a clear understanding of the history of
slavery and colonization. These twin forces have fundamentally shaped the
masculinity and the femininity of male and female slaves and free men and
women of African descent (Mills, 1997; Dyson, 1993; Segal, 1990). One of
the things that happened during colonialism is that it permitted the emer-
gence of white male supremacy. By that I mean that white colonials from
Europe, even if they were from a lower class, had colonial status over
colonized people. This put black males in a subordinate position. With
respect to white male masculinity, it weakens black males through an act of
subordination, setting them up as sex objects either for white men or for
white women. In either case, the slaves could not be their own men; they
were somebody else's men. As Dyson (1993) eloquently put it:

The pernicious commodification of the black body during slavery was underwritten
by the desire of white slave owners to completely master black life. The desire for
mastery also fueled the severe regulation of black sexual activity, furthering the
telos of southern agrarian capital by reducing black men and women to property,
(p. 182)

Dyson (1993) went to say that, "Because of the arrangement of social

relations, slavery was also the breeding ground for much of the mythos of
black male sexuality that survives to this day: that black men are imagined as

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66 The Agony of Masculinity

peripatetic phalluses with unr

women" (p. 183).
Building on Dyson's statement
hasn't left us just because we
doesn't mean the end of colon
and upgraded colonial politics
standing in our history books a
in a neo-colonial society. We
world as colonial society, but
Haiti, Ghana, and Nigeria. All t
Americans from the US need
subjects and there should be
"decolonize the mind" (Ngug
should try to think their own
in the world today. But how ca
elsewhere be successful at doin
ues to affect their lives?

Black Masculinity and the

While one might assume that s
therefore should be left in the
men's masculinity is perceived
society, is fundamentally linke
legacy, for we are far from liv
1997; Bonilla-Silva, 2003; Seg
racial era. The current U.S. Atto
present continued hegemonic ef
conditions of people of color
dealing with the racial issue tha
black/brown and white people.
proudly thought of itself as a
always been and we, I believe,
a nation of cowards " (Holder a
The masculinity of black/bro
and this has been the hegemon
white supremacist groups hav
2006; Davis, 1991; West, 19

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 The Agony of Masculinity 67

black/brown men has been sha

irreversible historical fact with which all black/brown men have to deal.
When racist individuals and white supremacist groups want to paint a
negative image of black/brown men, these individuals or groups often use
the history of slavery and colonization, or its derivatives, as an ideological
weapon (Bonilla-Silva, 2003).
The most common and dangerous argument made to justify the plight of
people of African descent is that the white colonizers civilized the Africans
(Said, 1978), as if the latter were uncivilized and savage before the arrival of
the former. The devastation for which many blacks still seek recompense
through their reparations movement suggests that their blackness and race
would have been a target. Black/brown men are often cast as excessively
violent, but what could be more savage and brutal than invading the territory
of people to colonize and enslave them? What can be more uncivilized than
brutalizing and raping women, hanging men, and brutally exploiting their
resources? And what can be more savage than depriving people of their
freedom, separating fathers and mothers from their children, and vice versa?
In short, what can be more savage and uncivilized than slavery and coloniza-
tion instituted by white Europeans to expand their capitalist and economic
quest and maximize their corporate profits?
The lie that has been told about the savage and uncivilized nature of
black/brown people has been unveiled through the scholarly work of promi-
nent black scholars such as Anténor Firmin (2000), Anta Diop (1991), and
W. E. B. Du Bois (1930). For example, through his superb book The Equal-
ity of Human Races , Firmin (2000), who presciently preceded W. E. B. Du
Bois, reminds us about the historical and cultural significance of the Egyp-
tian civilization. Firmin (2000) asserted:

One of the surest ways to refute such a theory (i.e., the theory of inequality of hu-
man races) would be to identify a period in history when the proud Europeans were
absolutely savages while black people were holding up the flame of early civiliza-
tion. Let us open the annals of humanity and question the past. Let us study the ves-
tiges of antiquity, for they have much to teach us and they can shed much light on
the debate and confirm the truth. At the dawn of history we encounter one people
whose civilization precedes all the others: the ancient population of Egypt. This
people, who were unquestionably the initiators of the white nations of the West in
science and the arts, had created alone, on the shores of the Nile whose sandy sweet
waters flow across such vast lands, the most impressive social organization that a
human population had ever built (p. 226).

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68 The Agony of Masculinity

Similarly, Martin Bernal (1987)

illuminated the glorious past and in
this, the negative image has contin
such as Tarzan and bestselling boo
Murray, 1996). Slavery and coloni
whites, especially by white supr
reference to justify and normalize t
and women nowadays (Bell, 1992;
As Fanon (1967) eloquently put it, "
the fact that he was enslaved" (p. 2
of many white and black people wh
the image of slavery and colonizati
colonizers treated black/brown peo
comments such as "go back to Af
today to remind black/brown peopl
not belong to the so-called white
slavery and colonization have led
African descent (Bonilla-Silva, 200
which have negatively affected the
perceiving them as untamed, sexu
work, to seeing them as lazy and u
stood best by placing them in a his
masculinity that white slave master
in the cotton field has drastically i
slaves and their descendents (hooks

Tracing Back the Colonial Le

During slavery and colonization,
known as hell for slaves, enslaved
imported from different territories
brutal forms of masculinity and ma
white masters. One of the most viol
by the Western white slave master
the beating of enslaved men (Jor
such scene of this was ever duly de
Sankofa offered a very graphic dep
for the black woman (Gerima, 200

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The Agony of Masculinity 69

power to oppress both enslaved fe

tions and in the cotton fields. Alth
were categorized as men, they wer
linity as freely as their white mas
the slaves were stripped of their m
would later emulate the form of b
white slave masters (hooks, 1992).
This is partly because the slaves
linity that their slave masters act
nessed other forms of physical an
slave masters inflicted on other sl
masculinity prior to being forcibly
drastically changed because of th
masculinity that the white slave
(Labouret, 1962).
Performance of masculinity by
physical and psychological violen
slaves who were caught trying to
were caught inciting other slav
making them take off their clothe
ing families from their children a
1974). The violent form of mascul
both the male and the female sl
poem written by the Cameroonian

The white man killed my father

Because my father was proud
The white man raped my mother
Because my mother was beautifu
The white man wore out my brothe
Because my brother was strong
Then the white man came to me
His hands red with blood
Spat his contempt into my black
Out of his tyrant's voice:
'Hey boy, a basin, a towel, water
(Diop as cited in Fanon, 1963, p.

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 70 The Agony of Masculinity

As has been historically docum

were powerless and deprived of
sugarcane plantation and the
violence against their wives and
A logical explanation for this is
of masculinity, the authoritaria
male slave masters. As bell hook
Transplanted African men, even tho
roles shaped the division of labor, wh
often higher than that of females, ha
of manhood passively. Yet it is eviden
engaged in racial uplift were often m
by white culture, (p. 90)

Even in post-slavery and colo

males continue to set the norms
of African descent. As Micha
dominant culture, the mascul
middle-aged, heterosexual men
other men, against which other
found wanting" (Kimmel as cite
If privileged and straight w
standard of masculinity for all
black/brown men have through
linity, it is then reasonable to a
of white males' social and histo
documented by Richard Dyer
masculinity in his seminal wor
men made use of a violent form
men during slavery and continu
assume that even through ge
witnessed and personally exper
time. Ben, an African American
states,

I think the legacy of slavery has something to do with the way black men nowadays
behave. I think historically black masculinity has been created from a white frame.
During slavery, black families were destroyed; they were separated at the will of
white people; black women were assaulted; black men's masculinity was castrated. 1
mean there were lots of traumatic, horrific things to show that I'm in control of you

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The Agony of Masculinity 71

and your body. At the early part of the

how black should be. I think that there w
show that that's not really true.

This is not to suggest, however,

on African women by African m
existed in the African continent be
captured, enslaved, and exported A
the US (Labouret, 1962; Davids
informant whom I referred to e
question I have been asking myse
not abusive to women before slave
some of those behaviors were pr
slaves and my belief isn't from my
Along the same lines, Dr. Joe, th
for this project, argued, "Islamic s
violence against women and there
male violence against indigenous
record of such [acts] prior to We
statement, I argue that before the
women were and remain oppressed
amy (Labouret, 1962), which we m
impugn the integrity of women
patriarchy is a system that has op
been institutionally established
male Africans were also part of th
(Collins, 1998, 1990; Walker, 198
African American who was fini
history, shared this view while I w
He said:

The thing is that in a lot of African societies and African groups there was polyg-
amy, which I think is a sense of masculinity, male supremacy; the man can have as
many wives as they can take care of. If you read the book called Things Fall
Apart... I mean there is a sign where a man is very much dominant to his women; so
I think you can see that in certain communities... the problem is that there are so
many different communities, different ways people sort of perform... some African
men are polygamists and dominate their wives. But I don't want to say that these
notions only come from oppressions of Europeans. I mean in Africa the thing is that
there were different hierarchies there were definitely forms of oppression.

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72 The Agony of Masculinity

Tom's argument is in line w

"Men in general are advantag
although, ethnographically s
different ways" (p. 32).
My overarching point, however
the white slave masters display
inevitably and profoundly influ
consequentially men of African
psychological violence on a daily
violence is inevitable; for as P
tend to internalize and reprodu
victim. The subjugated African
cause and effect relationship. Th
and experienced in the colony w
have participated in on the A
transported to Haiti, the US, an
reasonable to argue that in emu
probably became extremely vi
male slaves because of the daily
routinely were exposed in the c
After being victimized for de
slave masters. They murdered h
latter murdered millions of th
after months of violent fights,
and the colonizers and set them
C. L. R. James (1938) eloquently

Examining Post-Slavery/C
A possible explanation of the r
by men living in countries, whi
men have grown up in what
Bowling for Columbine, as Am
scended the culture of violence entrenched in the historical and colonial
legacy of slavery and colonization. Simply put, these men may have experi-
enced what Joy DeGruy-Leary (2005) called the "Post-Traumatic Slave
Syndrome." Leary (2005) argued,

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 The Agony of Masculinity 73

Today, the legacy of slavery remains

past plays in our present attitudes, o
tant if we are to free ourselves fro
that bind us today, shackles that lim
derstanding the Post-Traumatic Slav
key that helps to set us on the path t

I concur with Leary's argumen

and reflects the behavior of m
black/brown men living in for
normally do not consider the f
under racial oppression have co
ity and femininity. For exampl
Congo, and Zimbabwe, descende
white male domination and viol
reproduce a violent form of bla
the white masters and colonizers exerted on enslaved and colonized African
males and females. Specifically, many of these men have acted out their
masculinity in violent ways during political conflicts and when faced with
challenges in their private lives. Joseph, a 28-year-old Haitian man inter-
viewed for this book, recounted in the quote below what some Haitian
feminists shared with him about the way some Haitian men have treated
Haitian women. From the testimony of these women, Joseph inferred that
these Haitian men apparently have reproduced similar forms of violence that
the white slave masters inflicted on the slaves. Joseph stated:

... the colonial experience, particularly in Haiti, with a population where the major-
ity are black and slave, and with a very small minority elite in order to drive this
population of black folks to perform the work that capitalism members, there has
been a lot of violence involved, done mainly by men.... When I went to Haiti in
2001 and spoke to different feminist organizations, they said to me that men are
throwing gasoline and lighting them [women] with fire with the kids in the house
because the woman did not do a chore, or after she got up at five in the morning,
went to the market, sold stuff all day, and she didn't prepare the exact juice that he
wanted. So he was all pissed off at her that he did that. And there are countless other
examples of this kind [of behavior]. So in terms of slavery and masculinity, it's deli-
cate and intricate. This is the kind of masculinity that is ultra-violent, or you can
look at it in terms of certain black men not really seeing themselves as valid men in
front of white men who in colonial times were recognized as full men, being white
men, the men that had the power.

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74 The Agony of Masculinity

I must add that Western countrie

role in precipitating a violent cultur
been at the forefront of violent act
time political turmoil has occurred
1994). As a case in point, after the d
Jean-Claude Duvalier in 1986, men
alive many of the men and wome
regime and known for having c
civilians (Farmer, 2003). The Duvali
of male farmers, poor, working cla
They were called "tonton makout.
loyal or hired thugs; they murde
against the Duvalier regime (Farme
were falsely reported as political ag
Moreover, they physically mistreat
enough respect. In the "tonton m
reprimand because it could be chall
and attitude toward women and oth
As a Haitian and former resident
abuses that the male "tonton mak
simply dared to speak against th
regime which was supported by t
witnessed the killing of many mem
and old male Haitians when the D
The majority of people who engage
parallel military force to maintain
years. They were colonial dregs, o
working class backgrounds with no
politicians manipulated these vulne
and economic power. I did not see m
burning of houses and chasing the
Duvalier regime. Poor, working clas
the ones who led the violent war ag
of the more sophisticated and we
burning alive these male mercenari
greatly benefited from these violen
them on others in ways that helped
office.

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 The Agony of Masculinity 75

More recently, after the demo

Aristide, was overthrown in 1
and/or radical violent movem
other men and women. It was b
were chased and killed like anim
felt were behind the coups (see
of Democracy Now' December
Similarly, in African countr
gaged in rape and killed men,
majority of people who were ac
the deaths of hundreds of th
committed these acts of viole
background and were, therefor
Likewise, when the dictator H
French colony of Chad from
forefront of the killing. To stay
called Documentation and Secu
of men. This parallel military
people, mostly young and older
the Habré regime, as illustrate
2007).
In fall 2007 and early spring 2008, we witnessed similar tragedies in
Kenya and Zimbabwe during disputed presidential elections. Again, most
people who engaged in the acts of violence that took place in these countries
were working class men, and many women and children were killed. The
elite, who were mostly Western-educated men, did not physically participate
in these violent actions nor were they victimized by the street violence.
However, they were the ones who benefited from the violent tribal conflict.
That is, they were the ones who held key governmental positions like those
of presidents and prime ministers.
To avoid the conclusion that one may easily draw, that I am suggesting
that poor black men are uniquely violent, let me emphasize that this is not
my claim; rather, my claim is that poor men of color who have been the
victims of Western colonialism tend to become the tools of wealthier men of
color in social systems inherited from the whites who formerly colonized
them.

So, my theory is: To fully grasp why many men of African descent have
exhibited their postcolonial masculinity and maleness in a violent way

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76 The Agony of Masculinity

against women, particularly wom

analyze the harmful effect of sla
sociopsychological, economic, educa
say that their violent action against
or justified. Nor does it mean that m
who have engaged in acts of violenc
other men, including colonial and
also engaged in violent actions again
My point is that to explore the ro
linity and maleness displayed and ac
it is vitally important to do a critic
Unfortunately, the mainstream dis
to do so. Black men's masculinity
violent, as if it is inherently bio
represented as ahistorical, asocia
critically analyzes the historical, ec
shaped the masculinity of men o
mainstream misrepresentation of b
that the legacy of slavery, subtle an
factors such as white supremacy inf

Connecting the Dots: Black M

and Institutional Racism

Admittedly, many men of African descent have acted out their masculinity
and maleness in a rather aggressive manner. However, the violent way in
which they have performed their masculinity and maleness should not be
taken at face value and prejudged. It needs to be situated in a social, political,
economic, and historical context that fundamentally explains why the
majority of black/brown men seem predisposed to behave differently from
many white men, as well as how poor black/ brown men act out their
masculinity and maleness differently than the wealthy ones do. The lived
experience of Tom, the African American informant, is a case in point. Tom
said:

Growing up I experienced probably three or four different types of masculinity in

my life. My early sense of masculinity was very much about a sort of street survival
in the sense or the idea that to be a man you had to not only defend yourself, but you
had to fight to show that you were a man. I think this had a lot to do with inner city,
urban, gang culture that was really associated with blackness. But being in the un-

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The Agony of Masculinity 77

derdog, being underprivileged, and bein

any control that people had. So I think in
connected to race but also to class.

Because of the way the neo-colonialist and capitalist system is set up in

African, Caribbean, and Western countries, many poor men have found
themselves unable to support themselves and their families financially. As
Tom's argument illustrates, when men of African descent are stripped of an
opportunity to exercise their male power, which they have struggled for the
right to express and which in the West requires them to be able to provide for
their family, the street becomes the playground where many men of African
descent feel they can display their maleness and masculine behavior, some-
times in destructive ways. Being economically, socially, and politically
marginalized, many of the poor or recently successful black/brown men,
unfortunately, resort to violence as an outlet for their frustration and anger
with a racist and capitalist system that overtly, or subtly, perpetuates a new
form of colonialism. Simply put, the frustration and anger of these marginal-
ized black/brown men stem from the fact that they have not been given the
opportunity to be the man that society has taught and expected them to be;
that is, a man who provides for and protects his family, who is powerful, and
who must be in control. At home, as a way to show their male power, many
of them end up brutalizing their female partners and children who are
perceived as weak and thus vulnerable.
The cycle of violence in which Caribbean and African men have been
involved is similar to that of young black/brown men in the West, who have
engaged in regrettable violent actions in countries whose political and
economic systems are based on white supremacist and patriarchal principles
and rules. In countries such as the US, France, and the United Kingdom,
where the political, economic, educational systems have closed many doors
of opportunity to many black/brown men, it is no accident that many of these
men have engaged in violent actions against their black/brown sisters,
brothers, white people, and themselves. Although their violent actions should
never be supported or justified, they should be understood. The unrecognized
reason for this is that the white patriarchal system in these countries, domi-
nated mostly by privileged and straight white men, expects these
black/brown and poor white men to act and behave like they define men who
exercise racial privilege. However, this same system has deprived them of
economic, educational, and social opportunities so they can live up to the
standard that has been set for them.

