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PREFACE XIII
AUTHOR XV
Beryllium 120
12
Filling the 2p
2 Orbitals 120
12
Filling the 3s,
3 , 3p,
3 , and 4s
4 Orbitals 121
1
3.17. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 1122
CHAPTER SUMMARY 126
1
Answers to Chapter Summary 1128
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 131
13
10.6. ENZYMES 35
351
10.7. NUCLEIC ACIDS 355
35
Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis 358
35
Modified DNA 35
359
10.8. RECOMBINANT DNA AND GENETIC ENGINEERING 35
359
10.9. METABOLIC PROCESSES 36
360
Energy-Yielding Processes 360
36
CHAPTER SUMMARY 361
36
Answers to Chapter Summary 362
36
LITERATURE CITED 363
36
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES 364
36
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 364
36
INDEX 367
An old Chinese proverb states, “If we do not change direction, we are likely to
end up where we are headed.” At no time has this statement been more appropriate
than as it applies to humankind at the present time. Blessed with a miniscule, but
unique and remarkable, speck of the universe that has conditions conducive to life,
humans are on a course that, if not altered, will result in destruction of the only
home that they have or ever can have. About 2 billion years ago, one other type
of organism, photosynthetic cyanobacteria, used captured solar energy to produce
biomass and liberate atmospheric elemental oxygen to the atmosphere, making
possible all of the life forms that require this gas for their metabolic processes.
This was a planet-altering process that determined the life forms that have existed
on Earth in all the eons since it occurred and that caused massive chemical
change, such as the formation of iron oxide deposits from the oxidation of soluble
iron in water. Until now, no type of organism has caused such a drastic change on
Earth, particularly in its atmosphere. However, by burning enormous quantities
of fossil fuels at an ever-increasing rate, humans are well on the way to doubling
pre-industrial levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Virtually all reputable authori-
ties agree that this will have a significant warming effect on the global climate.
Whereas the atmosphere created by the humble single-celled cyanobacteria made
possible the development of millions of kinds of new species, what humans are
doing to the climate now will almost certainly result in the extinction of hundreds of
thousands—perhaps millions—of species.
The challenge facing humankind today is sustainability
sustainability,, the maintenance and
enhancement of conditions that will enable humans and other organisms to exist on
Planet Earth. This means living within the limits of materials extracted from Earth
or taken from its atmosphere or oceans. It means, especially, dealing sustainably
with energy, essential to modern civilizations, but, with the present reliance on fossil
fuels that pump global-warming carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, unsustainable
with present patterns of acquisition and use.
science of matter; all things are chemical. Therefore, chemistry deals with the air we
breathe, the water we drink, the soil that grows our food, and vital life substances
and processes. Our own bodies contain a vast variety of chemical substances and are
tremendously sophisticated chemical factories that carry out an incredible number
of complex chemical processes.
There is a tremendous concern today about the uses—and particularly the
misuses—of chemistry as it relates to the environment. Ongoing events serve as
constant reminders of threats to the environment ranging from individual expo-
sures to toxicants to phenomena on a global scale that may cause massive, perhaps
catastrophic, alterations in climate as discussed above. These include, as examples,
air quality in Beijing so bad that it raised concerns over the health of athletes in
the 2008 Summer Olympics, pets dying from consumption of food illegally laced
with toxic melamine put into animal food to artificially raise its nitrogen content
(used as a measure of protein), and tanks of toxic chlorine gas combined with ter-
rorist explosives to add to the toll and misery caused by these diabolical devices
in Iraq. Furthermore, large numbers of employees must deal with hazardous
substances and wastes in laboratories and the workplace. All such matters
involve chemistry for understanding of the problems and for arriving at solutions
to them.
The central role that chemistry must play in dealing with the challenges facing
humankind and its stewardship of Planet Earth is undeniable. People in a large
variety of areas and enlightened citizens need to have some basic knowledge of
chemistry. The purpose of this book is to provide such knowledge for a broad range
of people who want and need it. The book presents an overview of chemistry,
including organic chemistry (Chapter 9) and biological chemistry (Chapter 10), at
a fundamental level. The book relates to sustainability science, environmental
chemistry, and green chemistry.