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78 The Agony of Masculinity

Instead of providing an equal o

defined in and by the West, thi
system, in cahoots with corporat
Association (NBA), the music ind
used a handful of black/brown
black singers to create an illusio
young black/brown men and
captured this false sense of oppo
with My Brothers (1969). Rodn
can sing, they can run, they can
power. Even in the fields where
whites. The entertainment world
a commercial enterprise, are
perform" (p. 20).
Many of the less advantaged y
to these black/brown male stars
quest to become a famous basket
while their academic life is dras
aspirations of the young black m
high school coaches as shown
This postcolonial legacy of a glas
view, a systemic conspiracy ag
words of Enoch Page (1999), this
men to a lower racial caste that c
The violent demonstration of m
through gang violence and drug
a false concept of masculinity fr
and social interaction with older
to be financially stable, stron
women. Being deprived of res
fulfill this male role, many blac
their family and other men and
masculinity, many of them, unfo
including selling drugs in their
African American, Alex, to whom

When you get to a certain age I consid

started seeing the kids around the are
ing for my mom to catch up on the bi

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The Agony of Masculinity 79

am tired of wearing my uncle's cloth

you say if these kids can have it, wh
good grades, on the football team and
but of course when you are young you
of 1 5 if I finish school I can become
because on TV and all the stuff you
that. White people are the lawyers, w
grew up, it was all minorities, blacks
the foreigners. The only white people
doctors, the policemen, and the fireme
people; that's not for me. So I jumpe
then recently 1 ended up getting caugh

I must make clear here that I a

drugs. I believe that it is a wron
understand the socioeconomic, h
many young black/brown peopl
view, the root causes, including
marginalization, often derive fro
only perverts the social functio
documentary film, Unnatural C
and severely undermines their h
Slaves did not have access
(Bourdieu, 1990) that "the raci
white male slave masters. As a re
slave masters did: give orders
these male slaves ended up phys
male slaves, out of frustration a
Thus, understanding the histor
ization of racism" (Macedo & G
causes of the behavior and attitu
Gounari (2005) maintain that "g
that we gain a nuanced understa
cultural, and political discour
"legalized" slavery ended more t
and the US, its legacy continues
logically, economically, educatio
During the colonial period, Af
their families (Jordan, 1974). Si
den to be present in the homes

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80 The Agony of Masculinity

today's world, many men of

separated from their family wh
a liability or compels them to m
available for biological and socia
legal system in countries such a
incarcerate men of color, parti
age of incarcerated men of colo
as reported by The Sentencing
3,162 black men are in incarc
Caucasian men (see Bureau of J
As a result of this racial inju
many men of color, several you
household without a father figu
old African American male who
BART Police in Oakland on
capturing the shooting). Given
logical wound resulting from th
young black males who are fru
paternal love and that does not
fulfill their potential, sometim
gang violence. This type of viol
and one of them, Stanley Tooki
books designed to help young
however, when his defender
Schwarzenegger denied Willia
liams' redemption complete a
Without an apology and atonem
there can be no redemption" (S
When young men of color are
nied jobs that white men who h
this and in many other ways
masculinity. Ben, an informant,
uncles experienced in finding a

It's so difficult to establish yourself.

of when you become incarcerated. Yo
after that, like... hum. My uncles
doesn't... never really has a job becaus
he made up; he's always lived under

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 The Agony of Masculinity 81

pie's cars, or their house, and they

like his brother or his sister; he's
permanent spot, and I think that h
been incarcerated a couple of times,
gets worse and worse each time, yo
alcoholic stop drinking you know
incarcerated and you mess up, there'

Whereas white privilege is tak

most white males, it has been
men, unlike white men and esp
had to struggle against societ
masculinity. People indoctrin
becomes the bedrock of conserv
Black/brown people are sellin
involved in violent and illegal a
have a criminal record that pre
they fail to realize is that inst
unemployment and a lack of h
Until they come to this realiz
judge, and blame men of Afric
their own racial victimization
that produces white supremac
These white males sustain their
where they sit at the pinnacl
educated black men most oft
occupational structure. Given
dominates even educated black
black/brown people has been af
through the mass media. Unfo
and stereotypes too often re
mechanism.

It is important to point out that the rather dire situation that I describe
above does not apply to all men of African descent. Nor does it reflect and
influence to the same extent the masculinity of all men of African descent.
There are different masculinities. In the same way that there are violent black
masculinities, there are non- violent ones that often are obscured in the media.
Moreover, in the same way that there are misogynist black masculinities that
more often are raping black women, there also are feminist black masculin-

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 82 The Agony of Masculinity

ities that are increasingly resis

reliable allies and partners of
article "African American Feminist Masculinities: Personal Narratives of
Redemption, Contamination, and Peak Turning Points" by Aaronette M.
White (2006). Black masculinity is a multifaceted topic, so it would be
logically and epistemologically incorrect to theorize about it in singular
monolithic form, that is, to use masculinity instead of masculinities to refer
to all men of African descent. The danger of doing so lies in the fact that not
all of these men share the same social class background and sexual orienta-
tion.

Black Masculinity, Social Class, and Sexual Orientation

As expected, privileged, heterosexual black and brown men often have
performed their relatively dominant masculinity differently than poor and
marginalized straight, bisexual, transgender, and gay black/brown men. As
Kimmel (1992) eloquently articulated through his work, many of these
privileged, straight black/brown men, among others, have tried to emulate
the model of masculinity that privileged and straight white men have sold to
the world through the mass media and canonical texts. They often try to
associate themselves with the social, political, and ideological club to which
privileged, straight white men belong. Moreover, they often share the
conservative ideology that these privileged, straight white men hold. In
addition, many of these brown/black men are convinced that the best and
fastest way to move up socially, economically, and politically is to find ways
to enter the white world. Finally, by embracing the white culture and
ideology, they sometimes become the prey of privileged white males, who
use them politically to generalize about the "social mobility" of black people.
Instead of furthering the political and economic struggles of people of
African descent, the masculinity of privileged blacks has been an ideological
veil masking the miserable conditions of poor black men and women.
Privileged white males and females often perceive this category of men of
African descent as "good black/brown men," for they pose no threat to their
hegemonic interests. These very few good and educated black/brown men
usually graduate from elite schools such as Harvard University, which mold
and apprentice them into the white dominant discourse and ideology.
Whether they attend these elite schools because they are from a privi-
leged background or they are poor but work hard academically, these "good

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 The Agony of Masculinity 83

and educated black men" som

economically, socially, and po
elitist, mercantilist, and capita
educated and the powerful hav
nating and conquering the w
expense of poor and marginal
these men "will change nothi
finding moral comfort in mala
However, this acquired white
conquering the world does not
graduated from Ivy League s
black/brown men such as W. E. B. Du Bois and Randall Robinson have
chosen to embrace the struggles of ordinary black people. These two m
graduated from Harvard University at a different time in history and decid
to "go back to the source" (Cabral, 1973) to support and advocate for t
poor blacks living in marginalized neighborhoods in the US. However, this
rare. Many educated men of African descent aspire to become rich and live
bourgeois life style. After earning their degrees, they usually do not return
the marginalized neighborhoods where they grew up. Instead, many of the
go and live in affluent white and/or black neighborhoods. This does n
happen in a vacuum.
Many of these men of African descent learn through school and from
family members and the media that they must be highly educated a
economically powerful in order to be able to compete with and be accepted
by the white world, that they have to leave behind their past, including th
neighborhood where they received their basic education, and where the
close and distant family members still live, in order to feel they are achievin
and living the American dream. Unfortunately, many privileged and ed
cated men of African descent have embraced this ideology. These me
ideologically and symbolically cross the racial line so they can be "we
comed" and "embraced" by the elite, white world.
U.S. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas and General Colin Powell,
among others, fall into this category of black men whose skin tone might b
dark/brown but their ideology is white. Privileged black men like Clarence
Thomas and Colin Powell do not perform their masculinity the same way a
ordinary black men do. Although these black men are the heirs of former
slaves, their social and political performance of masculinity is different. Th
is intrinsically linked to factors such as social class and power.

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84 The Agony of Masculinity

Power, in this context, is not d

In other words, it is not some
bodies, and places itself into our
to which everyone has access.
alluding here is linked to privile
political, intellectual, and econom
President Barack Obama is an e
these different forms of capi
biological characteristics and his
many African Americans and o
earned a law degree from Har
organizer and as a civil rights at
ran for president to become the
thermore, the mainstream medi
grew up with a liberated and pri
Moreover, given the politica
President Obama currently belon
masculinity to that of a poor, g
and Christian white men domin
this country for centuries. Ther
symbolically and ideologically
straight, privileged white men w
chal rules.
Many informants capture wh
Thomas' and Colin Powell's soc
many ordinary black men, es
example, in my interview wit
understand the difference bet
masculinity and that of poor wo
Linking Obama's masculinity
comparing him to ordinary men

People define Obama only as a black m

to do with the way he performs as a m
that he is a lawyer, that he is in the s
clubs in the country, in the world I w
his class which allows him to connect with other white rich men who see him as

maybe a hopeful alternative to the Bush legacy. But they are also connecting with
his maleness. This is where blackness becomes a little less... it's not the sole definer

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The Agony of Masculinity 85

of Obama. His maleness, which I think

of... if he was a black man he wouldn't be where he is. But I think it's also because
the fact that he is already in the senate; he's the only black person in the senate,
which illustrates he already has a certain amount of privileges. So 1 think it's impor-
tant to recognize that because in society most people see him only as a black person.
But I think there are certain elites that see him as many more things and are able to
connect on those different levels. But if you take his sense of blackness and you
compare it to ours, but I think we even have some privileged being college educa-
tion and PhDs. But if you take someone who is working class, driving a bus day in
and day out, there is definitely very little that connects them. They may be both
men; they may both be quarter black, but their class is going to divide them because
the fact is that Obama is making a million dollars a year, writing books and all these
things, and this man is probably making $40,000 a year driving a bus.

What can be inferred from the analysis of Obama' s case is that black
masculinity and maleness are not biologically static; they are fluid and can
take different ideological and political forms depending on the context, the
circumstances, and one's hegemonic interests. In other words, different
forms of black masculinities can be performed ideologically, politically, and
socially to reach certain goals. Obama, unquestionably, has found ways to
transcend his blackness to perform a form of masculinity that fits the logic of
the white supremacist and patriarchal system. As Dr. Joe bluntly put it,
"Unless you're Obama or maybe Clarence Thomas who are kissing a lot of
white butt, you're not gonna get into the white boys clubs."
It is worth emphasizing that Gen. Colin Powell, Justice Thomas, and
President Barack Obama are isolated cases and therefore do not reflect the
daily reality of men of African descent, particularly black men who are gay.
As Tom went on to say:

... A gay black man is quadruply oppressed because of his race, his color, his class,
and sexual orientation. I think that in the black community oftentimes it's even more
harsh for black gay men. That also demonstrates that there is... you can't look at
masculinity as sort of a linear thing; it is very complicated, and each of this social
location kind of come in and makes people's lives different. So 1 think Obama is a
good example, but you take a gay black man, it's a totally different experience,
maybe even more difficult because he is fighting against the oppression of the same
black communities, like saying he is not one of us. So it's a complicated issue.

Tom's argument illustrates the fact that President Obama's and Justice
Thomas' performance of masculinity as straight black men is in stark
contrast with marginalized straight and non-straight black men. Furthermore,
their presence in the judicial and political arena does not erase the fact that

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86 The Agony of Masculinity

many men of African descen

violent, rapists, lazy, and dru
men's masculinity is multifacet
rate the notions of slavery, colo
any analysis of masculinity
examine their psychological,
implications. Further, we ought
the masculinity of black me
black/brown men who have bee
2003). Bonilla-Silva states, "It is
changes that occurred in the 19
for short - is operating, which
ity" (Bonilla-Silva as cited in
racism" that Bonilla-Silva has e
to this book. It captures the cor
tionalized racism and white sup

Conclusion

In this chapter, I have critically analyzed the masculinity of men of African

descent. I have argued that slavery, colonization, racism, white supremacy,
social class, and sexual orientation have shaped the masculinity, the identity,
and the material conditions of men of African descent. I suggest, therefore,
that these factors be incorporated in any analysis of masculinity that involves
men of African descent. However, as already noted, though institutionalized
racism and the legacy of slavery and colonization play a significant role in
the marginalization of black/brown men and shape their behavior, this should
not justify the aggressive actions of many against women and other men. My
central point is that in order to understand and help men of African descent
as well as other men transcend their maleness and become compassionate
and caring human beings, it is vitally important that we explore first and
foremost the root causes of their behavior and actions. In the case of men of
African descent in particular, I believe that the root causes of the aggressive
behavior of many can be best explained by linking such behavior to the
legacy of slavery, colonization, and institutionalized racism.
Given the continued effect of the legacy of slavery, colonization, racism,
and white supremacy on the subjectivity, socioeconomic, and political
conditions of black/ brown men, politically conscious men of African

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The Agony of Masculinity 87

descent have a historical and mo

black/brown men, who yet have
linity. They also ought to help th
ity, which has been misrepresen
movies. All black/brown men,
(e.g.,
those who live in countrie
former colonizing powers) oug
history to transcend the notion
socially constructed by privile
colonial times. Lastly, it is hope
are politically and historically aw
racism on black masculinity j
redefine their masculinity, whi
straight white males.

Case Studies

Background Information about Case Studies

As previously mentioned, case studies at the end of a chapter aim to add to

the analysis of issues already addressed in the chapter that precedes them.
The case studies aim to push further the analysis about the intersectio
between black masculinity, slavery/colonization, racism, social class, an
sexual orientation. Two informants, Dr. Joe and Fritz, to whom I alread
referred in previous case studies, are included in the case studies below. Th
reason for including them here is that I conducted two separate long inter
views with them. Therefore, unlike the other informants, they had t
opportunity to share with me their insights and experience about vario
issues pertaining to black masculinity, including the continued effect of t
legacy of colonization/slavery on the life of men of African descent. I hav
already provided some basic information about their life in previous ca
studies in Chapter 2, so I would simply report here their positions and vie
about the themes analyzed in this chapter.

Thomas' Take on the Intersection between Gender, Sex, Race,

and Social Class in the Context of Black Masculinity
Biographical note: Thomas is an African American in his mid-thirties. H
was born and grew up in Chicago and is from a working class family. Whe

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 88 The Agony of Masculinity

Thomas was in the seventh gra

gifted students. He earned a
Thomas is the first person in h
graduate school. He is currently
at a major university in Mass
explore the intersection betwee
by many of his friends and stud

Your sex and your gender are d

three things in the US societ
biological man... if you are bor
gender, or how you understand
depending upon your biologic
looking at the issue of black
identities approach, then you n
and gay; black men who are
feminine and heterosexual. I
really... because I teach classes
about sexism and gender oppre
my job really is to deconstruct
that role as an instructor. Let
act like man." That is what so
shit, and fuck as many women
now is that masculinity is not n
as a man, the way I understand
world with integrity, and treat
myself. So it is not tied to ove
pink. For me being a man and u
level is about being true to mys
you not?
...The whole thing about multiple identities is that... very often we talk
about multiple identities. We talk about race as separate from class, gender,
and all other things. When we do that, it is an artificial discussion because
your blackness, the way you experience and understand it, is automatically
influenced by all your identities.
. . .During slavery black men did not have to worry about. . .largely speak-
ing they did not have to worry about the kind of sexual violation that black

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The Agony of Masculinity 89

women have to worry about rig

violation. There was sexual strat
black man as the superman with
aggressive culturally gets car
masculinity and blackness you
the other. It's also important to
a community. In other words, i
of any individual always carries
In other words, it's not simply
also the life of everybody arou
the black man to protect the b
woman to protect the black m
sexism and heterosexism and o
of the extension of oppressio
calling him a woman. If you w
bitch. All these kinds of terms
who are gay. I think that if w
black masculinity, one of the t
have been consistently put in p
out the white man's standard
women and provide for the hou
has constantly made black m
brothers out there feel like th
what happens as a result of tha
hurt, and that pain on their
grieve in particular kind of way
These emotions will come out
in ways that are not safe to w
children are the victims. What
and internalized oppression tha
community, toward women, oth
In the context of black men, v
get any points. So the way that
you act in violent ways when y
the problem but not the root. I
toy that they play with, the to
TV, the cartoons, and the movi
give you "boys don't cry." I wa

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90 The Agony of Masculinity

sort of out there in people's fa

football. Honestly, I didn't nece
In other words, you are force
remember being influenced, bei
Young boys get a specific type
of what their particularity ma
younger I was forced to fight
was ridiculous for me. I would r
norm in terms of not being able
in my life where I have begun
necessarily outside the context
think I am aware enough of my
can begin to have my own visio
It's been difficult to... for ex
has been a challenge. The mor
realize that healing is critical.
tion without healing. That's
happens is that in our effort to
shit that we internalized. Period
People can start their healin
gist; some people to an awaren
poetry...whatever. There are b
that you have to pick one and
being said, I am not only sug
suggesting that we cannot end
not talk about the process of h
It's our responsibility to keep
as well as on the liberation of
way we interact with each ot
female or male, the way we in
important that we heal. We can
In other words, you can't en
doesn't work; it just doesn't wo
on that vision in a way that is
am in my own masculinity... I
am finding this shit to be a lot h

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The Agony of Masculinity 91

Dr. Joe's View about the L

Colonialism, Capitalism,
Biographical Note: Dr. Joe wa
birthday two days after I interv
black community in St. Louis, M
and his father was from the ru
urban grandparents and rural gr
brothers, and he is the oldest. H
Hissexuality is heterosexual and
he prefers to be in a male-fem
many relationships but none of
even if they loved him, could
relationship with a transsexua
anthropology at a university in
for over a decade. His research i
specifically, white supremacy. D
always felt that he was male from
was not till the moment his mo
siblings that Dr. Joe had alwa
parents worried about him almos
womb because they wanted him
and you were born in the wrong
even from people of your commu

...Being feminized by dominant

feminist men in alliance with w
men tend to be the first people
formerly a hunter, or if you we
were then self-sufficient. Once
former occupation and you're m
waiting on some colonizing mast
a so-called boss; your subordin
yourself that the white male m
things that you may use while t
Instead, if you were a feminist b
being treated by whites doesn't
woman, that mistreating the wo

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92 The Agony of Masculinity

you, and that you can't have un

the woman. That your children
their mothers; your sisters can'
you need a place to stay because
upon you for their best interest.
...Mistreating women actually
happened earlier when there w
agricultural societies. In the past
as eloquently explained in the
talks about how pre-Islamic w
children; they could dismiss a m
However, once sedentary agricult
became the strong guys who cou
wanted to own the property, th
they wanted to own the women
That's really the mode of prod
women and brought the rise of p
So in my opinion, patriarchy
supremacy. You have to have pat
supremacy. What I think we n
patriarchy is not really in our b
undo it. It has to be associated w
how you get your food. So if w
which climate change may for
create an agricultural community
property. We also need to think
subject by allowing them to par
community as Martin Luther Kin
I think capitalism plays a role
evolved, especially through indu
by capitalism, especially when
mining, and oil drilling in the i
products. This puts a lot of press
by themselves, while in the past
family. Capitalism has perpetuat
like coal mining or oil drilling to
do that kind of work. It hasn't

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The Agony of Masculinity 93

before we were slaved; a gende

that's just as important that the
In our society, what happens i
women were left at home in a
assigned to the work that men
and women were supposed just
the kind of narratives that we
female work. We can have diffe
important... there's no work
children. What would it take t
home and raise children is just
Feminine values are informed
what the social norms should be
produces and wants us to con
racism if you just want to do
separate things. Capitalism is
you're a poor white male, tha
also somehow benefiting from
white male supremacy is for th
... I get a little male privilege
to those men who are perceive
margin between male privilege
ing marginal space that most p
privilege come from me, but o
that a soldier can be stripped of
my male privilege, so I don't a
are. I think there are some way
especially if they're married
Never. I would never recomme
never trade my identity as tran
Gay men obviously are defin
have to be straight or Christia
you self-define and identify,
impose on you, as a definition
one thing and I might be some
do,who I sleep with. I can still
for others. We got to get to
and realize that the rigidity th

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94 The Agony of Masculinity

product of how oppressed we ar

the right thing to do because t
is doesn't tolerate it. I think Go
challenge to be yourself, who
program to reward men who co
anybody's stereotype so they co

Fritz's Approach about B

to Slavery, Colonizatio
I think we could probably talk
really shapes our masculinity. W
were stripped of their manhoo
bility as the male figure in the
tion period it was the same thi
of the welfare system, which i
husband can't be there or else t
could get; so, we have another
of his masculinity... talking abo
house; ithas to be the mother an
I think my blackness tends to
seen it as something that I ha
have to respect because we have
the opportunity to do that. Wh
I have been denied, I say "Man
man," specifically in America
pened in the past; it helps sha
being more responsible toward
are the things that have been ta
slavery onward. So this helps
have to show that you can be re
show, I don't mean show wh
children how to be responsible
males. So in that sense it sha
masculinity for so long we hav
and tradition, and pass them on
ters who would come in after me.