Environmental chemistry is that branch of chemistry that deals with the origins,
transport, reactions, effects, and fates of chemical species in the water, air, earth,
and living environments and the influence of human activities thereon.1 A related
discipline, toxicological chemistry, is the chemistry of toxic substances with emphasis
upon their interaction with biologic tissue and living systems.2 Besides being an
essential, vital discipline in its own right, environmental chemistry provides an excel-
lent framework for the study of chemistry, dealing with “general chemistry,” organic
chemistry, chemical analysis, physical chemistry, photochemistry, geochemistry,
and biological chemistry.
In its earlier stages of development dating from around the 1960s, the emphasis
in environmental chemistry was upon detection of pollution, cataloging its adverse
effects, and controlling pollutants once they were produced. This resulted in an
abundance of laws and regulations in countries throughout the world that, in many
areas, prevented pollution from becoming worse and in a number of cases improved
air and water quality and controlled toxic and hazardous substances improperly
disposed on or buried beneath Earth’s surface. Even as these efforts gained success,
it became obvious that such measures were increasingly expensive to implement as
allowable pollutant levels became lower. The “command-and-control” approach was
hard to monitor and potential polluters were always tempted to avoid controls to save
costs. A better way was needed. Insofar as chemistry was concerned, a better way
emerged in the practice of green chemistry.
Formulated in the latter 1990s by Paul Anastas and others, green chemistry is
the practice of chemical science and engineering in ways that minimize consump-
tion of materials and energy, produce the least possible amount of waste, and is
inherently safe.3 Figure 1.1 illustrates this definition of green chemistry. Ideally,
green chemistry is practiced within a framework of industrial ecology
ecology,, defined as a
comprehensive approach to production, distribution, utilization, and termination of
goods and services in a manner that maximizes mutually beneficial utilization of
materials and energy while preventing the production of wastes and pollutants.4
Within the short time that it has been recognized as a distinct area of endeavor,
green chemistry has become an integral, important part of the practice of chemical
science.
It is much easier to learn chemistry if one already knows some chemistry! That
is, in order to go into any detail on any chemical topic, it is extremely helpful to have
some very rudimentary knowledge of chemistry as a whole. For example, a crucial
part of chemistry is an understanding of the nature of chemical compounds, the
chemical formulas used to describe them, and the chemical bonds that hold them
together; these are topics addressed in Chapter 4 of this book. However, to under-
stand these concepts, it is very helpful to know some things about the chemical reac-
tions by which chemical compounds are formed, as addressed in Chapter 5. To work
around this problem, Chapter 1 provides a highly condensed, simplified, but mean-
ingful overview of chemistry to give the reader the essential concepts and terms
required to understand more advanced chemical material.
Nucleus
–
+ n Electron “cloud”
Figure 1.2. Representation of a deuterium atom. The nucleus contains one proton (()) and one
neutron (n). The electron (()) is in constant, rapid motion around the nucleus, forming a cloud of nega-
tive electrical charge, the density of which drops off with increasing distance from the nucleus.
neutrons. Protons and neutrons have relatively high masses compared with electrons
and are contained in the positively charged nucleus of the atom. The nucleus has
essentially all the mass, but occupies virtually none of the volume, of the atom. An
uncharged atom has the same number of electrons as protons. The electrons in an
atom are contained in a cloud of negative charge around the nucleus that occupies
most of the volume of the atom.
All of the literally millions of different substances are composed of only around
100 elements. Each atom of a particular element is chemically identical to every
other atom and contains the same number of protons in its nucleus. This number
of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element is the atomic number of the
element. Atomic numbers are integers ranging from 1 to more than 100, each of
which denotes a particular element. In addition to atomic numbers, each element has
a name and a chemical symbol
symbol,, such as carbon, C; potassium, K (for its Latin name
kalium); or cadmium, Cd. In addition to atomic number, name, and chemical symbol,
each element has an atomic mass (atomic weight). The atomic mass of each element
is the average mass of all atoms of the element, including the various isotopes of
which it consists. The atomic mass unitunit,, u (also called the dalton), is used to express
dalton),
masses of individual atoms and molecules (aggregates of atoms). These terms are
illustrated for carbon and nitrogen in Figure 1.3.
Although atoms of the same element are chemically identical, atoms of most
elements consist of two or more isotopes that have different numbers of neutrons in
– – –
6+ 7+ –
– – – –
6n 7n
– – – –
IA Noble Gases
1 18
1 2
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.008 2 Transition Elements 13 14 15 16 17 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
VIII
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Period
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.9 83.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 98.91 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
7 Fr Ra Ac * Rf Ha Sg Ns Ha Mt
(223) (226) (227) * (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266)
reactions and consist of individual molecules, whereas those with atomic numbers
larger by one—3, 11, and 19—are unstable, highly reactive metals. An arrangement
of the elements in a manner that reflects this recurring behavior is known as the
periodic table (Figure 1.4). The periodic table is extremely useful in understanding
chemistry and predicting chemical behavior. The entry for each element in the periodic
table gives the element’s atomic number, symbol, and atomic mass. More-detailed
versions of the table include each element name and other information as well.
The periodic table gets its name from the fact that the properties of elements
are repeated periodically in going from left to right across a horizontal row of
elements. The table is arranged such that an element has properties similar to those
of other elements above or below it in the table. Elements with similar chemical
properties are called groups of elements and are contained in vertical columns in
the periodic table.
Only a few elements, particularly the noble gases, exist as individual atoms; most
atoms are joined by chemical bonds to other atoms. This can be illustrated very simply
by elemental hydrogen, which exists as molecules
molecules,, each consisting of 2 H atoms
linked by a chemical bond as shown in Figure 1.5. Because hydrogen molecules
contain 2 H atoms, they are said to be diatomic and are denoted by the chemical
formula H2. The H atoms in the H2 molecule are held together by a covalent bond
H
H H H H2
made up of 2 electrons, each contributed by one of the H atoms, and shared between
the atoms.
As discussed in latter parts of this book, chemical bonds are extremely important
in environmental chemistry and green chemistry. For example, the very strong bonds
between atoms of carbon and those of oxygen in the compound carbon dioxide are
responsible for the high stability of this gas in Earth’s atmosphere, enabling it to
persist and contribute to “greenhouse” warming of the atmosphere. The relatively
weak bonds between nitrogen and oxygen in air-pollutant nitrogen dioxide make
this compound susceptible to breaking apart when it absorbs radiation from the Sun,
leading to reactive free oxygen atoms that start the process by which photochemical
smog is formed.
Chemical Compounds
H
H H
H O H 2O
O
Figure 1.6. A molecule of water, H2O, formed from 2 H atoms and 1 O atom held together by
chemical bonds.
are the chemical symbols of the two elements in the compound and the subscript 2
indicates that there are 2 H atoms per O atom. (The absence of a subscript after the
O denotes the presence of just 1 O atom in the molecule.) Each of the chemical
bonds holding a hydrogen atom to the oxygen atom in the water molecule is com-
posed of two electrons shared between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
Ionic Bonds
As shown in Figure 1.7, the transfer of electrons from one atom to another
produces charged species called ions ions.. Positively charged ions are called cations and
negatively charged ions are called anions
anions.. Ions that make up a solid compound are
held together by ionic bonds in a crystalline lattice consisting of an ordered arrange-
ment of the ions in which each cation is largely surrounded by anions and each anion
by cations. The attracting forces of the oppositely charged ions in the crystalline
lattice constitute the ionic bonds in the compound.
The formation of the ionic compound magnesium oxide is shown in Figure 1.7.
In naming this compound, the cation is simply given the name of the element from
which it was formed, magnesium. However, the ending of the name of the anion,
oxide
ox ide,, is different from that of the element from which it was formed, oxygen
oxygen.
Rather than individual atoms that have lost or gained electrons, many ions are
groups of atoms bonded together covalently and having a net charge. A common
example of such an ion is the ammonium ion, NH4
H +
H N H Ammonium ion, NH 4 +
H
consisting of 4 hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single nitrogen (N) atom and
having a net electrical charge of 1
1 for the whole cation.