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The Agony of Masculinity 95

I think that my blackness really inf

masculinity, specifically because of th
our masculinity for so long from slav
back our black community. African A
be husbands or fathers in their own
Today when a family is trying to get
stamp or whatever, the black male
cannot be there. So this is another
stripped from us. It has to be the wo
that black men suffer. Now why can't
suffer together? Why does the husba
with this separation where we are str
have to try to regain that and in reg
munity because our community is
models, male fathers.
We as African, black African Amer
have to regain our masculinity. There
seen that in their own lifetime, in th
so we have to bring it back. Bringing
a black man in America is to act a
basically shape me as an African Ame
We don't have any concrete examp
our ancestors in Africa. They talk ab
don't have a direct connection to our
our women... we have learned it fro
learned how to oppress a woman from
matter of fact, black men in the Wes
they were acting, because as I said, th
ahead in society it had to be that way
household; the man is like the authori
hold, and these lessons come from An
slavery and colonialism. Growing up,
don't have that example of how to
allowed to be black men. Moreover, o
We can go down from your culture,
you dress, the way you interact with
your sister.

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96 The Agony of Masculinity

Historical facts have shown that w

separated. If you and I spoke the sam
part to the country. I was sent to a
tocommunicate to each other. So y
your language, communicate to so
Growing up I lived around a lot of
But as I have grown and come to
been talking with Spanish people as
thing with black men and women
mented.

As we were brought over here all

lessons of how to be the man in
functions, what we need to do to ra
trying to regain all that. There is a
shouldn't say because I am forge
brought here as a white colonialist
teach the American planters, the A
slaves, how to put them against eac
light skinned ones against the dar
separate the families, you separate t
from the fathers, and the fathers f
lighter skinned slaves being the ho
being the field slaves. It was belie
closer to the master, the white E
them, so maybe they would be more
...I think that some of the behav
Caribbean have a lot to do with slav
have inherited those behaviors. H
myself, how do we know that the
slavery, before colonization? Well! I
practiced before we were brought t
it is today or in previous years. Bec
marry or you have a wife you take
type of bad behavior you are warne
to answer to the wife's brothers, fa
joining together. It is not just you
together so that that family conne
speak. You have to keep some sort o

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The Agony of Masculinity 97

family, and if the man steps over

reprimanded, disciplined by the fa
I think that a good book that
Chinua Achebe speaks about it a
there were sprinkles of these beha
have to look at human behavior to
way; human behavior has faults in
differently. We do things differen
Europeans, and with anybody else.
there were certain systems put in
erratic and psychotic stuff that w
of the African community; it wasn
But during slavery, in Europe, in
the European society. One point t
woman. Let's say a white America
woman's property, all her belon
husband comes into the marriage
owns belongs to the husband, even
ishow it is and how it was in E
colonial America. I am saying th
Euro-American, European, Anglo
you marry in African society, yo
those behaviors start coming out
American could beat his wife t
because she was seen as property
as property.
Honestly, I think racism definite
that it is fully or should be fully
wrong, racism is there; it's alive, a
believe that racism plays a big
oppression, and oppression is the
lot of these guys to join gangs a
being denied certain positions, let
react and act out in different w
things. If they can't get this, the
this is what is open to them. So I
part of these gangs or these or
violence, which is kind of an ou

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98 The Agony of Masculinity

don't want me to be here, I am

you what I can do. Showing wh
way, the more aggressive way o
talk about oppression and viol
been carried out against our ow
It's racism and oppression to
these behaviors are carried out
trying to get at earlier with pe
has choices that they could m
man or this white person over
the black person would be the o
can/Latino gang member indi
social
hierarchy where black is
doormat and we have almost n
and women who are in these ga
level, to show that they can hav
white person can have, and s
through illegal means.

Ben's Experience with M

and Institutionalized Racism

Biographical note: Ben is a 25-year-old black man from a working class

background. Given his current status as a graduate student, he now falls
somewhat into the middle class category. He was born and grew up in Ohio
and was mostly raised by his mother and stepfather. His father is an alco-
holic, which contributed to his divorce with Ben's mother. After his mother
divorced Ben's biological father, she remarried another man and had three
more children. Ben identifies himself as bisexual. He has two younger
brothers and a younger sister. Ben moved to Western Massachusetts from his
native Ohio about three years ago for graduate school. He is currently
pursuing a Master's degree in Social Justice Education. He is not sure if he
wants to pursue a doctorate degree. He is working as a housing assistant
while being a graduate student.

Be like a man or "act like a man" means to me control and perform some
type of behavior that shows that I'm in control. It also means not to come
across as vulnerable, or that I'm not together; show that I am competent, that

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 The Agony of Masculinity 99

I am not passive but confronta

portray myself like an authorit
learned. I was socialized to be
don't wanna come across like I
the pressure to act like a man
competent and in control of th
girls around, bully them. I was
definitely not to the degree o
sexist things to two friends of
performed a lot of sexism. Whe
ships, I told them they were be
their boyfriends too much spa
ever had an issue with somethi
don't do that because you get m
handle your own problems. If
to tell like an authority figure
was even worse after I told my
sensitive?" So, I think that had
With my female friends, I'm
"You should just let that go." I
my own problems that hurt my
a lot of people piss me off, bu
anybody about that because I d
they really gonna be my friend
or something.
I think that earlier on I did a lot of that. I wasn't very emotional. I tried to
be private with it because I didn't want my sexuality questioned, my gender
questioned. In school, I cut my hair short for the most part. I didn't wear
jewelry or anything like that. I wasn't as talkative until I got much older
because I didn't wanna give the impression that I was weak. So it was to
show that basically I wasn't a girl. In middle school and high school, I really
felt like I fit with men.

I think that has a lot to do with my being bisexual. I wasn't doing any-
thing necessarily... and didn't show any sign of vulnerability or emotion. In
school, you get questioned if you're you're soft, gay, or whatever. It was true
that I like men but couldn't show it. Other guys kind of jumped around me,
but I didn't think it was ok for people to know. I didn't feel like letting my
parents know. My dad found out; I think he picked up on it because one time

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100 The Agony of Masculinity

when I was 14, he asked me if

Why are you asking me that?" I
him. He never questioned me aga
At the time, I was unsure about
I was scared when my father ap
with him, confronting him abou
talk to me about it, which is fin
pissed. I was a little idle. I asked
"Who told you that?" "Why do y
you something like that." He said
because I am his son. I'm named a
I only hang around girls. I didn
lift weights. I didn't do anything
I think that was a clue for him. H
much either, but he thought tha
stuff. He was always like, "You n
getting ready for football; you n
stuff." He had always said all th
you interested in these types of t
As I got older, during puberty
and I became more rigid about m
anything. I couldn't wear pin
anything to get someone like th
both my parents. My mother wa
or "Why you always grow it out
now I'm at a place where I think
a certain way to act that is mor
think that would define who you
a kid you don't have that much r
philosophy.
I had four uncles. All of them h
kind of me... I was expected to b
only one person who really didn
that. I think I tried to conform
prove that I was. My father loved s
I wasn't interested in many t
wasn't talking about girls, whic
any type of sports or anything t

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 The Agony of Masculinity 101

I was good in math and science. I di

way to prove maleness too, which i
wasn't nice. But I think that there w
still use because of my socialization
me on how dominating I was, or how
In their relationships... when they
never really liked it. I was always lik
to protect them or to control them
It's not like it went away. I think it
other guys, but mentally all of that
me, and I still wanna do it. My im
with how I was socialized.
I see lots of connections between blackness and maleness. I think the
biggest thing that I saw was a lack of power because of racism and because
of how you're treated. So I think that there's a type of a person that some
black men adopt or perform that has to do with perceiving them as fearful.
You should fear me because I have somebody who can fuck you up. I think
that has a lot to do with resistance. We're made powerless by a racist society.
That's like we're claiming that power back. I'm going to physically show
you that I am more powerful than you. This really comes across in a way that
is different from the way white men do it.
I think it becomes more of an issue to be really masculine. I think that's a
type of conditions we put on black boys from the beginning whether you
have a father figure or not. My biological father was not really present in my
life, but he has a huge effect on my gender even in his absence. I grew up in
a single parent household. My mother told me from the beginning that I was
the man of the house. I was only 6 years old. "You know you're the man of
the house," people would say that to me. Then when I'd be around my dad,
he would be like, "This is little Ben, and this is my son." It became clear that
I needed to be like him. He really had an issue with white people. At his job I
was able to see that. When my mother married a white man that was a big
deal for him. He never got along with my stepfather. I really felt that that
whole decision made him feel powerless. He felt that he wasn't in control of
what happened with me.
When I went to visit him he would be like, "You're influenced by this
white man." My stepfather punished me once, and I was pissed. I told my
dad about it, and he confronted him about it. He was really pissed. He would
be like, "You don't do this to my child." He felt out of the picture, and he

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 102 The Agony of Masculinity

really wasn't in the picture; he wasn

I actually grew up being really af
and I didn't know how he was going
to the store once, and he got into a
He's really aggressive. It's always
with me." And that's what he want
as aggressive as I should be.
My sister, one of my sisters, she
she speaks to him; she is very, she
aggressive toward him. So he just
"She is just crazy; this is not my da
say that. He wouldn't say that at al
she was out of place doing that to
not girls.
In conversations I had with black men. In my hall I have an R.A (resi-
dential assistant) who actually reminds me a lot of my cousins and my dad.
He is confrontational. He's confronting his residents when they violate the
school policies. He feels that he has to be authoritative and overtly aggres-
sive because he thinks that is the only way people gonna listen to him. I've
talked to him about it. I was like, "How do you think people stereotype
you?" He said, "You know, they're afraid of me?" And I asked him, "Is this
helping?" "Is what you're doing helping?" And he was like, "Well, they
don't listen to me." I am like, "I believe you. I think people could see you in
that respect because you're black. I agree with you, but I also think that
performing what people expect you to perform is not helping the situation
either, and it's not helping you."
You're fucking pissed off all the time. That kills people, and I think
there's a crisis in the country with black men in general; our lives are at
stake. And to get people at Michigan. . .so many... A black man that I came in
with didn't continue with school. It's really hard enough being black and to
be adding this extra pressure on yourself.
...I think the legacy of slavery has something to do with the way black
men nowadays behave. I think historically black masculinity has been
created from a white frame. During slavery, black families were destroyed;
they were separated at the will of white people; black women were assaulted;
black men's masculinity was castrated. I mean there were lots of traumatic,
horrific things to show that I'm in control of you and your body. At the early
part of the 20th century, in the 1900s, whites decided how black should be. I

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 The Agony of Masculinity 103

think that there was a need to dev

not really true.
I understand that I have limited
But I do have control over my
People believe that, my father bel
flat out, "I'm always your father
not. For that reason alone I deserv
is a big deal for him; I don't thin
mean to a degree he does, but I do
masculinity or racism has a lot
think this is connected to a lot of sexist behavior that men of color have. It's

tied... it's closely linked to racism, and it can't be separated because... I don't
know... I think that a lot of women of color have... black women talk about

that. . .protecting black men. There is a lot of pressure on black men. There is
equally lots of pressure put on black women. People would say there's a
crisis in the black male community, which I believe. But that doesn't exist in
the entire black community. Black women are raising most of the black
families in this country by themselves. That's a crisis in itself as well, but I
think sometimes it gets downplayed.
It's so difficult to establish yourself. Our people realize sometime the
effects of when you become incarcerated. Your ability to have a productive,
meaningful life after that is difficult. My uncles, my dad, a lot of them don't
work. My dad doesn't ever really have a job because he was unable to get
one. That is the story he made up; he's always lived under the table; he fixes
people's car or their house, and they give him money. He lives with different
people, like his brother, his sister. And I think that has lot to do with his
incarceration, because he's been incarcerated a couple times. And it gets
worst and worst each time. He is an alcoholic. As an alcoholic, you can't
stop drinking. You're gonna mess up anyway, but when you've been
incarcerated and you mess up, there's not a second chance; you're back there
for a long period of time.
...In the black community there is a lot of homophobia. I saw it in my
black churches. I saw it with my family; my cousins were always talking
about fags and stuff like that. I really believe that it was really bad and that it
was something that black people were not gonna ever deal with. I think that
is connected to racism and to masculinity as well. I've done research on and
wrote to some degree about black sexuality. It's presented in the media from
a very white perspective. I think that a lot of that... I think that racism

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 104 The Agony of Masculinity

encloses a lot of the idea that blac

homophobic than other communiti
communities are equally homopho
issues with my sexuality. It's not a s
on her shows to talk about down low
the down low. To me it's not a surp
black men out of all the different gro
We know for fact that everyone...
all genders, white men and women,
women... everybody is secretive ab
who could be married; who can be cu
call it that. But it really gets stuck in
think that has a lot to do with masc
expressing your sexuality is to make
that you still want the things that an
low on the side. They still want to b
that shouldn't be considered as being
man. I think that some of it is not ne
itself.

I think that being on a down low has everything to do with gender roles,
because if you didn't have those types of roles there maybe there will be no
need to hide it. What happens if you talk to some people who say they are in
the down low or whatever, or they sleep with men? I look at a study when I
was writing about black sexuality. There was a study with a hundred black
men, and I think it is only a small percentage, like 20 percent of them that
identified as someone who sleeps with men, as gay or bisexual. Nobody else
did, although a large percentage did actually have sexual relationships with
men. So there is only a small group of black people identifying as being gay
or bisexual. I think that has a lot to do with the media, a very white type of
image.
I think some black men just know I'm gay, as sometimes people equate
being gay with being a girl. I'm not a girl. I'm a man and who I'm having
sex with has nothing to do with my gender. They identify you with their
identity, which I think is kind of problematic on all accounts. I don't know
it's a fascinating type of way of identifying yourself. I think the most
damaging part about all of this is the loss of connection between black men.
There is a lack of connection between us. I myself only have one close, best
friend who is a black man, and he is the same way. Most of my friends are

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The Agony of Masculinity 105

black women and it's always been that w

with sexuality, not heterosexual men in
anything like that.

Jon's Take on Black Masculini

with Institutionalized Racism
in the Black Community

Biographical note: Jon is an African

heterosexual. He was born and grew up
says he belongs to the middle class. H
Studies from Cornell University. He is
in African American studies at a univer
were both teachers but later on his mot
that at school most of his teachers and
expect him to be an intellectual. Instead,
try to become a basketball player. Thou
basketball, and he had early exposure to
in high school, he did not want to beco
earn a degree in education to become a
parents to pursue this dream, but mo
athlete in him. However, while in co
teacher. In the following case study, Jo
experience with racism and homophob
viewed Jon in the library of the university

Both my mom and my dad knew the

racial problem and racism in America. M
always had books around. I got to kn
Jackson from him. So stuff was always
open about racism and wanted to have
were to occur or if things occur in our
would make sure that they talked to us
where in my life... this goes back to
tion. . .there would be times where I wou
where other people were fighting, and
hard on pretty much anyone who were
would go further than usual disciplinary

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 106 The Agony of Masculinity

My parents would come in. The

times, my parents would be ve
doing this to you because you ar
how the world operates. I remem
fifth grade... I was walking my
suburbs of Los Angeles. There
mostly, predominantly retireme
people of color, Latinos, and As
school and there were some tee
were all like... they said that they
nigger. Nothing ended up happen
was an example with extreme, p
with my parents eased tension in
things.
In high school, the administrators went beyond usual disciplinary prac-
tices. Not only did they suspend me but they also tried to press charges
against me in the criminal court. Since my parents were involved in the
criminal justice system, they were very adamant about it. They were against
the way this country treats blacks. Knowing about it, being involved and
trying to fight against it, they knew that these things would come back to us.
So I had an outlet and was able to talk to them.
I think the way men of color act now is very much tied to us being op-
pressed. I think the way that we interact with each other, with our commu-
nity, the way we talk about women, treat women, and the way we always
have to show this dominant male-hood, is a response from our feeling
powerless in other situations. In Los Angeles there are lots of gangs, and as a
teenager there is no escape from that. A lot of the frustration turns people to
gangs. They don't have outlets; they're feeling like they don't have any
power. And these gangs are a therapy for them, even though in the long run
it's destructive.

I think when you feel oppressed it makes you respond to things in a cer-
tain way. If you have more money, you come from a stronger financial
background; I don't think the sense of performance is necessarily there. I
think one of the things about oppression is that people feel oppressed
because they desire something that they don't have. I am not trying to turn
this into saying like it is their problem. But because you don't have access to
certain things... when you don't have access to resources it creates in you a
kind of feeling of inadequacy, even though it is not. It's not something that is

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The Agony of Masculinity 107

right. You long for something th

inadequate because you can't get so
izecertain things. When you come
you come from wealth, you don't
simply don't. Your sense of self isn
sense of self is wrapped up in bein
manhood doesn't come from a lack
A good example of this is when y
cars and nice homes. Their sense of
to these things. When you don't ha
being able to get to them, so you ex
and in frustration. I think those thi
my manhood is tied into my social
a solid foundation. That's why I th
because my parents afforded me th
and do things, to go to school, and
who grew up in my same neighbor
standing. They grew up in complete
It is just the history of this coun
our race and our sense of social sta
separated. I mean it's funny becaus
of privilege than a middle class bla
more access to resources. There is a
a criminal record and a black male with no criminal record who had the same

skills, the white male will get hired first. So race is definitely tied into
masculinity. One of the biggest things about manhood is being the future of
the family, bringing home the bacon. All these things are definitely tied in
together. None of them can be separated. Masculinity is also tied to how
people feel about womanhood, relationship to women. If you are a homosex-
ual people will question your manhood, and if you are a heterosexual, then
people value your manhood more.
All my life growing up I felt negatively about homosexuality. I thought
of it as a negative thing. I thought of it as something that was deviant. I did
think of men who practice homosexuality of being less of a man. It wasn't
until around the time I got to college, especially when I did my Master's
degree, when I started questioning all these negative ignorant ideas I had
about homosexuals. I think in the black community homophobia is still very
prevalent; it's not going anywhere. One good thing about when you go to

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108 The Agony of Masculinity

school is that you learn and yo

you go home you realize everyb
is willing to take this new stuff
same homophobic remarks or h
there... I don't think it's gonna
up in people's sense of themsel
too is that... the funny thing w
always been there. The thing is
don't wanna talk about it. It has
nities, always. In everybody's f
increasingly new in any rate.
If you tend to have more rela
people who may value you even
Hugh Hefner who runs Play
celebrated? He does nothing th
known for this business that e
stone in American society. It d
tied into his wealth, his relation
things are tied in together.

Comment on Case Studie

Discussions Revolved arou
In order to better understand b
account the intersection of r
slavery, and to what degree thi
African descent. The inform
through their narrative how su
life. For example, one cannot
masculinity from their sexual
that they receive in society diffe
descent receive. Furthermore, t
be the same way that the so
express it. In other words, their
those who are straight. Likew
should not be separated from t
determining factor in the way
mines the way their masculinity

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The Agony of Masculinity 109

Furthermore, as pointed out earlie

does not matter independently of r
masculinity is perceived and treated
Therefore, failure to acknowledge t
and the legacy of colonization/slave
very superficial analysis of the iden
slavery is not officially and legally
similar racial violence such as th
black/brown males to which Africa
after slavery a contemporary racial
socioeconomic mobility of many me
fundamental reason why black masc
outside of the legacy of slavery, col
However, this does not necessari
cannot transcend what Leary (2005)
Nor does it mean they are not capab
that normalizes heterosexism and
and/or expression. But in order for
would need to realize that that their
performance. They also need to r
man" they mean both of those thin
other; finally, they should underst
this biological body does not mean
and act this way or that way.
To develop this awareness, the firs
torically situate their masculinity an
dictated by social expectations. Th
expectations historically arise? Ag
those of us who weren't slaves we
masculinity through the plantation
the plantation owner. Those were th
than the other men. They were the
indiscriminate access to women, a
engage in the act of punishing othe
they had an extreme degree of privi
Frantz Fanon (1963), Albert Me
concur that the oppressed tend to e
then this concept of masculinity th

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110 The Agony of Masculinity

is linked to the historical inheritan

white master's maleness. That is on
of it can be explained through this
you and your families were never f
free, probably you were growing
where the expectation would be tha
people, because that is defined a
masculinity is influenced by an ext
somewhat or fundamentally extern
the degree to which you have been
This is the case of many men of
of being crossovers for crossing t
who have been adopted and/or supp
stereotypically behaved differently
fit in this category. This applies to
with some disability interviewed for
As a young teenager, Ray was sele
to support disadvantaged children o
run by white men and women. Ray
white mentors and friends has shap
and impacted his identity as a bl
Consequently, this, according to Ray
tensions among him and his bro
accused him of acting white and kis
has been called a crossover because
behave, that he has refused to adopt
their maleness. Ray states:

My older brother wants me to be like him

him, white people aren't to be trusted. So
people as a black man?" He's a womani
women and try to have sex with differen
don't hang out with them because all they
their money goes into smoking marijua
their lifestyle. It's not healthy. They alwa
don't spend my money on these things. I
my house and I rarely go to their house
That's about it. They can't stand the fac
most of my friends are white.