Mg O Mg O
12+ 8+ 12+ 8+
MgO
Atom nucleus
The transfer of two electrons from yields an ion of Mg2+ and one of
an atom of Mg to an O atom O2– in the compound MgO
Figure 1.7. Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of electrons and the mutual attraction of
oppositely charged ions in a crystalline lattice.
The preceding several pages have just covered some material on chemical
compounds and bonds that are essential to understand chemistry. To summarize,
these are as follows:
Molecular Mass
in which the arrow is read as “yields” and separates the hydrogen and oxygen reac-
tants from the water product
product.. Note that because elemental hydrogen and elemental
oxygen occur as diatomic molecules of H2 and O2, respectively, it is necessary to
write the equation in a way that reflects these correct chemical formulas of the
elemental form. All correctly written chemical equations are balanced
balanced,, in that they
must show the same number of each kind of atom on both sides of the equation
equation.. The
equation above is balanced because of the following:
On the left
• There are 2 H2 molecules,
molecules, each containing 2 H atoms for a total of 4 H
atoms on the left.
• There is 1 O2 molecule,
molecule, containing 2 O atoms for a total of 2 O atoms on
the left.
On the right
• There are 2 H2O molecules each containing 2 H atoms and 1 O atom for a
total of 4 H atoms and 2 O atoms on the right.
number in exponential notation is 6.02 1023. It is put into decimal form by moving
the decimal in 6.02 to the right by 23 places. Exponential notation works equally
well to express very small numbers, such as 0.000 000 000 000 000 087. In expo-
nential notation, this number is 8.7 1017
17. To convert this number back to decimal
form, the decimal point in 8.7 is simply moved 17 places to the left.
A number in exponential notation consists of a digital number equal to or greater
than exactly 1 and less than exactly 10 (e.g., 1.00000, 4.3, 6.913, 8.005, and 9.99999)
multiplied by a power of 10 (e.g., 1017
17, 1013, 105, 103, and 1023). Some examples of
numbers expressed in exponential notation are given in Table 1.2. As can be seen in
the second column of the table, a positive power of 10 shows the number of times
that the digital number is multiplied by 10 and a negative power of 10 shows the
number of times that the digital number is divided by 10.
where 3.97 EE4 stands for 3.97 104. To do such a sum manually, the largest number
in the sum should be set up in the standard exponential notation form and each of the
other numbers should be taken to the same power of 10 as that of the largest number
as shown below for the calculation of 3.07 102 6.22 103 4.14 104:
1.39 EE-2 × 9.05 EE8 3.11 EE4 = 4.04 EE2 (same as 4.04 × 102)
The preceding section illustrated how to handle very large and very small
numbers with exponential notation
notation.. This section considers uncertainties in num-
bers, taking into account the fact that numbers are known only to a certain degree
of accuracy
accuracy.. The accuracy of a number is shown by how many significant figures
or significant digits it contains. This can be illustrated by considering the atomic
masses of elemental boron and sodium. The atomic mass of boron is given as
10.81. Written in this way, the number expressing the atomic mass of boron con-
tains four significant digits—the 1, the 0, the 8, and the 1. It is understood to have
an uncertainty of or 1 1 in the last digit, meaning that it is really 10.81 ± 0.01.
The atomic mass of sodium is given as 22.98977, a number with seven significant
digits understood to mean 22.98977 ± 0.00001. Therefore, the atomic mass of
sodium is known with more certainty than that of boron. The atomic masses in
Table 1.1 reflect the fact that there is less variability in atomic masses of some
elements as they occur in nature (due to variable distributions of elemental
isotopes), so that their atomic masses are known with much more certainty (e.g.,
fluorine, 18.998403) than is the case for others (e.g., calcium listed with an atomic
mass of 40.08).
The rules for expressing significant digits are summarized in Table 1.3. It is
important to express numbers to the correct number of significant digits in chemi-
cal calculations and in the laboratory. The use of too many digits implies an
accuracy in the number that does not exist and is misleading. The use of too few
significant digits does not express the number to the degree of accuracy to which
it is known.
Exercise: Referring to Table 1.3, give the number of significant digits and
the rule(s) upon which they are based for each of the following numbers:
is implied. The two major rules that apply, one for addition/subtraction, the other for
multiplication/division, are the following:
1. In addition and subtraction, the number of digits retained to the right of the
decimal point should be the same as those in the number in the calculation
with the fewest such digits.
For example, 273.591 1.00327 229.13 503.72427 is rounded to
503.72 because 229.13 has only two significant digits beyond the decimal;
and 313.4 11.0785 229.13 553.6085 is rounded to 553.6 because
313.4 has only one significant digit beyond the decimal.
2. The number of significant figures in the result of multiplication/division
should be the same as that in the number in the calculation having the
fewest significant figures. For example,
3.7218 4.019 103 1.0106699 102
____________________
1.48
Rounding Numbers
With an electronic calculator, it is easy to obtain a long string of digits that must
be rounded to the correct number of significant figures. The rules for doing this are
the following:
Generally, this gives sufficient accuracy without doing grievous harm to the concept
of significant figures.
SI Units of Measurement
Multiples of Units
The metric system has long been the standard system for scientific measurement
and is the one most commonly used in this book. It was the first to use multiples
of 10 to designate units that differ by orders of magnitude from a basic unit. The
English system is still employed for many measurements encountered in normal
Mass expresses the degree to which an object resists a change in its state of rest
or motion and is proportional to the amount of matter in the object. Weight is the
gravitational force acting upon an object and is proportional to mass. An object
weighs much less in the gravitational field on the Moon’s surface than on Earth, but
the object’s mass is the same in both places (Figure 1.8). Although mass and weight
are not usually distinguished from each other in everyday activities, it is important
for the science student to be aware of the differences between them.
Figure 1.8. An object retains its mass even in the weightless surroundings of outer space.
The gram (g), with a mass equal to 1/1000 that of the SI kilogram (see Table 1.4),
is the fundamental unit of mass in the metric system. Although the gram is a conve-
nient unit for many laboratory-scale operations, other units that are multiples of the
gram are often more useful for expressing mass. The names of these are obtained by
affixing the appropriate prefixes from Table 1.5 to “gram.” Global burdens of atmo-
spheric pollutants may be given in units of teragrams, each equal to 1 1012 grams.
Significant quantities of toxic water pollutants may be measured in micrograms
(1 106 grams). Large-scale industrial chemicals are marketed in units of mega-
grams (Mg). This quantity is also known as a metric ton, or tonne, and is somewhat
larger (2205 lb) than the 2000 lb short ton still used in commerce in the United States.
Table 1.6 summarizes some of the more commonly used metric units of mass and
their relationship to some English units.
Length in the metric system is expressed in units based upon the meter (m)
(see Table 1.4). A meter is 39.37 inches long, slightly longer than a yard (Figure 1.9).
A kilometer (km) is equal to 1000 m and, like the mile, is used to measure relatively
great distances. A centimeter (cm), equal to 0.01 m, is often convenient to designate
lengths such as the dimensions of laboratory instruments. There are 2.540 cm per
inch, and the cm is employed to express lengths that would be given in inches in the
English system. The micrometer (μm) is about as long as a typical bacterial cell.
The micrometer is also used to express wavelengths of infrared radiation by which
Earth re-radiates solar energy back to outer space. (In the past, the micrometer was
sometimes called the “micron,” and abbreviated as simply “,” “ ,” but this term and
abbreviation should no longer be used.) The nanometer (nm), equal to 109 m, is a
convenient unit for the wavelength of visible light, which ranges from 400 to
800 nm. Atoms are even smaller than 1 nm; their dimensions are commonly given
Figure 1.9. The meter stick is a common tool for measuring length.
in picometers (pm, 101212 m). Table 1.7 lists common metric units of length, some
The basic metric unit of volume is the liter (L), which is defined in terms of
metric units of length. As shown in Figure 1.10, a liter is the volume of a decimeter
cubed, that is, 1 L 1 dm3 (a dm is 0.1 m, about 4 inches). A milliliter (mL) is the
same volume as a centimeter cubed (cm3 or cc—although this latter abbreviation
should no longer be used), and a liter is 1000 cm3. A kiloliter, or cubic meter (m3),
is a common unit of measurement for the volume of air. For example, standards for
1 dm
1 dm
1 dm
human exposure to toxic substances in the workplace are frequently given in units
of μg/m3. Table 1.8 gives some common metric units of volume. The measurement
of volume is one of the more frequently performed routine laboratory measure-
ments; Figure 1.11 shows some of the more common tools for laboratory volume
measurement of liquids.