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The Agony of Masculinity 111

The examples given above illustra

gular entity. It is complex and nee
So to avoid fiirther racial stereoty
can and should educators do? How
mentees understand the multipl
masculinity?
I propose that educators use the s
have their students discuss it in sm
students discuss it, educators mi
questions to engage them in dialo
reflection, awareness, and action ab

(1) Is it a fair accusation to call

different race, usually the white
political reasons?
(2) What is the correlation between
the misrepresentation of black/br
(3) To what extent is black gay me
than that of heterosexual black men?

(4) Is there any connection between men of African descent's performance

of maleness and institutionalized racism? If so, how does this manifest
or reflect in the behavior and action of many of them?

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Chapter 3: Tied Against the Racial Wall: Men of Color Resisting Hegemonic Discourse of
Blaming the "Other," Cultural Norms, and Religious Dogmas
Author(s): Pierre W. Orelus
Source: Counterpoints , 2010, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. 113-159
Published by: Peter Lang AG

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Counterpoints

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 Chapter 3

Tied Against the Racial Wa

Men of Color Resisting Hegemonic Di
of Blaming the "Other," Cultural Nor
and Religious Dogmas
Only certain kinds of black people deserve high positions, that is, those w
the rules of the game played by white America.
- Cornel West

Because people have been brought up with the belief that people of color, or black
guys, are evil or wrong, cannot be above you, their standards are up here; so we
cannot be above those standards, we got to be down here and that's not right. You
know, that's completely not right. But... if more of us stood together instead of
against each other, then we will be ok.
- Excerpt from the interview with Alex, an informant

This chapter examines how many men of color have been petrified and
blamed for their own miserable socioeconomic and political conditions. It
begins by demonstrating how the US social welfare and the legal system
have contributed to the absenteeism of many black and brown fathers in
some households. It goes on to point out how religious beliefs and cultural
norms have influenced the way many men of African descent perceive and
treat women in society. In addition, this chapter demonstrates how, through
hegemonic political discourse, privileged white men have "promoted" a
handful of tokenized men of color and used them at the same time to demon-
ize those who dare challenge white supremacy and blame the poor blacks for
their miserable socioeconomic conditions. This chapter ends by making an
appeal to politically conscious people of color and their allies to fight against
institutionalized racism, sexism, homophobia, and other forms of oppression.
In many families of color, women have been the dominant figure par-
tially because of the absence of a father figure. Consequently, many young
men of color grow up in households without having a male role model to
look up to. As they get older, they find themselves unable to be a role model
for and support those who need them the most, that is, the youngest and

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 114 The Agony of Masculinity

inexperienced men of color. Of

negatively influences the wa
characteristics of their male
engaging in unhealthy and dang
gangs. However, it is worth po
these activities partly becaus
demoralized and deprived them
This is the case of Alex and J
twenties involved in this study
fathers and consequently were
being told that they are the ma
ways to support their strugglin
influenced by their social milie
drugs. It is worth reporting her

When you get to a certain age I cons

started seeing the kids around the ar
ing for my mom to catch up on the
I am tired of wearing my uncle's clo
you say if these kids can have it, w
good grades, on the football team and
but of course when you are young you
of 15 if I finish school I can becom
because on TV and all the stuff you
White people are the lawyers, white
up, it was all minorities, blacks, Pu
foreigners. The only white people
doctors, the policemen, and the firem
people; that's not for me. So I jump
then recently I ended up getting ca
blamed anybody for it, but myself,
catching me" or "It was this guy's fa
sion, me.

Alex felt that he could not blame anyone for getting involved in selling
drugs and getting caught. However, he clearly explained the socioeconomic
and environmental factors that led him to take this dangerous road. While his
decision of selling drugs should never be justified, the root causes that led
him to do so should be critically analyzed and understood. Otherwise, we
would only continue blaming victims of this vicious and racist system
without questioning it. Alex pointed out that there was no man of color in his

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The Agony of Masculinity 115

neighborhood who could serve

did not feel that he could look u
teachers. Apparently, he was s
scarce in his neighborhood.
Inner city youth of color like
decisions that drastically impact
of guidance and abject poverty.
that fails to adequately suppor
conducted the interview with Al
incarcerated for a year. He was
to return to the community coll
finish his associate degree. He al
behavior, that is, not going back
was wearing a bracelet, serving
words, he was put under surv
associate degree.
Alex and other informants like
as the welfare system that have
ism of a father figure in some
social agency has done so by fai
are not directly involved in the
of the female black/brown sin
financial assistance from the go
personnel that the father of the
single parents also have to make
his personal experience with
knowledge of friends and neig
system, Fritz stated:

. . . today, according to the rules of t

that help families, the husband can't
much aid as they could get; so, we ha
ing stripped of his masculinity... talkin
house; it has to be the mother and the

Tom, another African Ameri

black men to slavery, during wh
job opportunities. He goes on to
to men of African descent in th

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116 The Agony of Masculinity

been the head of many household

this country. He contends:

Europeans were the ones who reall

couldn't really get jobs, so it really go
black women to be single head moth
black men. They felt they couldn't tak
given opportunities to... so they would
to show how slavery had a lot to do w
way true. I am really trying to argue
liberal European American academics t
that because of racism and class exploi
not that women want to be the head o
difficult for black men to take care of t

I can relate to Fritz's and Tom'

experienced situations where som
status of their children's fathers
and/or be allowed to continue li
the painful experience that I had
niece in a housing project locate
my brother was and is still direc
daughter, my sister-in-law had
housing that she needed so she c
presence in the house was con
(Foucault, 1995) by an African A
social agency. My sister-in-law fo
until they allowed her to add my
Then, it was my turn to be scr
temporarily staying with my sis
received numerous letters threat
if she continued to allow me t
would not let her add my name
allowed me to stay with her and
them with my niece. Eventually,
of their apartment, fearing the
with them.

The housing authority did not t

presence would be beneficial to
and-a-half years old nor did t

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 The Agony of Masculinity 117

absence of my brother's presen

sister-in-law repeatedly said to
give you hard time to find pub
man living with you. It's a lot e
a single parent, and that you d
you don't know where he is." O
housing assistance have told m
This is, in my view, an instit
color away from their families
forced establishment of a matr
single black and brown mother
black/brown female single p
against men of color.
While I am not against financ
has given to female single paren
why there are many men of co
happens to these black/brown
Are they so pathologically lazy
not want to be home to help t
President Barack Obama, the
said on Fathers' Day in 2008 a
"Have they abandoned their re
and the foundations of our f
cited in Edney, 2009). Or hav
conspiracy that has forced man
partners?
Like single black/brown mothers, I believe that poor black/brown cou-
ples with children equally deserve to receive financial assistance from the
government, especially when we know that institutionalized racism has
prevented many of them from having access to adequate resources, which
would enable them to take care of their family. In my view, refusing to
financially assist struggling stable black/brown couples while giving finan-
cial assistance to young females who are and/or are forced claim to be single
parents only contributes to maintain the stereotype about men of color, who
have been portrayed as irresponsible and lazy.
My contention is that, like most white men, most men of color - if not
all - want to stay with their family to support their wives and take care of
their children. The reason some of them end up abandoning their family is

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118 The Agony of Masculinity

that they are unemployed and ther

The questions then become: Why ar
unemployed because they have a cr
having such record?
As many informants in this study
criminal record for committing a
marijuana, like John, a 20-year-old
employment because of his crimina
also had a criminal record, had t
managed to use the money they sav
somebody else's name. While goin
associate degree, John worked at th
Many men of color end up having
justified and unfair arrest by whit
color have a criminal record as a res
at their school where they were on
the case in 2008 of an undergrad
University of Massachusetts, Amhe
defending himself from the physic
broke into his apartment while he
friends. Jason, who was physically
to defending himself by stabbing o
men were not even students at that
campus housing to harass students
out with white female students. Ja
faced at the time of his trial a 30-ye
Jason ends up spending this numbe
criminal record, which might pr
support himself and his family.
Whoever does not know or does n
that lead many men of color to hav
obtaining employment would most l
if they commit criminal acts, th
punishments is depriving them emp
to matter more than human bei
awareness and political consciousn
white supremacist ideology to be p

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The Agony of Masculinity 119

color, would hastily draw the follo

unemployed because they are lazy.
Until they try to understand the
has greatly contributed to the une
they would continue to merely stig
situation that they did not create.
chapter, this is linked to institution
legacy of slavery and colonization
many white people to look at blac
criminal and lazy people. People's
informed by this stigma and stereot
Like many poor working class wh
make many black/brown men feel t
to perform their male roles, that is
those who internalize this view som
cope with unemployment and pove
due to feelings of shame and pow
been forced to be away from their
human capacity, like in the case of
ated for crimes they did not commit.
These black/brown men are put i
consequently are unable to be ther
ated, many are forced to sell their
and racist system that has deprived
their sons or daughters. In my vie
ized by a racist legal system tha
victimization.
These black/brown men often have to fight to regain their masculinity
that has been taken away from them through incarceration and institutional-
ized racism. Whereas white males, especially privileged white males, never
have to fight to regain and maintain their masculinity that is robbed from
them, black/brown men always have had to do so since slavery. This ex-
plains the extent to which masculinity is interwoven with race. Given the
history of racism and other forms of oppression to which black/brown people
have been subjected, it can be argued that the masculinity of black/brown
people is a lot more complex than that of white men.

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 120 The Agony of Masculinity

Black Masculinity, Religious

The Western definition of men's ro
global spread of Western Christia
through organized religions, men,
been taught what they should expec
general. Specifically, these men, ir
racial, cultural, and social class b
Western religious and ideological pr
serve their husband, take care of th
the family. Men, on the other hand,
the family's decision makers, and b
is that men are not expected to sho
of color are not exempt from this
of color (those who live in countrie
their former colonizing, metropolit
form of masculinity that has been
colonial masters and male missionaries.
Religious beliefs and cultural norms influence how men perceive
women's role and position in society. For example, when asked how he and
his wife understand and define men's and women's role in a household,
Pascal, a Haitian informant, says, "Fortunately, I have a wife who under-
stands that, because she is very religious, she is a Christian, she goes by the
Bible, a woman should be obedient to her husband and that she is not gonna
take any decision on her own; she is waiting for me to approve it, and as a
man I feel like this is on me."
Sharing Pascal's view, Muhamed, a 38-year-old man from Morocco,
positions men as strong and women as soft. He states, "Men are supposed to
be strong and women are supposed to be soft. That's the only difference
between a man and woman; one is strong and the other is soft. God created
them that way. There is a reason for that. Don't ask me; ask him." By
making these statements, both Muhamed and Pascal show that they are
reproducers of certain religious beliefs that have shaped the ideological code
of a great institution such as family. They both show that their decision is
informed by these religious beliefs.
Similarly, Hammed, a 26-year-old from the same country as Muhamed,
feels that he has to abide by his religious beliefs and cultural norms that
dictate how men should behave and treat women. In his culture, "a man has

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 The Agony of Masculinity 121

to provide for the family while women

take care of the house cleaning, cooking
went on to say, "Even when I want to ta
how I would do that. This is the wom
care of the family financially." Michael
influence on male behavior:

Our culture's definition of masculinity is thus several stories at once. It is about the
individual man's quest to accumulate those cultural symbols that denote manhood,
signs that he has in fact achieved. It is about those standards being used against
women to prevent their inclusion in public life and their consignment to a devalued
private sphere. It is about the differential access that different types of men have to
those cultural resources that confer manhood and about each of these groups then
develop their own modifications to preserve and claim their manhood (Kimmel as
cited in Rothenberg, 2007, p. 85)

However, there are men who question and reject the gender code that
shapes their religious and cultural communities; they use and perform their
masculinity in a human manner. As a case in point, Tom, the African
American informant in his late thirties who used to be Muslim, questioned
the physical abuse of many Muslim women by Muslim men. He was disap-
pointed to witness the sexist way Muslim men treated Muslim women. Tom
said that when he first joined the Nation of Islam, he was happy to hear
women being called queens as opposed to being called "bitches and hoes,"
derogatory terms his male friends used for women; he was accustomed to
these terms and thus thought it was normal to refer to women that way.
However, as he explained, while in high school he joined the Nation of Islam
of Louis Farrakhan and started exploring the literature of gender issues. This
changed his view about women. Tom stated, "In my high school days I
started reading the Nation of Islam and certain Black Nationalist texts that
changed my idea about women being bitches and hoes. That's really what the
young men in my neighborhood would always say "bitches and hoes." So I
started changing that and started thinking more of women as queens.
However, Tom would later be disappointed about the way some Muslim
men at the Nation of Islam think of and treat women. He goes on to say
"these people who sort of change my idea about women behave as the head
the community, the head of the household, the dominant one. So I thought it
was shift from a violent overt patriarchy to a more sort of normal patriarchy
where man is the one who runs things and runs relationships all the time."

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 122 The Agony of Masculinity

Tom left the Nation of Islam, a

were treated by this religious
upon, and, in some cases, recei
ments. An example of social pu
Depending on how firm and voca
cultural, and social norms lead
sometimes accused of being bisex
It is beyond the imagination of
classmates, co-workers of color
women, gays, lesbians, transgend
reclaim and maintain their sto
women of color who are insecure
views about the LBGTQ commu
around pro-feminist men who d
statements about this community
Lastly, it is unconceivable for m
are not afraid of taking a stance
the patriarchal system, which,
structural aspects." Sabo argues,
First it is a hierarchical system in w
based, slick and subtle ways. Feminist
lyzing this dimension of the edifice o
dominance, in which a minority of m
male dominance hierarchy exploits t
heights. Patriarchy's mythos of heroi
sions of ecstasy and masculine excelle
will defend its inequities and ridicule
p. 453).

Heterosexism, which is the core of the patriarchal system, is the norm for
many men and women. Therefore, any man who challenges it must be
suspected as gay or a gay lover. Through their narrative, many men of color
interviewed for this project show that they understand that the male model
that is inculcated in their mind has been defined and legislated mainly by
privileged white males. Joe, an anthropology professor, is one of the infor-
mants who recognizes and challenges the impact of the media on the male
behavior of many young men of color. He also unveils the dominance of
white male supremacy. Joe states, "What I do wish is that black people
would realize that, as long as they do not have control over their own media,

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 The Agony of Masculinity 123

they will always be getting back

white media. We need to understand that we live in a white world and that
world is controlled by whites."
Along the same lines, Michael S. Kimmel (1999) observes, "Within the
dominant culture, the masculinity that defines white, middle class, early
middle-aged, heterosexual men is the masculinity that sets the standards for
other men, against which other men are measured and, more often than not,
found wanting" (Kimmel cited in Rothenberg, 2007, p. 84). Similarly,
Goffman (1963) maintains that in America the ideal man is described as:

A young, married, white, urban, northern heterosexual, Protestant father of college

of education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight and height, and a recent
record in sports. Every American male tends to look out upon the world from this
perspective. Any male who fails to qualify in any one of these ways is likely to view
himself... as unworthy, incomplete, and inferior, (p. 128)

Race, Maleness, and Hegemonic Political Discourse

From slavery until now, men of African descent have been ideologically
conditioned to emulate the form of masculinity that Western white suprema-
cist and capitalist men have legislated, enacted, and imposed on them and on
other men. Black/brown men who have refused to mimic and reproduce this
form of masculinity are often seen and treated as the "other." Many of them
have been harshly criticized for being Afro-centric, that is, for embracing and
talking about their African cultural roots with pride. Furthermore,
black/brown men who have chosen not to speak, behave, and act like a white
Western man are often portrayed as less intelligent. However, those who
have appropriated and mastered the white male dominant discourse have
been called articulate, clean, and smart black men by individual whites,
particularly by hegemonic white males.
U.S. Senator Joe Biden, currently President Barack Obama's vice presi-
dent, placed this "clean, smart, and articulate black man" label on Barack
Obama during the presidential campaign. This senator stated that Obama is
"the first mainstream African American who is articulate and bright and
clean and a nice-looking guy." Senator Joe Biden was criticized for his
comment that was taken as offensive and represented an assault to the
intelligence of many prominent African American and black intellectuals.
However, ironically about a year later, he was chosen as Obama's run-
ning mate. This choice once more confirms that whiteness is a privilege that
enables many dominant white males to get away with hurtful comments that

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124 The Agony of Masculinity

they make about other ethnic gr

men control the political power
male privilege to either demoniz
challenge white supremacy and th
"good citizens" who embrace thei
threat to their interests. This app
his presidential campaign and
Democratic Party in 2008, man
sented as a different kind of blac
kind. Trying to show similarity
Biden stated in his acceptance
"Barack Obama and I took very d
share a common destiny."
Although Obama's blackness i
was represented merely as an A
was not constantly referred to a
presidential campaign before
Clinton, who was called a stro
black, an African American can
placed at the forefront of the p
were not. Furthermore, unlike h
white candidates but merely can
the African American candidate.
tation of Obama as a candidate su
of the Democratic Party. Thro
white men and women made t
American, a good citizen who l
together. James, a 38-year-old in
media controlled by rich whit
running for president:

He's a hybrid individual; he comes fro

newsworthy black man in the world. H
right now, but he is the one at the cen
rary times, and if he becomes presid
is hybrid, meaning he comes from
Americans and many members of th
someone who can negotiate and bridg
allows him to potentially become a stab
tive after 40 years of postcolonial er

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 The Agony of Masculinity 125

ward the future. He has this unique in

help to stabilize the relationship betw
and others. For that same reason, he
the relationship between the dominant
other people of African descent.

I could not agree more with J

mainstream media has represen
American dream. Many conser
rhetoric claim they and Obama sh
black or African American lea
dream that "we" all share becau
Obama, as Vice President Joe B
that Joe Biden's comment about
back as the slavery period. Durin
into the white discourse and emulated the male white masters were seen as
less threatening; they were used as tokens. These tokenized slaves received
slightly better treatment than those who chose to resist white supremacy and
refused to emulate the white male discourse and way of life. In the post-
slavery era, white supremacists and capitalists have used black tokens to
maintain the status quo. They have uplifted the few black/brown men whom
they feel speak and behave like them while denigrating and isolating those
who refuse to embrace the mainstream discourse and go along with the rules
of the white male racist games. As West (1993) maintained, "Only certain
kinds of black people deserve high positions, that is, those who accept the
rules of the game played by white America" (p. 42).