Temperature Scales
The most fundamental temperature scale is the Kelvin or absolute scale, for
which zero is the lowest attainable temperature. A unit of temperature on this scale
is equal to a degree Celsius, but it is called a kelvin
kelvin,, abbreviated K: Kelvin tempera-
tures are designated as K, not °K.
°K. The value of absolute zero on the Kelvin scale is
273.15°C,
273.15°C, so that the Kelvin temperature is always a number 273.15 (usually
rounded to 273) higher than the Celsius temperature. Thus, water boils at 373 K and
freezes at 273 K. The relationships among Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit tempera-
tures are illustrated in Figure 1.12.
With Figure 1.12 in mind, it is easy to convert from one temperature scale to another.
Examples of how this is done are given below.
Step 11.. Subtract 32°F from 70°F to get the number of degrees Fahrenheit
above freezing. This is done because 0 on the Celsius scale is at the freezing
point of water.
Step 2.
2. Multiply the number of degrees Fahrenheit above the freezing point
of water obtained above by the number of degrees Celsius per degree
Fahrenheit:
1.00°C (70°F 32°F) ______
°C ______ 1.00°C 38°F 21.1°C (1.14.1)
1.80°F 1.80°F
Factor for conversion Number of °F
from °F to °C above freezing
In working the above example, it is first noted (as is obvious from Figure 1.11) that
the freezing temperature of water, zero on the Celsius scale, corresponds to
32°F on the Fahrenheit scale. So 32°F is subtracted from 70°F to give the number of
degrees Fahrenheit by which the temperature is above the freezing point of water.
The number of degrees Fahrenheit above freezing is converted to degrees Celsius
above the freezing point of water by multiplying by the factor 1.00°C/1.80°F. The
origin of this factor is readily seen by referring to Figure 1.12 and observing that
there are 100°C between the freezing and boiling temperatures of water and 180°F
over the same range. Mathematically, the equation for converting from °F to °C is
simply the following:
1.00°C (°F 32)
°C ______ (1.14.2)
1.80°F
Example: What is the Celsius temperature corresponding to the normal
Example:
body temperature of 98.6°F?
Step 2. Since the freezing point of water is 32°F, add 32°F to the result of
Step 1:
1.80°F °C 32°F _______
°F _______ 1.80°F 10°C 32°F 50°F
1.00°C 1.00°C
The formula for converting °C to °F is
1.80°F °C 32
°F _______
1.00°C
To convert from °C to K, add 273 to the Celsius temperature. To convert
from K to °C, subtract 273 from K. All of the conversions discussed here can be
deduced without memorizing any equations by remembering that the freezing
point of water is 0°C, 273 K, and 32°F, and the boiling point is 100°C, 373 K,
and 212°F.
In the preceding discussion, the melting and boiling points of water were both
used in defining temperature scales. These are important thermal properties of any
substance. For the present, melting temperature may be defined as the tempera-
ture at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid. Boiling temperature is
defined as the temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid to a gas.
1.15. PRESSURE
Pressure is force per unit area. The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa)
(Table 1.4). The kilopascal (1 kPa 1000 Pa) is often a more convenient unit of
pressure to use than is the pascal.
Like many other quantities, pressure has been plagued with a large number of
different kinds of units. One of the more meaningful and intuitive of these is the atmo-
sphere (atm), and the average pressure exerted by air at sea level is 1 atmosphere. One
atmosphere is equal to 101.3kPa or 14.7 lb/in2. The latter means that an evacuated cube,
1 inch to a side, has a force of 14.70 lb exerted on each side due to atmospheric pressure.