Black Male Tokenism and Racial Division:

Privileged Whites' Tactic to Maintain the Status Quo
No one can deny that racism exists whether one claims that it is a hu
invention, it's socially constructed, or it's biologically determined.
question, then, becomes: How has the white conservative dominant
used it to exploit and oppress people of color? To the same degree as sex
and imperialism, racism is an abstract concept. However, its victim
easily feel its negative effects. One can spend centuries debating about t
origin of racism, but it is unquestionable that it is an oppressive tool that
been institutionalized and used to reduce black/brown people and ot
subordinate groups to the economic, social, and political margins. Wheth
subtle or overt, this tool is still functional and constitutes an obstac

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 126 The Agony of Masculinity

windows of opportunities to people o

tool the white conservative dominant class has used few black tokens at
various institutions to avoid racial turmoil and/or massive black revolt like
the slaves' revolt in Santo Domingo that led to the independence of Haiti in
1804.

Black tokenism is a white male supremacist strategy that has been used
to put a veil on the racist structure of the US society. In my view, it is a
subtle form of racism that might be as oppressive and dangerous as other
forms of racism that people of color have experienced. For example, if one is
dealing with a "naked form of racism," as has been the case in the US,
particularly during the Jim Crow era, and in South Africa for decades, one
will know what strategies to use in order to protect oneself from being
lynched in the street by the KKK. However, when people of color are faced
with a form of racism that is not quite as visible as it was before, they simply
become more vulnerable than ever. For instance, one might naively believe
that the few black/brown people who are appointed to a high governmental
position or hired as managers or assistant managers at huge corpora-
tions/institutions would protect people of color from racial injustice. How-
ever, what one fails to understand is that these black/brown employees or
appointees are often used by the system to falsify or cover up the tragic
economic and social realities of people of color. In fact, once they are in
these conditioned positions these modern house Negroes often try not to
identify with people of color who live in housing projects and slums. They
are assigned a very specific mission, which consists of maintaining the white
status quo at the expense of their black/brown brothers and sisters' misery
and inhuman conditions. These modern house Negroes usually do not serve
the interest of other people of color but their own and that of the white
dominant class. Whether they embrace the Republican or the Democratic
doctrines, the fact remains that these "black/brown brothers and sisters" are
brainwashed by the white supremacy racist ideology to participate in the
perpetuation of a racist system that is hostile and oppressive to people of
color. These black puppets, as Sartre (1965) eloquently put it, "will change
nothing and will serve no one, but will succeed only in finding moral
comfort in malaise" (p. xxi). Malcolm X intelligently captured this dirty
game that the white dominant class has been playing since slavery. Malcolm
(1990) noted:
The slave master took Tom and dressed him well, fed him well and even gave him a
little education; gave him a long coat and a top hat and made all the other slaves

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 The Agony of Masculinity 127

look up to him. Then he used Tom to contr

in those days is used today by the same w
Negro, and makes him a celebrity. And th
and a Negro leader, (p. 45)

Modem house Negroes can be found

nomic and social pyramid. They can
agencies, hospitals, and in the hotel
is usually hired or appointed by the
racial diversity. However, indoctrinat
they sometimes turn out to be as ho
some white racist individuals. For exa
place that is run by a person of color
at least protected from institutional
view, is simply an illusion, for a rac
no matter who is running it unless
change it.
I am reminded of a discussion about institutionalized racism that I had
with several of my white colleagues and friends whose partners were black.
Through this discussion I soon realized that most of them struggled to admit
the fact that their white skin color puts them in a far better position than their
black partners. As their defensive mechanism, they referred to President
Barack Obama and a handful people of color, such as the two African
American former Secretary of States, Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice
who held key governmental positions. To substantiate their argument, they
also referred to the ethic Protestant view conceived by the French sociologist
Émile Durkheim. According to this sociological and philosophical view,
anyone can be successful if they work very hard. What my white colleagues
failed to understand was that, as Cornel West (1993) put it, "It is the innu-
merable cases in which black people do act on the Protestant ethic and still
remain at the bottom of the social ladder. Instead, they highlight the few
instances in which blacks ascend to the top, as if such success is available to
all blacks, regardless of circumstances" (p. 34).
When the discussion got heated, some of my white colleagues and
classmates conceded, confessing that they feel ashamed of all the ugly things
that some white people have done to people of color. For instance, the one
who claimed to be a white ally got angry and exploded, shouting, "I hate my
people; it is unconceivable that white people have done all these terrible
things to people of color; I wonder if they have a human heart." Obviously,

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128 The Agony of Masculinity

my colleagues missed the point that

make them realize that having a fe
institutions does not necessarily tran
They failed to grasp the point that I w
of the discussion from institutionaliz
Returning to black male tokenism,
that my co-workers of color and I h
working at one of the most prestigi
male manager who started working a
was, unlike his female black co-work
position. Despite all racist exploitatio
faced at that place, he did not stop
workers and crawling until he be
department within the hotel, valet park
Although his behavior and perso
housekeeper, we were all happy to ha
hotel. Nevertheless, it did not take us
being put in a managerial position
company. Within three months, he w
advertising videos of the hotel. Unlik
ments, they made him work long ho
any of these white managers. Yet, th
about his new position and making
than anybody else to protect his job.
I witnessed the privilege that som
joyed. They were able to get flexible
they wanted; they showed up late
punished. However, the black and Lat
long hours and expected to work ext
when it would not jeopardize the b
CEOs' corporate interests. In other w
time off only when they were not ne
hotel's profits. This horrible experien
house Negroes have by and large con
the sharp economic gap that exists be
capitalist class.
All in all, house Negroes can be as d
ple. They may represent a threat and

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The Agony of Masculinity 129

liberation, because they can be ea

chal, capitalist, and racist system
false promise and/or the order th
their "modern white masters" is
about where you come from; mor
supremacy, and we would give th
economic and political pyramid.
I must make clear that earlier
example to substantiate my argum
behaves as a modern house Negro
his ability to code switch betwe
black "subordinate" discourse lo
vative white groups. This, the
himself among conservative and
not happen in a void. Being raised
nity to attend an elitist university
degree, enabled him to acquire th
on to point out:

For a long time, it was only musicians,

have a politician. This particular polit
mother side. He went to elite American
a training ground for the ruling elites
lishment. I'd say that this colonial est
dominant establishment.

Obama's long apprenticeship in the white dominant male discourse

might explain why his stance and discourse on race issues have been differ-
ent from those of many African American leaders like Reverend AI Sharpton
and prominent black intellectuals like Eduardo Bonilla-Silva and Cornel
West, among others. In fact, he avoided talking about race during his
campaign, as he knew doing so would jeopardize his victory. Bonilla-Silva
eloquently pointed this out in the interview that I conducted with him for this
book:

He (Obama) avoided using the term racism in his campaign. Actually the only time
that he used it was to chastise Reverend Wright who claimed that racism was en-
demic. However, according to Obama, it (racism) has not been endemic in America,
which suggests that Reverend Wright is crazy. He has obviously made a color-blind
appeal, a nationalistic appeal by saying so. Obama is famous for saying, "I don't see
a black America, I don't see a white America, I only see the United States of Amer-

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 130 The Agony of Masculinity

ica." He needs to go to an eye docto

white America, the black America an

Drawing on Bonilla-Silva's ar
been forced to deliver a speec
friend Reverend Jeremiah Wrig
U.S. imperialism and legal sy
remain silent about the race issue. Reverend Jeremiah stated that "...Barack
knows what it means to be a black man living in a country and a culture that
is controlled by rich, white people. Hilary ain't never been called a n

..." He went on to say:

America is still the No. 1 killer in the world. We are deep
ing of drugs, the exporting of guns, and the training of
lieve in white supremacy and black inferiority and believe
God. We supported Zionism shamelessly while ignoring
ing anybody who spoke out against it as being anti-Sem
virus. We are only able to maintain our level of living b
World people live in grinding poverty.

Being attacked by the mainstream media and m

groups for being associated with Reverend Wr
address the nation about the race issue through
stated:

But we do need to remind ourselves that so many of the

African American community today can be directly trace
from an earlier generation that suffered under the bruta
Crow. Segregated schools were, and are, inferior scho
them, 50 years after Brown v. Board of Education , and t
provided, then and now, helps explain the pervasive ach
day's black and white students. Legalized discriminatio
vented, often through violence, from owning property, o
African American business owners, or black homeow
mortgages, or blacks were excluded from unions, or the p
ments - meant that black families could not amass any
queath to future generations. That history helps explain t
between black and white, and the concentrated pockets of
many of today's urban and rural communities. A lack
among black men, and the shame and frustration that cam
provide for one's family, contributed to the erosion of
that welfare policies for many years may have worsened.
vices in so many urban black neighborhoods - parks for k

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The Agony of Masculinity 131

ing the beat, regular garbage pick-u

create a cycle of violence, blight, and n

What Obama stated above sp

Reverend Wright, many black le
about and suffered from in this
corporate media and many powe
he might be just one of those "an
strategic way to appease the racia
caused. He feared that these comm
continue with the unity and hop
out his presidential campaign.
whereby Obama was able to
conservative white folks that he
friend and spiritual mentor. O
American white audience that he
said in the same speech that:

... Reverend Wright's comments wer

time when we need unity; racially cha
to solve a set of monumental problems
omy, a chronic health care crisis, and
lems that are neither black or white
confront us all.

Even though Obama' s speech

educational, and political inequ
decades in this country, his spee
white conservative and supremac
Wright's comments. These group
males often feel uneasy about an
patriarchal system that has pr
Obama and Wright are two goo
has portrayed the former as a c
angry black man who hates w
controversy, Joe, an informant, sa

1 think what's going on between Oba

has been using that... the way in which
interprets this situation is wrong, pro
that black men are in right now. I th
equally good black people, but the wo

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 132 The Agony of Masculinity

as bad, and too many people immediate

lematic, in my view.

The controversy that occurred

significant in that it can help us
over others in the mainstream m
ideological. If a discourse reflects
normalized and becomes part of
those who have striven to build
patriarchal system from whic
Wright's comments would be a
people's main goal is to keep the
corporate interests will not be c
people who have been victimize
economic, educational, and politi
not have interpreted Reverend
fact, for marginalized, occup
comments might only confirm w
country in terms of the way i
abroad.

Rev. Wright was not the first who publicly made controversial com-
ments. Nor was Obama the first political figure associated with a mentor-
pastor who is not afraid of expressing his political views publicly. The
important question that one should ask oneself then is: Who has been
allowed by this white patriarchal system to make controversial statements
without being harshly criticized and jeopardizing the political career of
his/her friends and male leaders? There are many in the US and elsewhere in
the world. But let us take the prime example of the well-known white
American, Reverend Pat Robertson.
Rev. Robertson is notorious for making racist, sexist, homophobic, and
xenophobic comments about marginalized groups in society; yet, none of the
political leaders whom he endorsed was asked to distance themselves from
him. Furthermore, none of the white male leaders Reverend Pat Robertson
supported become the main target of the mainstream media and suffered
political loss for associating themselves with him. As an example, during the
2008 presidential campaign, Pat Robertson endorsed the Republican candi-
date Rudy Giuliani. The media did not go after Giuliani like they pressed
Obama to distance himself from Reverend Wright. As Jeff Stanglin (2008)
observed: "Pat Robertson, the same pastor who said what Nazi Germany did

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 The Agony of Masculinity 133

to the Jews is the same thing t

America, regularly endorses Repu
point out:

John Hagee, the ardent pro-Israel leader of the 1 9,000-member Cornerstone Church
in San Antonio, endorsed John McCain in late February. Outside his own church,
Hagee is best known for calling the Catholic Church "The Great Whore" and for
blaming New Orleans residents and their sins for Hurricane Katrina. Despite these
and other divisive comments, however, McCain has accepted Hagee's endorsement.
Whether McCain actually stands behind the comments or whether he is simply pan-
dering to the religious right is up for speculation. For America's sake, it needs to be
the latter, (p. 2)

Along the same lines, Bill Berkowitz (2006) stated:

While the Reverend Pat Robertson was flayed recently over his suggestion that Is-
raeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon's stroke was an act of retribution by God for the
transfer of land in the Gaza Strip to the Palestinians, the Reverend's charitable or-
ganization, Operation Blessing, was raking in wads of faith-based money from the
Bush Administration, (p. 1)

What all this suggests is that any powerful white man who is the pillar of
the white supremacist and patriarchal system can make comments that are
hurtful to oppressed groups and still go unpunished. The way the media have
treated Reverend Wright, as opposed to the way Reverend Pat Robertson has
been treated, confirms that whiteness and social class matter. It is true that
both Reverends Jeremiah Wright and Pat Robertson are two privileged
males. However, due to their different racial identity and background, Pat
Robinson is ranked at a more hegemonic male position in the US society
than is Reverend Jeremiah Wright.
This explicates why Reverend Pat Robertson has been able to abuse his
hegemonic male position without being harshly criticized by the mass
corporate media. Instead of criticizing and punishing him for all the sexist,
racist, homophobic, and xenophobic statements he has been making, CEOs
of corporate media have allowed him to be on the air with his Sunday show.
Through this show, he continues to offend people who have been placed at
the margins due to their poor social class, racial, sexual orientation, linguis-
tic, and cultural backgrounds.
Obviously, Pat Robertson is a well-known white male figure who has
been at the fore of heated debates about controversial issues like homosexu-
ality, racism, and the like. There are other privileged or non-privileged white
men and women who have made racist and homophobic statements in other

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134 The Agony of Masculinity

contexts, but the media have shie

many black men and women of c
view. However, because of thei
male position to express their
reach a larger audience other t
Social class and race matter an
allowed to speak on behalf of wh
Pat Robertson symbolize these ty
and position in society, althou
hegemonic position than the for
irrespective of their social class
to be heard than women are. How
between privileged men, especi
allowed more space by the patriar
ity, and marginalized men and w
remain silent.

Conclusion

I wish to conclude this chapter arguing that despite people of color's gre
political, educational, scientific, and economic achievements, they contin
being misrepresented and demonized through mainstream political discou
and US social welfare and legal systems. To resist this, people of Afri
descent need to make it clear to misinformed, arrogant, and mis-educate
individual whites that being a man of color does not equate to:

1 . Being lazy welfare recipients

2. Being irresponsible and absent fathers
3. Being drug dealers, gang members, and rapists
4. Being only basketball and football players
5. Being only rap or hip-hop singers who put on humongous gold/diamon
chains and rings; who wear the latest brand clothes and shoes; and wh
buy and drive expensive cars to feed the corporate capitalist machine
6. Being only runners at the Olympics
7. Being aggressive and violent
8. Being uneducated

Like any other ethnic/racial group, some people of color might fit the
stereotypical images that the mass corporate media have projected ab
them. However, these images do not reflect the reality of all people of col

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The Agony of Masculinity 135

Despite chronic racism that many peop

lives, they have achieved great things. W
university professors such as Edwidg
Shiva, Jamaica Kincaid, Arundhati R
Walker, Patricia Collins, Jean Price
Amilcar Cabral, Anténor Firmin, Jacqu
Leslie Manigat and Mirland Manigat,
Cornel West, Michael Dyson, Ngugi w
were and are great leaders like Touss
Luther King, Amilcar Cabral, Thoma
Mandela, and Steve Bico. Of course, t
nary and extraordinary people of col
been doing incredible social justice work

Case Studies

Background Information about Case Studies

As in the previous chapter, I present below case studies that address iss
similar to those analyzed in this chapter. In doing so, the main goal
expand on these issues. Hopefully, this will enable the reader to h
broader understanding of them. While these three case studies are simi
content, they are unique in terms of the authors bringing their own per
tive into the issues at hand here. They add to each other's understandin
view about institutionalized racism, white supremacy, men of Afr
descent's performance of maleness, and experience with "symbolic viole
(Bourdieu, 1990) and other forms of violence. At the end, I commen
these case studies and make suggestions for practical steps to be tak
classrooms where teachers should engage students in discussion rev
around issues that the informants brought to the fore in their narratives.

Dr. Joe's Stance on Black Masculinity,

White Supremacy, and the Media
I always consider myself to be, as it used to be called a race man, a man
loves his people and who fights on their behalf. It doesn't necessarily m
violent fight, but it means being a guardian of the people, working for
people, being a teacher of the people, being a builder with the people, th
very much part of my background. My parents were active in the civil

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 136 The Agony of Masculinity

movement, and I was raised in th

activism and in community develop
believe in doing it with as little as p
it with no white money. That's my o
kind of autonomous, black self-de
separatists but I think we need to be
As a child, I saw many things that
self and evolved so that I could beco
Du Bois, Walter Rodney, or C. L. R
Those were my heroes.
... A lot of black people were very
to live up to white standards. Unfor
them to be close to gender-variant
have a place in the black commun
accepted in the community. But in
stranger, a visitor really; my home
setts. But it's not the same as being
life is a lot more precarious, less in
here.

When I speak of the community of color and my manhood, I start with

my family and then I talk about the neighborhood and the larger community.
In my natal community, where I grew up and went to school, I played that
same kind of leadership role for a long time. In this community, I had a lot of
network, so there was always a way for me to be an observer of the black
community. As a college student, I used to write for a local black newspaper;
I engaged in investigating, reporting, and exposing things like red lines and
those kinds of issues in our community. I also participated in leading a youth
group with one of my partners. There were a lot of kids that I used to do
theater activities with. We also did a lot of community services to elders and
things like that; so I've always participated in activist organizations. I've
carried that on here in western Massachusetts, but mainly I'm isolated
because not many black people were politically active around questions of
race when I first came to this area. This is an area, New England, where to be
black is kind of unwanted; I wanna say there's a certain kind of black person
who succeeds better here, that is somebody who doesn't concern themselves
with matters of race. So if you come in like me, saying, "Hey! This place is
racist, let's change it, let's think about what we can undo white supremacy
and create a just world, then you're not really gonna be liked too much."

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 The Agony of Masculinity 137

The people who go along, wh

who are like that tend to do better here. I love them all. I mean I love
humanity in whatever form they come in. If it's somebody who is opposed to
what I'm saying, I see them as an aspect of myself that I am contending with
If it's somebody who is in agreement with what I'm saying, I feel validated. I
say to myself maybe we can work together or maybe I just get the validation
and go on working by myself if they don't have the time or the availability t
participate in a project. In a lot of senses, there is a growing activist commu-
nity in this area that's actively working on racism, but as you know people
disagree about concepts of racism; they even disagree on what eradicatin
white privilege means; so because of the confusion you don't necessarily end
up all working together on the same project.
Let's take as an example hip-hop and rap artists. I'm an older too old
really to be a member of the hip-hop generation, but I have a great deal of
respect for the hip-hop generation. I am well aware of the fact there is
strong distinction between hip-hoppers and rap and I don't even think that al
rap is bad. What I'm most concerned about is the way in which black people
generally have been misinformed about why women are so terribly misrepre-
sented in the media and they don't seem to realize that white corporate
authority is what defines what's gonna be marketed to our people. I wish I
could have been a fly on the wall when hip-hoppers and rappers first got it in
bringing their political black songs into studios. I'm pretty sure that a lot o
executives probably pissed on themselves saying, 'Oh my God! We canno
let this revolutionary lyrics get out on the street because after all black peopl
might wake up and start assuming certain authority again. What we want is
them to be complacent and hate themselves, so let's turn black women into
whores in music videos.'

The managers and the executives, the people who are pulling in the cor-
porate lead strings decide who gets to perform and who doesn't. If you'r
willing to clown or if you're willing to act like a bitch or a whore or a gang
banger, then you're gonna get on the stage, and you're gonna make the
money. My position is to never pass judgment on people for what they do.
When we look back to the time of blackface, I wish that no black person
would ever agree to put on blackface. I wish that no black person would have
done, but who am I to pass judgment on those people when they felt that's
what they had to do to survive? The will is so great in humans that they often
incline to do almost anything to be able to achieve that. So I'm not interested
in judging people; what I do wish is that black people would realize that as

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138 The Agony of Masculinity

long as they do not have control ove

getting back unsatisfactory image fro
reason why I wrote a paper one ti
White Public Space."
What would it take for us to recrea
What would it take to no longer have
working for black local radio station
to start realizing the opportunity to
and start broadcasting their own inf
this, there will be a police crackdown
ing is because people are scared. We
create grassroots movements, grassr
how to organize without a penny; the
think if we can get back to these ki
we have much better chance of surv
future and especially those that are r
I think black men are the original
an anthropologist I'm buying into
current wave of humanity, began in
first developer of the arts and the s
knowledge production, a way of bein
and communicating that to others so
life for everyone. At the same time,
West in relationship to Africa, peo
color as well, there has been this und
What we say is true, or good, or bea
in Western culture, so we don't get t
look at it in a cage that somebody el
own process; the subjugating black
dominant white society.
When white people were treating u
the white authority. That's being a m
like George Jackson, Fred Hampton,
These people were being men. They w
are, here's how I define myself, an
world. I'm gonna move in the wor
people.' To me that's what being a
different from man up. When you'r

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The Agony of Masculinity 139

really asking him or her to mov

constructed for themselves. You'r
those are your only two options. I t
tion of black manhood; that's very
to those two options, in my opinio
autonomous black man. 1 said auton
mean, black men looking after and
together, building, cleaning, suppo
really do with their white women.
on women and their children and f
way that nurtures our communi
valuable way without any violence.
It's mostly that group of black y
so man up means ask something t
maybe just a different form of
different. I think it's saying that y
can prove to me that you are is to s
but that doesn't mean it's sustainab
gangs for economic reasons that ar
fathers in the home, but I don't se
black community. We need to re
reproductive age have been in p
finally start to be recognized now a
men going to prison. We feel a
command for the men who are not
manhood in that the men who are i
leads them to do things that could g
Man up is misinterpreted. I think
men, buy into a stereotype that a
that a lot of black males are gainin
from watching TV. I don't think th
think they're gaining it from wat
stantly killing people and get away
rarely go to prison. So I think that
thing when young black men are g
wish that there were more brother
time with young black men in n
because there's not enough grown m

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140 The Agony of Masculinity

We know that the media are sh

trated in the case of these 8-yea
teachers, and they did. They m
person had a different role ass
Those are children who watch pa
cal video games that are popula
there is no value really in life, th
you're supposed to hurt someone
new cultural imperative that get
What they can't do by themselv
being in their environment and
means being able to absorb some
importantly, it means being able
they're being oppressed. I don't t
'Yes, you're being racially oppr
"Don't worry about that; just do
... If a police stops somebody, h
part of his records for the night, h
enough of those reports, he's gon
arrests anybody. So after maki
promotable; so we gotta understa
of racial abuse toward black peop
us down, making us feel incap
people, as a way of producing
opinion, don't do strong enough a
I think that it is important to
need to become global citizens w
relocating from one space to ano
any kind of environment or econ
we need to be in the fiiture; actu
we are to be global citizens who c
believe that more we will be per
nity. That's wrong.
Male competition becomes ra
tween black men and white m
That's one reason why some peop
war against the non-white rest o
fixation of society on black male

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The Agony of Masculinity 141

sexually virile than other men. I

young black men are always grab
in which our sense of security is
balls, our reproductive capabili
somehow manhood becomes too a
nice part of our expression but i
hand, I think it's important to re
cal consequences because some of
in the US are experiencing a l
reproducing in a great rate ev
where resources are becoming
there could be an idea that there
not too much food to feed them
population control advocates actu
call useless eaters. When they sp
talking about people of color.
Yes, I believe that men are also
we feel we have to cheat on your
your brother's woman, as a way
of the ways sexism has harmed
explored a lot more in black co
shows in the black community
black women who seem to be dim
That really makes me sad, and th
black woman. I don't think that
think that probably we're gonn
more discussion in black commu
black men so much, that makes t
the woman who is the source of t
of their children's life. In my op
We can't do that in the abstrac
communities; we're gonna have t
have to start making sure we ha
loving, and get communal. As s
white society calls it socialism.

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142 The Agony of Masculinity

Tom's Experience with Institu

and Interrogation of Sexist P
in Fraternity and Religious Se
Biographical Note: Tom was 37 years
book in 2008. He is originally from
brought up in a working class neighb
was five. He said that he didn't reall
Tom grew up in an extended family.
was African American, so he is m
African American neighborhood. W
pretty much the norm. His mother
welfare when Tom was very young.
back to school and earned a bachelor'
and earns a decent salary. Tom grew
was not "hard" poverty because he h
what supportive. Having a mother on
ing. He said that he was very much a
city, he got into a lot of fights and
sort of the prototypical lifestyle o
finishing a PhD in African American
book project. He is currently an assis
nia. In the following narrative, Tom
tionalized racism and growing with a
also talks about his experience being
the fraternity Kappa Alpha Psi. Fina
of his cousins had on him as a boy. T
him as there was no one else around
influence and guidance shaped his ide

I want to start by saying a little bit

was brought to the States, so she had
racial system played out, but she did
racism. So there were often times I c
school there were teachers that didn'
her, and she would never really un
more toward other youths who were
really doing much. I mean I didn't ev

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The Agony of Masculinity 143

go to adult education. So the whole

bunch of young men, black men, t
there as well, getting in trouble, a
the time, so hip-hop really colored
like this idea of. . .it was funny be
gangs were everywhere. But hip-ho
stay away from gang fights in my
we articulated our masculinity like
my cousin would also tell me what
my immediate role model; he was a
one that said, "This is what you nee
He would tell me things like... we
this white girl was at school, one o
cousins 'nigger.' So my cousin tol
middle of the school I had to go u
suspended for that. Because my fem
be the one to protect her. And si
school) he didn't want to come up
would come up not to threaten me
protect my female cousin, that I nee
I felt really bad about that, but I
was the first time I've ever gotten
That was the first time I really h
scared because I knew I did someth
that or go home and my cousin is g
main reasons I did it.

My cousin is someone that would be really physical and kind of push me

around, and he did a lot of that, especially if I did something wrong. He was
kind of the disciplinarian guy. I didn't have a father figure, and my mother
didn't do a lot of discipline at my house. It was weird; it was interesting to
see how my cousin came to be male role model but he would do it in a way
that was very much authoritative and sort of physical. He would tell me that I
needed to man up. He shook me and really wanted me to be more aggres-
sive. . .things of that sort. That was how I got this idea that my role was to
sort of be a bully. I became a bully and I can remember situations where I
would tell people that if either they were going to do something that I wanted
them to do or I'd beat them up. And I feel like a lot of that came from the
way my cousin was kind of trying to convince me to be tough in order to

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 144 The Agony of Masculinity

survive, in order to sort of be r

really any uncle around there to
There was no one who really
things. Let's talk about that." M
that by the time I was probably
didn't understand. You know, be
African or anything, so she d
understood it more so I would listen to him more. So he'd be the one that
defined how I go about to take care of things. I really learned a lot of stuff
from him, what I thought a man would be. This has changed a lot since then,
but there are times when I really just got into a lot of situations, and I don't
want to say that it was all bad. But I think there were certain times when it
did help to feel a sense of just not being someone who allowed other people
to sort of push me over. At the same time I became a lot more aggressive,
more assertive... I know that in my middle school years I was very much a
bully, always forcing people to do stuff and give me money, or else I'll beat
them up. It was a situation that I didn't really like as I was growing up but I
don't wanna say that I was forced into it. It was an action I had taken. So I
was playing football to exert out a lot of my energy. But the aggressive idea
was that you had to be the top of the dog to kind of navigate through middle
school and high school. Since then I have been able to overcome some of
that. I wrote a paper in my first year here where I talked about the issue of
being a male feminist, what being a black male feminist means. So one of the
things I... I was reading this guy, Michael... who talks about how in order to
be a truly male feminist; you sort of have to think autobiographically and
kind of explain your own history. And so I look back at how early on one of
the ways I sort of defined manhood was very much about physical violence,
about asserting a sense of domination even when it came to situations around
females, never in the sense of forced sexual consent, but very much a
dominant idea, that women sort of need to obey men. That was the way my
cousin kind of did things, so I kind of did that as well. It wasn't until I got
into rap music and stuff later on in my high school days... I started reading
the Nation of Islam and certain Black Nationalist texts that changed my idea
that women were not bitches and hoes. That's really what the young men in
my neighborhood would always say, 'bitches and hoes,' and so I started
changing that and started thinking more of women like queens, the women
need our protection as men.

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The Agony of Masculinity 145

I started reading Michael... and Lu

idea. But it seems very much the
community, the head of the househo
was a good shift from a violent, ov
patriarchy where man is the one w
the time. I always talk about this
and do things that are "feminine."
time really changed my perspect
realized that there was even a sho
school, probably my fourth year
women's studies class. . .It was a weir
the class, so it was kind of an awkw
of question the sense that I was a v
women should be diminished and
household. That class challenged m
more involved in political organizat
and I know that I am being sort of a
into college, another thing that sort
tion and masculine sense of self wa
Psi. It was very much about the pret
women. . .we had these women we ca
who served us. As you pledged and
this whole process... and these wom
the work. They had to bring food
women as sort of independent.
So when I took this class I really s
nize that my idea of masculinity w
allowed me to do it in a dominant cu
my community. I know it was not
man running the household, runs th
ship, women are sort of the queens
Nation of Islam women have to st
they step behind the men is so that th
sort of thing I agreed with. So this
the professor was hard at first beca
defend maleness. But as the class w
weren't about me; they were about
A lot of critiques were about that, a

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146 The Agony of Masculinity

myself, they were talking about

ideas? What is it that makes me
So through that class I started t
to be a man. I think that I have g
But I think that was one of the
conscientious about those things
performed, and it was definitely
discussed. It was discussed in the
never critiqued in such a way. I n
college, critique of patriarchy, m
really got me to start question
brothers and try to talk to them
about sex stories. I would try to
about women that way. It was a
when I was really the outside guy
sticking up for women. So it was
into my PhD program that I rea
entious about gender and not b
may come because I am not perf
been a struggle, but I still strug
male white privilege has very mu
Things I think about... come fr
question myself and say why am
ever be totally cured of this m
question it a lot more, and I do
of people I am with. I am very m
I have changed, but I still have a
and self-actualized and so... I thi
three or four different types o
masculinity was very much abou
idea that to be a man you had to
fight to show that you were a man
urban, gang culture that was re
underdog, being underprivileged
gave me any control that people
of manhood that was connected t
When I joined the Nation of Is
linity was defined... by white op

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The Agony of Masculinity 147

early on. We would say stuff ab

stuff, but there wasn't really a
Following the nation, getting in
Black Panthers and other grou
understanding that black peop
wasn't really a gender anymore.
gain back their masculinity is w
the Nation of Islam was about. . .
not being fearful of other people
So I think that the way the masc
to be like white folks; not trying
you had, at least in the sphere o
strength, and the strength came
your house, and the way things w
I think a lot of that had to do
Since we black men don't have c
control of the community really
and have control and more powe
house or in your relationship wi
assert your maleness. So I think
I think that the Nation taught
up your wife, but you need to k
wife or girlfriend should be subm
taught, and we felt that in order
needed to be a real sense of hiera
with race. Race was kind of wha
fact that black masculinity was
even in that sphere there was
oftentimes it came in the form o
was one time when I remember
shop, and there was a Muslim ba
would beat his wife, and in th
Islam, like the military wing. Th
ever see these men in the hats...
barbershop there was a man who
the Fruit of Islam went in there
much beat him to death.

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148 The Agony of Masculinity

They were both Muslims - the man w

Fruit of Islam. The Fruit of Islam wa
woman; it is wrong to beat up women. B
hell out of this man on the street. It wa
tion, but it came in the form of male v
was a very odd way of seeing things. Fo
ling the community. In your household
wife is submissive to you and the childr
what they say is that the only person
would say that the submissiveness does
wife or girlfriend. But this man got bea
this the example you want to give by d
because it instilled a sense of fear, and
instilling a sense of fear. You don't mess
try to dominate.
It is very much normalized in the com
nity... I was in the Nation and I was nev
much in the outcast of it. But it colored
was. And so it wasn't until I took thi
notion of... I was very involved in organ
our school. It was this idea of bringing
from around the globe. But what was ir
brother called James, and a couple of m
workers were women - there were li
women - but men had most of the posit
I began to analyze why is it in this organ
dealing with issues that affect women?
discuss that more often; there was a bla
we tried to understand what's going on w
like 'Men should be the leaders and thing
an attempt to at least deal with it. A lot
tioning this overt sense that the men
organizations.

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The Agony of Masculinity 149

Alex's Experience with Ins

Imprisonment for Drug Traf
of Male and Female Roles
Biographical Note: Alex is 27 years
a community college. His major
transfer to a four-year college afte
a bachelor's degree in social wor
western Massachusetts and was r
welfare. After Alex and his sibling
school while she was in her forties
munity college. When I interviewe
released from jail for drug traff
wearing an ankle bracelet so that t
chusetts could track him down.
condition of returning to school an
without being involved selling and
that throughout his life he feels
decided that he would enter the
succinctly put it in the following
human services because I've been
either want to share the knowled
person, or I want to just get into th
people with their basic needs at a m
what it is because I am always willi
says I put myself out there too muc
because I know it would feel good i

First of all, let me say just being a

me. Because of my skin color, wh
certain places or whatever they
da... da... da... and everything sou
reaction toward me changes becau
you see a man of color it's going to
a job, they can't fit. There is alway
Yeah, it's like when they see a bl
it's a strike against us, because they
some type of weight toward us bec

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150 The Agony of Masculinity

the way to understand that peop

one. They just look at us and lik
something wrong or maybe this
job, and I don't get it because
downfall; I don't like that to be
from getting me somewhere; th
many doors that are open or tha
me, that gives me encouragem
can't do it or I am not the righ
know what I am capable of. That
eager to do things better, or get
where I can probably go past that
I wouldn't blame somebody for
I don't know everybody's situati
them back from doing what th
succeed further. Whether it's
can't catch on, I am not blaming
perfectly capable of doing it and
rob, steal, and they cheat, that i
something better for themselve
out and rather sit comfortably in
another way to knock a person of
I will look at it this way: the sy
out there for us. In certain envi
upsetting when you know that th
or running for governor and all
community to fix it up. They ca
jobs; they can build up to where
like that.
But on another note, people do
do things like that. Sometimes o
them don't want to. They do that
and they see somebody doing it
that other 65 percent is people t
grew up with nothing; they prob
was nothing. They didn't see no
So instead of their parents buildi
their babies' future, they just le

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The Agony of Masculinity 151

around nothing. So, that will make a

is the best way out? Selling drugs.'
You are surrounded by alcohol, e
stuff, so you jump on a negative b
then you start seeing the positive
there is such a way, maybe there is t
lot of positive people around or po
women of color that are showing you
course you are going to jump back to
Me personally I experienced this; I a
ther. I've only seen my pops (father
she was a single parent, she raised m
struggled; she was on the system for
but my mom was strong, and seeing
to raise us. She didn't want us to fal
busted her ass and got two jobs to k
we had the basic necessities. It wasn'
necessities that we could say we had:
get back and forth from school, doc
She did not want to depend on nobod
my strength; that is what keeps me
is not old, but she is older and she g
she got her associates degree. She jus
She is a role model for me, but in t
get to a certain age I consider mysel
started seeing the kids around the a
just waiting for my mom to catch up
of sneakers, or I am tired of wearin
victim of society, and you say if th
Even though I was getting good grad
doing everything I wanted to do the
young you are not thinking that... I
school I can become a doctor, a law
on TV and all the stuff you see, all y
White people are the lawyers, white
grew up, it was all minorities, bla
Jamaicans, all the foreigners. The
teachers, the lawyers, the doctors, t

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152 The Agony of Masculinity

course, I am thinking that is for

on a bandwagon with selling the
caught up, got locked up and I d
myself, I didn't say 'Oh, well it
was this guy's fault for telling on
In that environment even thoug
was also surrounded by things th
out more, to try to get out the h
my hand. I chose to go get those
had to that to make more to try
that the environment did that. I
always being surrounded by it, b
move to, there is always gonna b
am not going to go to every st
stupid. But the point is that I ju
sion. And I don't regret it, bec
from... if I had to reflect on it,
stayed in school getting the good
see how far I would have made it
things that I should have alre
because now I have a son, a 2-yea
him that I never had, or a part o
some in me. I am a man growing
My mother couldn't show m
couldn't show me how to be good
stand firm on the things that I
decisions that I make. She can sh
but in the long run she is still just
support and certain things, but I
my football team or show me how
In my point of view, there are
tain things that are for a woman.
growing up I knew there is a gen
woman role. My mom took care o
both roles. She had to take care
house. That right there made me
young. I figured: what job can I r
if I started getting fast money,

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 The Agony of Masculinity 153

reason to get into selling drugs.

thing about me, I never had a fla
all of that. I never looked at it that
I was killing my people. No m
money out of their household. I
who knows what they had to do f
and shine. I am not proud of i
maybe it's a selfish way to look
got into it.
... I can say that there were times in my life that it was difficult to be a
black man. When I had a security officer position, it was difficult because the
same people that I came in with, another black guy and another five white
guys. Watching them getting promotions faster than I did, it got to the point
where I was pissed off because it is like wow! We came in at the same time
doing the same thing, but they get more hours; they are getting the better
sites; they are getting sites out in Greenfield, and I am getting sites in the
hood by the building that most likely they don't wanna go by. That's the only
overtime that's offered to me, but then when they got big name corporations
they don't wanna send me in because of the color of my skin. We came in at
the same time and we got the same experience. I think at some point in time I
did my job better than they did theirs, but why is that? Why they get better
sites than I? We both know why, and that is because of the color of my skin.
So of course, yes, at some points in time it's difficult for me being a black
man because the opportunities that I should have. . .1 know I wouldn't be able
to have them if the person is just looking at my skin color.
The only thing that I can say that made me not think about my problems
was at a young age I became an alcoholic. And that is how I dealt with my
problems. I would drink my problems away; problems with my pops (father)
not being there; problems with me being black in America; the problems of
me being a man and not being able to perform my maleness and duties to get
a good job, keep a good job, get a good woman, keep a good woman, and
provide for my household. Those things go on and on and on in your head
and it's like Wow! What can you really do? And then the things you want to
do to succeed in life you can't really get to do them because you're held
back. A lot of things can hold you back. Me being an alcoholic at the time
held me back.