It is also the pressure that will hold up a column of liquid mercury metal 760mm long,
as shown in Figure 1.14. Such a device used to measure atmospheric pressure is called
a barometer
barometer,, and the mercury barometer was the first instrument used to measure
pressures with a high degree of accuracy. Consequently, the practice developed of
expressing pressure in units of millimeters of mercury (mmHg, also called the torr ).
torr).
Pressure is an especially important variable with gases, because the volume of
a quantity of gas at a fixed temperature is inversely proportional to pressure. The
temperature/pressure/volume relationships of gases (Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, and
the general gas law) are discussed in Chapter 2.
14.70 lb
760 mm
1 in
Atmospheric
pressure
1 in Mercury
reservoir
1 in
Figure 1.14. Average atmospheric pressure at sea level exerts a force of 14.7 pounds on an inch-
square surface. This corresponds to a pressure sufficient to hold up a 760 mm column of mercury.
Most numbers used in chemistry are accompanied by a unit that tells the type of
quantity that the number expresses and the smallest whole portion of that quantity.
For example, “36 liters” denotes that a volume is expressed and the smallest whole
unit of the volume is 1 liter. The same quantity could be expressed as 360 deciliters,
where the number is multiplied by 10 because the unit is only 1/10 as large.
Except in cases where the numbers express relative quantities, such as atomic
masses relative to the mass of carbon-12 or specific gravity, it is essential to include
units with numbers. In addition to correctly identifying the type and magnitude
of the quantity expressed, the units are carried through mathematical operations.
The wrong unit in the answer shows that something has been done wrong in the
calculation and it must be checked.
2H2 O2 Æ H2O
someone might want to calculate the number of grams of H2O produced when 3 g of
H2 react, or they might want to convert the number of grams of H2 to ounces. These
kinds of calculations are carried out with unit conversion factors.
factors. Suppose, for
example, that the mass of a 160 lb person is to be expressed in kilograms; the person
doing the calculation does not know the factor to convert from lb to kg, but does know
that a 551 lb motorcycle has a mass of 250 kg. From this information, the needed unit
conversion factor can be derived and the calculation completed as follows:
250 kg 551 kg
______ ______ 1 (the unit of kg is left on top because it is (1.16.3)
551 1b 551 kg
the unit needed; division is by 551 lb)
0.454 kg
250 kg ________
______ (1.16.4)
551 1b 1.00 1b
0.454 kg
Mass of person 160 1b ________ 72.6 kg (1.16.5)
1.00 1b
As another example of the use of a unit conversion factor, calculate the number
of liters of gasoline required to fill a 12-gallon fuel tank, given that there are 4 gallons
in a quart and that a volume of 1 liter is equal to that of 1.057 quarts. This problem
can be worked by first converting gallons to quarts, then quarts to liters. The two
unit conversion factors required are the following
1 gal 4 qt (1.16.6)
1 gal 4 qt
_____ _____ 1 (conversion from gallons to quarts) (1.16.7)
1 gal 1 gal
1.057 qt 1 L (1.16.8)
1 L ___
_______ 1 L 1 (conversion from quarts to liters) (1.16.9)
1.057 qt 1L
Both unit conversion factors are used to calculate the capacity of the tank
in liters:
4 qt 1 L 45.4 L
Tank capacity 12 gal _____ _______ (1.16.10)
1 gal 1.057 qt
Cancellation of Units
The preceding examples show that units are canceled in mathematical operations,
just as numbers may be. When the same unit appears both above and below the line
in a mathematical operation, the units cancel. An example of such an operation is
shown for lb in the following, in which the unit of lb simply cancels, leaving kg as
the unit remaining:
0.454 kg
160 lb\ ________
1.00 lb\
Several values of units are given that enable conversion between metric and
English units in Table 1.6 (mass), Table 1.7 (length), and Table 1.8 (volume). For
example, Table 1.6 states that a megagram (Mg, metric ton) is equal to 1.102 short
tons (T). By using this equality to give the correct unit conversion factors, it is easy
to calculate the number of metric tons in a given number of short tons of material or
vice versa. To do this, first write the known equality given that a megagram is equal
to 1.102 short tons:
1 Mg 1.102 T (1.16.11)
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