I started drinking when I was 17, 16. I don't drink no more. I don't see
no purpose in it. It does not benefit me. I don't do things now that don't

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 154 The Agony of Masculinity

benefit my son's fiiture and me. I

tion; that's my motivation; that's
difficult, it was difficult at times
said it wasn't difficult at times w
people were holding you back or k
color of your skin; it's really diff
'What can you really do about it?
'Come on! They were beating up o
just trying to do the right thing.
way, in a violent or negative way,
way to look at it. So in order to st
got to beat them in another way.
a mental aspect because if a perso
in violent way, you don't get now
and you mentally find a way to g
really stupid.
Say for instance if you're having a debate or you're having a little mis-
understanding and it was a black guy and a white guy; of course they are
going to expect the black guy to act like a fool; they' re gonna to expect you
to get violent, physical and become some type of animal or something like
that. They'll call the cops because the way they think he's gonna to act;
that's how society portrays us as animals. They just portray us as these
people that can't control themselves, like they did back in the day. You know
what I mean, we are out of the cage; we are roaming amongst them, like they
are some higher being, higher power. Slavery was the only time when they
ever held us down or had us in captive. Nowdays, they don't have us in
slavery or captive, people just give them that power; they are using slavery
as an excuse... white people are using slavery as a reason to do it. It is like,
'Look at me, do you know your place?'
A lot of white people don't want to see brothers of color come up. They
don't wanna see men in power; they don't wanna see black men in power,
they don't wanna see black men being successful. They don't wanna see
black men doing this because... it seems white people are more mad at the
fact that it is not like it was back in the day. I don't know. I went to an
interview the other day and the lady didn't know, I guess, the boss was black.
When she came in, when she saw him, when she saw his face, she is like
"Oh!" You know what I mean; she just got up and walked out. I knew what

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 The Agony of Masculinity 155

that was about; she might be more c

guy in power than for a black guy in
Because people have been broug
color, or black guys are evil or wro
are up here, so we cannot be above
and that's not right. You know, that
us stood together instead of against
community it seemed like all the bl
they are not happy for you when
matter what. There are guys that th
come up the right way, you're a sel
credibility.

Comment on Case Studies and Suggestions

for Taking Practical Steps Toward Social Change
Dr. Joe, Tom, and Alex address in their narratives crucial issues that men of
African descent are dealing with on a daily basis. As the three of them make
clear, a violent way of performing one's maleness is learned from the social
environment; it is not biological. Their stories challenge the racist idea that
men of color are biologically predisposed to be violent. Being raised by poor
single mothers who were in welfare and not having good male role models
drastically impacted the identity of both Tom and Alex. In addition, institu-
tionalized racism seemed to have influenced their sense of manhood. One
might naively assume that we have not had racism since the civil right
movement. However, as the stories of Dr. Joe, Tom, and Alex reveal, there
are actually more adverse effects of racism on people of color than ever
before. There are more people of color in prison, more people of color dying
faster, and more children of color back in the same state of poverty as they
were in the sixties or earlier. The schools that the black children are attend-
ing are breaking down; so it is a scary time now for black/brown people.
Ironically, there are other black/brown people who think it is a happy, bright
time because they feel successful and/or because Obama was elected as the
first African American president. That is the way many people of color see
things now, or to be precise, that is how they make them understand them.
As Dr. Joe pointed out, this category of people of color still needs to "under-
stand that we live in a white world and that world is controlled by whites."

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156 The Agony of Masculinity

Drawing on Tom's, Dr. Joe's, and Alex

need to start building a collective, commu
neighborhoods destroyed by gang violenc
and Tom were born and grew up. As Dr. J
there for young males of African descent.
would help to keep many young black/br
jail. What seems to be a crisis that has dev
is that there are too many men of color in
and are older have failed to be good role m
not feel that there were men of color in h
as role models. As he pointed out, all the
good things in his neighborhood were wh
including immigrants were marginalized.
role model to follow; his cousin was not a
bullying and brutalizing people includin
claims that he regrets he doing.
The black/brown middle class has aban
men. I do not intend here to make a blank
and women of color because there are man
who are out there doing great work tryin
However, this is simply not enough. As D
to try to get back into the community an
up, be responsible and care for themselves
develop a language that allows us to talk m
oppression has caused us a great deal of ha
middle class black and brown people who t
rest.

While I do acknowledge the idea that eac

responsible for his/her destiny, I also und
mechanism out there. Most of the time, a
out in their stories, these gate-keeping m
people of African descent from moving a
descent need to spend enough time analyz
and how it has been changing. Many of
been the same, but racism is not the s
radically different in vicious ways. To p
about the way many men of color end up
that it doesn't get played out in the media

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 The Agony of Masculinity 157

media are not from the statistics g

repeatedly hears is that black/brow
are chiefly responsible for represe
bad. However, it doesn't say that
leged whites are making all kind o
jail. Who benefits from the cheap l
Some argue that things have ch
welcoming to black and brown peop
partly true that generally the whi
has opened its heart to black and b
whites have opened their heart to
nation, regardless of the fact that
president. One needs to know that
will not bring an end to institutio
suppose that because of the advent
descent were no longer in the posit
and were having control over the
hopes, how would white suprema
continue supporting a president of
invite the reader of this book to cr
questions
Returning to Tom's experience of
girls, I argue that men, regardless o
when they feel frustrated. Because
racial subjugation and oppression
target. This is totally unacceptable
think incarcerating black/brown m
some drastic intervention needs to o
people of color helping people of co
investigate and support feminism.
understand the theories of feminis
theories of racism, that they need
is central to white male patriarchy,
function without female subordination as well as male subordination.
Therefore, for them to continue to target women is in effect a support of
white supremacy.
As the case of Tom illustrates, if we help men, including men of color,
develop awareness about women's struggle, we may be able to help them

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 158 The Agony of Masculinity

realize that supporting women, su

mistreating them, serving them, i
to protect and care for women. To
is today, had he not taken that f
lenged him to confront his ma
effects of sexism on women.

White supremacy is not just a battle of whites against non-whites. White

male supremacy cannot operate without the complicity of others; it requires
the complicity of other men, white men in particular. So if that is true, then
when men abuse sexually or physically abuse women, they are actually
participating in creating privileges for many white men who support white
supremacy. To denigrate a woman, regardless of her racial and social class
backgrounds and sexual orientation, is to maintain the patriarchal system. So
the point that I am making is that we need to understand that white suprem-
acy is actually feeding off all forms of violence; therefore, the first and
formal step that we have to take is stop the violence in the black community,
be it within the Nation of Islam as Tom pointed out or in the "ghetto" as
Alex stated.

I do not believe that we can do that simply by theorizing about it. We

have to begin understanding that, whether we like it or not, all of us, no
matter what our class background is, we are all suffering tremendously from
sexism, racism, patriarchy, and from internalized oppression, which we need
to figure out a way to rid ourselves of so that we can begin to heal both
individually and as a community as Thomas suggested earlier. Allowing
ourselves to be brainwashed by the content of hegemonic political discourse
of dominant white men and/or men of color is not the solution. Often this

type of discourse aims to blame us, the oppressed, for our own oppression
and in doing so leave our oppressor off the hook. Finally, falling into
cynicism and despair, as West (1993) warned us, is not the solution either.
What can and should then be done? How can educators help? Educators can
help by creating space in their classroom for genuine dialog about the issues
analyzed above. They can begin this dialog by trying to put in practice the
suggestions that follow:

1. Invite local community organizers in their classroom to talk about the

root causes and effects of gang violence, racial profiling, and sexual
abuse and harassment of women in different communities and how peo-
ple deal with these issues.

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The Agony of Masculinity 159

2. Have their students do a rese

victims of sexism and racism liv
finish investigating these issues
ings of their research in class w
yet, at the world social forums.
3. Transgress schools' scripted cu
plans social issues relevant to th
4. Engage their students in a crit
used to misrepresent and stereo
marginalized groups. To this e
movies that address these issues.

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Peter Lang AG

Back Matter
Source: Counterpoints, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010)
Published by: Peter Lang AG
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42980558
Accessed: 02-02-2021 12:01 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Peter Lang AG is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Counterpoints

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 <<QVAmRř>01/VtS ►>
Studies in the Postmodern Theory of Education
General Editors
Joe L Kincheloe & Shirley R. Steinberg

Counterpoints publishes the most compelling and imaginative books being

written in education today. Grounded on the theoretical advances in
criticalism, feminism, and postmodernism in the last two decades of the
twentieth century, Counterpoints engages the meaning of these innova-
tions in various forms of educational expression. Committed to the
proposition that theoretical literature should be accessible to a variety of
audiences, the series insists that its authors avoid esoteric and jargonistic
languages that transform educational scholarship into an elite discourse for
the initiated. Scholarly work matters only to the degree it affects
consciousness and practice at multiple sites. Counterpoints' editorial
policy is based on these principles and the ability of scholars to break new
ground, to open new conversations, to go where educators have never
gone before.

For additional information about this series or for the submission of

manuscripts, please contact:

Joe L. Kincheloe & Shirley R. Steinberg

c/o Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
29 Broadway, 18th floor
New York, New York 10006

To order other books in this series, please contact our Customer Service
Department:
(800) 770- LANG (within the U.S.)
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 Drawing on critical race theory and empirical data from case studies involving fifty men of African
descent, this book presents a new perspective on black masculinity, maleness, sexism, and in-

^ stitutional racism. The book situates black masculinity in a racial, socio-historical, and post-
av colonial context to provide innovative ways of understanding the profound effects of institutional
fjk) racism. Although its focus is primarily on people of African descent, the book addresses issues
v' concerning all races and ethnicities, explores the harmful effects of sexism and homophobia on
^7 women and queer people, and proposes practical steps that can be taken to fight against
socio-economic inequality and injustice that is racially-, gender-, and sexually-based. Given the
0 practical nature and interdisciplinary dimension of this book, readers and educators studying
A~ race, racism, sexism, and gender issues will find it germane to their needs and their classes.

"In this magnificent book, Pierre W. Orelus has painstakingly unmasked how white supremacy
v*~

^ distorts the image of men of African descent in America. But he does not stop there. Orelus also
v examines the ways in which women and queer people have been victimized by sexism and ho-

0 . mophobia. Bravo for this effort at revealing intersectional oppression!" - Eduardo Bonilla-Silva,
Professor of Sociology, Duke University; Author of Racism without Racists

"Pierre W. Orelus has provided us with an important book at a critical time. All of the most im-
portant social indicators suggest that Black males are in trouble, but there is considerable con-
fusion about how Black masculinity is implicated in the problems confronting Black males.
Orelus provides an insightful analysis rooted in a keen understanding of social theory to shed
light on these complex issues. Most importantly, he uses the voices and experiences of Black
men to ground his analysis in their reality. This is a timely book that will serve as a resource for
those who seek to understand and take action on this important social dilemma." -Pedro A.
Noguera, Peter L. Agnew Professor of Education, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and
Development, Executive Director, Metropolitan Center for Urban Education, New York Univer-
sity; Author of The Trouble with Black Boys

"Drawing on black men's own revealing testimony about their conflicted and constructed
masculinity(ies), their simultaneous racial subordination and gender privilege, this book is a
heartfelt call for a new social order free of racism, sexism, and homophobia." -Charles W.
Mills, John Evans Professor of Moral and Intellectual Philosophy, Weinberg College of Arts and
Sciences, Northwestern University; Author of The Racial Contract

Cur iculum and Instruction department at New

mj^m Mexico State University. He has received

several fel owships including the ALANA Minor-

|H| ity Fel owship, ACCEU' Fel owship, and New

HH Perspectives Fel owship. Profes or Orelus' re-
EWÊ M |H| mj^m HH WĚM Cur iculum several Mexico Pier e search ityWĚPMersesaprechctiinvteersesFteslinocwlusdhe ippo,st-W.colofneiall ostwudsihesi;ps interests State Orelus and Fel owship. ACCEU' Instruction University. include is including Assistant post-colonial Fel owship, Profes or department He the Profes or ALANA has Orelus' and received studies; at Minor- in New New the re-
critical race theory; gender studies, particularly masculinity and male-
nes ; multiracialism; critical multicultural education; TESOL (Teaching
English to Speakers of Other Languages) and bil ngual education;
Carib ean studies; and cultural studies. His bo k Education under
• Occupation: The Heavy Price of Living in a Neo-Colonized and
Globalized World , was published in 2007.

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Chapter 5: Examining Maleness through the Racial Line
Author(s): Pierre W. Orelus
Source: Counterpoints , 2010, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. 193-202
Published by: Peter Lang AG

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42980555

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to

Counterpoints

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 Chapter 5

Examining Maleness
through the Racial Line
As I was ending the manuscript of this book, I felt taken by the
idea of writing a conclusion where I would summarize major
sented throughout the book, discuss the findings of the stud
recommendations for further research. Indeed, I believe that I d
that in the preceding chapter. However, in order to informally
black/brown and white brothers about such important issues
whiteness, and blackness, I deem it necessary to end this book w
letter, a less conventional way to attempt to help men of Africa
well as Caucasian men develop awareness about and take action
ongoing harmful effects of sexism and racism on women and peo
Simply put, I use this informal letter, freed from technical langua
an appeal to men in the hope that they would make an effort to
their maleness and join the struggle against sexism, homophobia
forms of oppression. I also use it to call on white people to d
privileges attached to their whiteness and take a stance again
premacy and institutionalized racism so that collectively we can c
for the renaissance of a better world.

My dear male fellows:

For centuries you have had the biologically, socially, culturall
torically constructed privileges called maleness and whiteness
have used to advance socially, economically, and politically at the
many who were born into a different gender and race. Many of
taken for granted privileges that come with your maleness and
Sometimes, many of you have shown no regard for those who d
access to the privileges that you have had. Through your words
you have consciously or unconsciously oppressed people of differ
and genders. This is partly due to the fact that since childhood y
taught that people with your gender and race are expected to alw
dominant aisle.

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 194 The Agony of Masculinity

People with the same gender and race

tions for decades. Your gender and race
the political power worldwide. Indee
political power for centuries. Recently,
have witnessed a shift in the gender pa
oped and developing countries have h
many of them have been able to have ac
not enough to create a balance in the
nated.

A gender shift needs to take place in

stop using the pronoun HE universally.
women, some of you still continue usin
ring to scientists, intellectuals, invento
them belong to your gender. You still c
describing what has been happening in t
has been made, and the scientific revolu
I understand the root causes of your t
and see almost everything throughou
textbooks and important texts such
Universal Declaration of Human Righ
countries were written by dominant m
male voices echoing throughout them. T
that these texts are gender-biased and ra
voices of humankind, but mankind - a w
political speeches and your interaction
parts.
Your gender and race are dominantly represented everywhere: in the
media; through textbooks you use in school; in your favorite Hollywood
movies; in the senate; in the congress; in the managerial board of major
corporations; in major sports such as football, basketball and hockey; in
higher education; and in the government that you put in power to defend
your interests. In short, you have been exposed to and have witnessed the
performance of your maleness and the exercise of your whiteness every day.
Naturally, you have been inclined to emulate how older men perform
their maleness and whiteness. Since childhood, many of you have been
expected to follow their path and even reproduce oppressive practices to
subject those who happen to be born into a different race and gender. For

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 The Agony of Masculinity 195

many of you, these oppressive p

place on TV, at home, on the str
It feels good to see people of y
turn on your TV set and when y
am sure it does. However, if it f
not have access to the same pr
them? Have you ever thought
answers to these questions could
bad; why can't they just be stron
create my male and my white
about them?

Yes, indeed, you did not create

black people did not create their
gender or sex. They were born
white. However, if you have
reinvent the world you came int
your maleness and whiteness to
given you so many unearned priv
Please be assured that I am not
maleness and whiteness. Perhaps
but with the system that has all
for merely having the "right" g
were born in the "wrong skin"
resources to fulfill their potent
the world you want to live in an
live in as well? I encourage you
up in the morning before havin
way, a corporation that is explo
encourage you to reflect on this
return home from work, and al
after critically reflecting on th
race based?

I do not want to dictate to you what you must do. I would, however, sug-
gest that you think seriously about taking action against the unearned
privileges that your gender and race have allowed you to accomplish, and
which other people of a different race and gender cannot even dream of. I
know it might be too much to ask you to do. But please be mindful of the

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196 The Agony of Masculinity

fact that the privileges to which

waiting for you before you were b
From their birth until their dea
will most likely have access to m
different race and gender. Howev
making a conscious choice to use
race have afforded you to challen
which has marginalized others bec
You might be wondering what sy
advisors, guidance counselors, men
pastor, and your close friends may
surprised to find out that the p
man/woman and the senator yo
classmates have failed to tell yo
oppresses women and makes men
with other systems such as capi
richer, men to keep women in a
and powerful males to discrimina
quo will remain the same.
If you happen to be one among
not feel completely guilty, for it
that you have been attending sin
The church you have been atte
concealed the truth from you. Yo
happening outside your house b
same ignorance with which they
workers might be as uninformed
paralyzed both their soul and spiri
tion and corporate lies.
My male fellows, I understand y
because at some point in my life
hard questioning my raison d'êtr
and masculinity to reach a level o
to realize that I had been duped, a
expected to do to fit the social an
you, I was not quite informed ab
man. I thought it was only the fault

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The agony of Masculinity 197

However, as I became more polit

ized that there are people of my rac
and my black brothers and sisters.
the same racist and patriarchal syste
I attended graduate school and starte
queer theories, and became expose
able to question and challenge my h
about queer people and women. It w
oped self-awareness about these issu
Because I have been in your situat
the liberty to write to you in the h
dormant conscience, mind, and spir
patriarchal and racist system. I am
system. However, this does not mea
fight against it. You need to unveil
has used to gain your consent, so
miserable, and oppressive economic,
conditions of people of a different r
Some of you might be teachers, so
or employees at public institutions.
who might be of an oppressed ge
questions then become: How can
conscious and politically and criti
refuse to challenge the system that
pedestal while subjugating other r
treat, work with, and serve people w
you because of their race, or are
gender, or are "abnormal" because o
you go with this belief in a world th
race/ethnicity, gender, and sexual o
peacefully among people, who m
gender, but whom you have been
happen to be different?
As for you particularly, my black
define who you are and reflect criti
have been forced to take in searc
sociopolitical opportunities. More
enemy inside, that is, your distorte

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198 The Agony of Masculinity

ofyou, Ilived in what is called "

When I first moved to the US, I
what it is like to live in a place
people receive ill treatment and
intellectually, economically, an
streets are destroyed and people
Finally, a place where they live
lence and drug trafficking wh
curable illnesses in a wealthy
opportunity.
None of you deserves to live in
wants to spend your adolescent
You have been forced by racia
inequalities to live there. The "b
were born and where you have li
the rest of the world. In your g
else who needs and deserves healt
the first ones to know who is dy
illnesses such as diabetes and
counseling and psychiatric servi
you know whose child needs the
killed by white racist police off
dispute. In addition, you know w
able to provide that love becau
away from her children. Finally
horrible environment are the onl
nightmares every night instead o
Our so-called government doe
you in your ghetto. They rarely
When politicians do come to del
lies, they are doubly or triply g
them. You're portrayed through
males who are always ready to s
saying what they want you to
Election after election, your mis
When some of you leave the g
places where affluent people liv
sometimes envy the people who

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The Agony of Masculinity 199

living in these places is like. Some

places some day so that you can h
cook your meals; a place to do your
watch TV and play with your sib
because those in power have depr
Some of you sometimes feel like tak
yourselves social justice, a concept,
textbooks that you did not write.
Moreover, many of you are angry
nity to attend quality schools. Scho
fore your teachers are not able to
deserve. The experience many of
pleasant because of your race, socia
origin. Many of you have been s
because of institutionalized racis
while, the experiences you have had
sive places have shaped your life
maleness. Many of you have often p
rather destructive way. How could
had the opportunity to have good
you to a healthier and safer roa
reproducing what you have been ex
up with a racist and capitalist syste
girlfriends, daughters, and sisters
and psychologically. As many of
black/brown men feel that their wi
people over whom they have con
ghetto or at home. They are essenti
would you agree that these men nee
themselves for the best? I know so
not.

My black and brown brothers, I

it is like to feel that our maleness i
have been left with. Admittedly,
deprived of access to real econom
result, millions of us have been
stripped us of these forms of powe

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200 The Agony of Masculinity

fully aware that by virtue of

reduced to abject poverty and ha
I am also cognizant of the fact
els, because those who could ha
incarcerated and are sometimes
activities that lead to their incar
situation, many of you have been
white supremacy. Moreover, I am
victims of all forms of violence
and political, because of your rac
or your inability to cope with th
you to physically and psycholog
brothers, and others.
To commit these types of abus
you have been taught you hav
While your act of violence shou
with racism, capitalism, and wh
as an appropriate behavior. Bein
and a capitalist economic syste
blood, should not be an excuse to use your maleness to abuse your
brown/black/white sisters and brothers. They, too, have been victims of this
system. In fact, your black/brown sisters have been doubly oppressed
because of their gender and race.
As hard as it might appear in the beginning to transcend the oppressive
form of masculinity and maleness you have been taught to perform, you need
to dig into your inner self to regain the strength eroded by this vicious racist
system, so you can use your male "power" in a productive way to serve your
community and the world. More specifically, you need to use your inner
strength to fight the internalizing oppression you have inherited from a
colonial past and neo-colonialism and imperialism that have made many of
you believe that you have to use your maleness to demand respect from
people, including those with whom you share the same or similar communal
bond and thread.
The incorrect and harmful definition of masculinity and maleness you
have been taught since adolescence is your enemy within. Indeed, it is an
internal, mental monster that you need to constantly fight against and control.
Otherwise, you would find yourselves contributing to the perpetuation of
negative stereotypes that have been spread throughout the corporate media

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The Agony of Masculinity 201

about you. Your real power lies in yo

awareness of current political events
glorious past, to fight a system tha
chains have inhibited many of you f
political ladder. You need to find p
chains. To break them, you will n
sisters and white allies, straight and
internally accumulated frustrations
system, to demoralize you to a poin
frustrations out on women by physi
Violence against women, men, and
fight against, not toward. Yes, yo
against the violence of racism, sexis
with your entire mind and soul, an
understand what it is like to be a vi
how can you perpetuate another
sexism? Furthermore, if you know
you happen to be born into a differe
someone else because of her gend
disability, and country of origin? M
all do, that it is psychologically hur
your race, then should you not targ
is different? I urge you to make a c
reproduction of any form of oppress
To conclude, I want to humbly inv
females to join the human struggle
of oppression. Until we realize th
together as men and women, as blac
sexism, racism, homophobia, and
continue one way or the other to b
tions. The battle for a world that is
sion is a battle that is worth fightin
victimized the most by a stratified s
based. It is now our time to stop the
speed. This will be possible, if and o
interrogate and make the best use o
want a better world, and I am sure w
dren, and ourselves, should we not

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202 The Agony of Masculinity

struggle to build this world? I in

question with the hope that you'l
cycles of gender and racial oppre
subjected.
In human soli
Pierre W. Orelus

Las Cruces, New Mexico, September 30th, 2009

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Afterword: The Inescapable Socio-Political Weight of Race: A Critical Analysis of
President Barack Obama's, Professor Henry Louis Gates's, and Sgt. James Crowley's
Racial Controversy
Source: Counterpoints , 2010, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. 203-211
Published by: Peter Lang AG

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42980556

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Counterpoints

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 Afterword

The Inescapable Socio-Poli

Weight of Race
A Critical Analysis of President
Obama's, Professor Henry Louis
and Sgt. James Crowley's Racial Co
While I was browsing the Internet in July 2009 to look
news, I came across breaking news about Professor He
arrest by Sgt. James Crowley. My first reaction was:
happened to me as a black man living in the United Sta
country that takes pride in its democratic principles even
system has not been functional for many people, particular
the "wrong skin tone" and from the "wrong racial backgro
The information available to the public suggests that Sg
sponded to a call from a woman who reported a possible h
two men. According to what the 91 1 tapes revealed, that w
saw two men with suitcases on the porch of the house wher
lives. She also said that one of the men could have been
was not sure. As police officer Crowley was trying to loca
burglars, he stepped on the porch of the house where Pro
knocked on Gates's door, and asked him to step out. Profe
ently resisted as he knew that he did not do anything wron
officer's request, Professor Gates showed him his identifi
proof of residence.
Apparently, Sgt. Crowley and Professor Gates exchange
latter was arrested for "disorderly conduct." Being arreste
conduct" sounds very familiar to me, and many blacks
Americans, and other marginalized and racially targete
country must be familiar with this form of accusation as
groups attempt to challenge officers who are racially profi
ing their civil and human rights, they are often accused o
which is usually, if not always, used as a pretext by these

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204 The Agony of Masculinity

arrest and brutalize them. Many

physically and mentally brutalize
police officers, who usually claim
black/brown men and women. Ro
several police officers in Los Angel
arrest and being violent to those
countless similar examples can be g
I do not know of too many cases o
is as if no white male has ever ch
officer when he feels that this offi
that, unlike black/brown men, whi
ized by white police officers becau
ing that there are not any violent
there are also violent white me
black/brown men who have been a
being incarcerated is a lot higher th
What I am trying to question and
many white police officers who ha
murdered black/brown men under
aggressive." Did Amadou Diallo a
sign of violence towards the poli
violent toward the police officer wh
apparent reason while I was on my
This white police officer follow
When he finally found an excuse to
red. I was not sure what he meant b
the natural color of my eyes and th
it could be because I am tired after
said, "I worked all day too, and my
did not know exactly what my rig
police arrested me. This police of
reason as to why he arrested me. W
same day, the police officer told
speeding. Unsatisfied with the of
arrested him because he was spee
story, saying that, "The main rea
stopped in the wrong lane when

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 The Agony of Masculinity 205

police officer had not mention

arrest me.

In any case, drawing on the terrible racial incident that happened to Pro
fessor Gates, I wish to examine the situation logically. Let's say that Profe
sor Gates overreacted and possibly questioned Sgt. Crowley's authority
asking him to show him his badge number. Let's assume that Professor Gate
was very upset and, therefore, expressed his anger as he was talking to th
police officer. Did he not have the right to do so for being racially target
and asked to step outside in order to be interrogated about something he wa
not even aware of? Does not one have the right to be assertive when o
feels that his/her human and civil rights have been violated? How could h
be arrested after he showed Sgt. Crowley his Harvard identification card an
established that he lived in that house? Why did not Sgt. Crowley trust wh
Professor Gates told him and apologize for invading his space and privacy?
Apologizing to an innocent black man who has been racially harassed and,
many cases, physically beaten has been difficult for many white polic
officers. We witnessed this in many racial profiling and police brutality cas
such as Albner Louima, the Haitian immigrant who was brutally sodomized
with a broken broomstick by several New York police officers.
Obviously, I was not present for that incident in Cambridge. Therefore,
is impossible for me to know all the details. However, given the history o
racial profiling against men of African descent, Latinos, Native Americans
and other targeted groups such as people from the Middle East, I am incline
to believing that race was the determining factor in Professor Gates's arre
and humiliation. What happened to Professor Gates could have happened to
me or to any other black man living in this country. In fact, this is happeni
to black and brown men every day here in the US The only differenc
between Professor Gates's case and those of other black men who have been

harassed by police officers, particularly white police officers, is that Gates is

a highly respected professor at the most prestigious university in the world.
Most of the other victims lack this advantage.
As I argued previously, social class matters as far as black masculinity is
concerned. Had Professor Gates been a black janitor, most likely this racial
profiling case would not have gotten the national and international media
attention it did. Furthermore, a janitor most likely would not have been
released as quickly as Professor Gates was. Finally, I doubt that President
Barack Obama would have become involved.

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206 The Agony of Masculinity

I saluted President Obama when he

stupidly" in arresting Professor Gat
when he apologized for this statem
arising out of this well-publicized c
may have withdrawn his statement
white votes when he runs for re
attacked and called a racist by whit
back, he invited Professor Gates a
White House with him to sort out th
Bravo President Obama for taking
this "regrettable" incident as the Cam
of apologizing to Professor Gates, w
ing! However, the questions becom
the same for other ordinary black/b
essay, being racially profiled and
Moreover, had distinguished Pr
President Obama have invited him t
Sgt. Crowley? President Obama may
to avoid more controversy, resista
powerful conservative groups of
would have invited a gay black man
groups would have used such an invi
Thus, in analyzing Professor Gat
case it can be argued that in this ca
matter. For example, though black/
filed, I argue that if Gates had been
called the police probably would hav
cases like these black/brown men f
image has been racially misrepresen
deconstructed, they will continue
racial profiles.
While inviting Professor Gates an
White House to discuss the racial in
many whites, particularly that of
believe this symbolic action will sol
this country. Nor will it help end
endemically racist, needs to be radi

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 The Agony of Masculinity 207

"conscientization" (Freire, 197

people.
However "regrettable" this may be for the Cambridge Police Department
and however upsetting and outrageous it may be for many people of color in
this country, the racial controversy in this case once more confirms that
black/brown men are not safe anywhere in this country as long as institu-
tional and individual racism persist. The fact is that by virtue of merely
having a black/brown skin, a black/brown person may receive ill treatment
regardless of his/her level of education, social status, and "good character"
unless some serious structural change occurs in the US legal system.
The lady who called to report the possible house break-in said in her
public statement that her parents have always taught her to judge people
based on their character but not on their skin color. What she said certainly
sounds beautiful, but I wonder if she would have called the police if she had
seen two white men. Regardless of many individual whites' good intentions,
I remain convinced that many continue to see people of color through a racial
lens and often act on their vision in ways that are detrimental to black/brown
people.
Given the racial oppression to which professional black and brown peo-
ple have been subjugated, I sometimes ask myself the following questions:
Should professional black/brown people bear a sign on their black/brown
face or forehead saying, "I am a university professor, I am a doctor, a lawyer,
or, in brief, I am a professional" in order to be respected and free from racial
discrimination and institutional racism? Would this strategy prevent them
from being racially profiled? Countering this very naïve argument, I would
go further and ask: Why should black and brown men and women have to do
this anyway? Why can't they be treated equally regardless of their skin tone?
How can we talk about human rights, democracy, justice, freedom, and
pursuit of happiness in this country when certain groups of people are
racially profiled every day and discriminated against almost everywhere they
go, be it to the store, the supermarket, the work force, on college and
university campuses, and so forth? Should we then conclude that this
country is a very hypocritical nation with a legal system that works mostly
for those who are white and wealthy?
All socioeconomic and political indicators suggest that black/brown
men's image has been distorted. I argue that the historical misrepresentation
of black men from slavery forward continues to be the determining factor
that often - if not always - leads to their ill treatment in society. Even though

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208 The Agony of Masculinity

slavery has been outlawed, its legac

African descent like a shadow. It is
socio-economic, and political opp
However, many of these forms of o
legacy of slavery; they have been
names. It is sometimes argued th
contend that it has been revitalized
to a great extent by a western form
If this were not the case, countle
and abroad would not continue to s
and educationally. This argument a
and slavery on people of African d
many so-called western Marxists, m
For instance, when providing feedb
that the legacy of slavery and colon
subjectivity and material conditions
a white male editor who is a self-p
some efforts on your part to avoid
of progressive Moynihanism: privi
contemporary straight middle class
is, well, pretty fucked up." This edi
the whole manuscript. He stated th
enough to stop reading it. When I
not substantiated, he could not tell
question his white privilege. Fur
uncompromising position on and an
of slavery and racism on black/bro
tions.

University Professors of C
and Institutional Racism

Like many university professors, sometimes I go to my office on the week-

ends to write. The building is usually empty, especially when school is not in
session. I sometimes stay late in my office. Given the history of racial
profiling against black/brown male professors on campus by the university
police, I always fear that one day I might be racially targeted as a possible
burglar. Therefore, I always carry my university card and other items that I

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 The Agony of Masculinity 209

can use as evidence in the eve

interrogate me. There were a few
cation card, and I suddenly panic
ing the next day on this, I asked
experience this feeling in a count
forcibly exported and imposed i
countries?

After Professor Gates' and other black/brown professors' racial profiling

on college/university campuses, I have become even more fearful when
working in my office on the weekends. My office on the weekends does not
feel like a space where I, as a university professor, can peacefully and
comfortably sit to do my academic work. However, like many tenure track
professors, I am pressured to publish or perish, let alone having other
academic obligations, such as teaching, presenting papers at conferences,
serving on committees and attending departmental meetings. In addition to
fighting against the negative effect of a corporate model of education that has
shaped many universities, progressive professors of color have to cope
regularly with racial harassment from university police officers and other
racist individuals. When professors of color take a stance against racial
profiling and harassment at their university, they are often labeled as "angry
people" and/or "bad team players" and "complainers."
However, as an assistant professor in a department that is social justice
oriented, I must point out that I have not yet experienced this type of racial
harassment, profiling, and name-calling. While I was a doctoral student at a
major university located in western Massachusetts, I did experience racial
profiling on campus, and I felt isolated as some professors did not seem to
share my ideology and strong stance on racial issues. Nonetheless, with self-
determination, hard work, persistence, and support from some caring faculty
members, I was able to complete my doctoral degree.
As one of the participants in this study bluntly put it, "it has not been
easy for black men in this country." I could not agree more. I argue that it
has been hard for people of color not only in this country but also in the
world. For example, what happened to Professor Gates in Cambridge,
Massachusetts, could have happened to him in Latin America, Europe, Asia,
and even in communities of color. Like many whites, many people of color
have internalized stereotypes about other people of color, although perhaps
not to the same extent as whites. As a case in point, people of color have
called on and reported other people of color to the police out of "black fear"

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210 The Agony of Masculinity

that they have learned and intern

supremacist groups' strategic plan
many black/brown and white peop
shaped and informed by this awful p
Being black/brown is a shadow t
people wherever they happen to be
achievements. One's black/brown
individuals base their judgment on w
the "violent, lazy, savage, and stu
historically constructed through this
power, who have labeled, isolated,
Needless to say, blackness is seen
whiteness is seen as THE standard.
However, with the ascendance of B
people, including whites, might naive
gap between black/brown and white
that race does not or should not m
black president. Still others believe t
image of black people not only in the
I argued elsewhere,

Given the history of the United States whe

political system for centuries, it can be a
victory is a shift in the political paradigm
the magnitude and historic significance o
state that we are now living in a post-racia
Jim Crow era during which white suprem
lessly brutalized black/brown people. (Orelu

Nevertheless, having a black presid

same conservative and so-called whit
benefiting from the political system
position to radically change such a sy
economic changes. In fact, it is abs
Obama in a four- or eight-year term
that has been oppressive to people of
In my view, what President Obam
power is to work collaboratively with
foundation of a solid path towards ra
this path, elected officials, including

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The Agony of Masculinity 211

ought to follow the same path

Furthermore, in order for the e
backgrounds have to be met, Ob
system that has oppressed peopl
addition, President Obama and
should help others develop racia
institutional racism and white su
Until these proposed plans ar
harmony between black/brown
racial profiling of people of colo
persist. Inviting a white police of
the White House to have a beer w
admirable symbolic action. Howe
take concrete steps to tackle var
has been facing. In short, unti
willing to face openly and honest
many people, it will still haunt a
will still be in trouble in this rac

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Bibliography
Source: Counterpoints , 2010, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010), pp. 213-218
Published by: Peter Lang AG

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Peter Lang AG

Back Matter
Source: Counterpoints, Vol. 351, the AGONY of MASCULINITY: Race, Gender, and
Education in the Age of "New" Racism and Patriarchy (2010)
Published by: Peter Lang AG
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42980558
Accessed: 02-02-2021 12:01 UTC

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Counterpoints

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 <<QVAmRř>01/VtS ►>
Studies in the Postmodern Theory of Education
General Editors
Joe L Kincheloe & Shirley R. Steinberg

Counterpoints publishes the most compelling and imaginative books being

written in education today. Grounded on the theoretical advances in
criticalism, feminism, and postmodernism in the last two decades of the
twentieth century, Counterpoints engages the meaning of these innova-
tions in various forms of educational expression. Committed to the
proposition that theoretical literature should be accessible to a variety of
audiences, the series insists that its authors avoid esoteric and jargonistic
languages that transform educational scholarship into an elite discourse for
the initiated. Scholarly work matters only to the degree it affects
consciousness and practice at multiple sites. Counterpoints' editorial
policy is based on these principles and the ability of scholars to break new
ground, to open new conversations, to go where educators have never
gone before.

For additional information about this series or for the submission of

manuscripts, please contact:

Joe L. Kincheloe & Shirley R. Steinberg

c/o Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
29 Broadway, 18th floor
New York, New York 10006

To order other books in this series, please contact our Customer Service
Department:
(800) 770- LANG (within the U.S.)
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 Drawing on critical race theory and empirical data from case studies involving fifty men of African
descent, this book presents a new perspective on black masculinity, maleness, sexism, and in-

^ stitutional racism. The book situates black masculinity in a racial, socio-historical, and post-
av colonial context to provide innovative ways of understanding the profound effects of institutional
fjk) racism. Although its focus is primarily on people of African descent, the book addresses issues
v' concerning all races and ethnicities, explores the harmful effects of sexism and homophobia on
^7 women and queer people, and proposes practical steps that can be taken to fight against
socio-economic inequality and injustice that is racially-, gender-, and sexually-based. Given the
0 practical nature and interdisciplinary dimension of this book, readers and educators studying
A~ race, racism, sexism, and gender issues will find it germane to their needs and their classes.

"In this magnificent book, Pierre W. Orelus has painstakingly unmasked how white supremacy
v*~

^ distorts the image of men of African descent in America. But he does not stop there. Orelus also
v examines the ways in which women and queer people have been victimized by sexism and ho-

0 . mophobia. Bravo for this effort at revealing intersectional oppression!" - Eduardo Bonilla-Silva,
Professor of Sociology, Duke University; Author of Racism without Racists

"Pierre W. Orelus has provided us with an important book at a critical time. All of the most im-
portant social indicators suggest that Black males are in trouble, but there is considerable con-
fusion about how Black masculinity is implicated in the problems confronting Black males.
Orelus provides an insightful analysis rooted in a keen understanding of social theory to shed
light on these complex issues. Most importantly, he uses the voices and experiences of Black
men to ground his analysis in their reality. This is a timely book that will serve as a resource for
those who seek to understand and take action on this important social dilemma." -Pedro A.
Noguera, Peter L. Agnew Professor of Education, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and
Development, Executive Director, Metropolitan Center for Urban Education, New York Univer-
sity; Author of The Trouble with Black Boys

"Drawing on black men's own revealing testimony about their conflicted and constructed
masculinity(ies), their simultaneous racial subordination and gender privilege, this book is a
heartfelt call for a new social order free of racism, sexism, and homophobia." -Charles W.
Mills, John Evans Professor of Moral and Intellectual Philosophy, Weinberg College of Arts and
Sciences, Northwestern University; Author of The Racial Contract

Cur iculum and Instruction department at New

mj^m Mexico State University. He has received

several fel owships including the ALANA Minor-

|H| ity Fel owship, ACCEU' Fel owship, and New

HH Perspectives Fel owship. Profes or Orelus' re-
EWÊ M |H| mj^m HH WĚM Cur iculum several Mexico Pier e search ityWĚPMersesaprechctiinvteersesFteslinocwlusdhe ippo,st-W.colofneiall ostwudsihesi;ps interests State Orelus and Fel owship. ACCEU' Instruction University. include is including Assistant post-colonial Fel owship, Profes or department He the Profes or ALANA has Orelus' and received studies; at Minor- in New New the re-
critical race theory; gender studies, particularly masculinity and male-
nes ; multiracialism; critical multicultural education; TESOL (Teaching
English to Speakers of Other Languages) and bil ngual education;
Carib ean studies; and cultural studies. His bo k Education under
• Occupation: The Heavy Price of Living in a Neo-Colonized and
Globalized World , was published in 2007.

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