Index

1. Women in India..................................................................................1

2. Legislations for Women in India ......................................................6

3. Children.............................................................................................11

4. Elderly and Senior Citizens.............................................................16

5. Persons with Disability.....................................................................20

6. Transgenders...................................................................................23

7. Scheduled Caste.................................................................................27

8. Scheduled Tribes..............................................................................30

9. Health...............................................................................................33

10. Education.........................................................................................39

11. School Education in India...............................................................42

12. Higher Education in India...............................................................46

13. New Education Policy 2020 and Three Language Formula............49

14. Online Education (E-Learning).........................................................54

15. Skill Development..............................................................................57

16. Hunger...............................................................................................60
 1 Women in India
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"Women’s empowerment is not just equity, but a vital force for progress," as Amartya Sen noted. Indian women increasingly
lead in politics, STEM, and grassroots movements, nonetheless, systemic gaps in safety, education, and representation persist,
demanding sustained reform.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. “ Though women in post-Independent India have excelled in various fields, the social attitude
towards women and the feminist movement has been patriarchal.” Apart from women education
and women empowerment schemes, what interventions can help change this milieu? (2021)

1. Constitutional Provisions for Women in India

Article Provision
1. Fundamental Rights
y Article 14 y Equality before the law and equal protection of the law.
y Article 15(1) y Prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
y Article 15(3) y Permits the State to make special provisions for women and children.
y Article 16 y Equality of opportunity in public employment.
2. Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)
y Article 39(a) y Directs the State to ensure equal means of livelihood for men and women.
y Article 39(d) y Mandates equal pay for equal work.
y Article 42 y Directs the State to ensure just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.
3. Fundamental Duties
y Article 51A(e) y Enjoins citizens to renounce practices derogatory to women’s dignity.
4. Other Provisions
y Article 243D y Mandates not less than one-third reservation for women in PRIs.
y Article 243T y Mandates not less than one-third reservation for women in urban local bodies.

2. Status of Women in India

Indicator Fact
1. Sex Ratio y Overall sex ratio was 943 females per 1,000 males in 2011, projected to improve to 952 by 2036
(Census 2011; Economic Survey 2024).
2. Sex Ratio at Birth y Improved to 929 in 2015-16 from 918 in 2014-15, but rural areas lag at 923 (NFHS-5, 2019-21).
3. Female Literacy y Female literacy rate reached 64.63% in 2011, with rural female literacy at 57.93% (Census 2011).
4. Higher Education y Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for females at the higher secondary level is 58.2% in 2023-24
(UDISE+ 2023-24).
5. Maternal Mortality y Declined to 97 per lakh live births in 2018-20 from 130 in 2014-16 (Sample Registration
Ratio (MMR) System, 2018-20).
6. Institutional y 88.6% of births occur in institutions, up from 78.9% in 2015-16 (NFHS-5, 2019-21).
Deliveries
7. Anaemia y 57.2% of non-pregnant women aged 15-49 are anaemic (NFHS-5, 2019-21).
Prevalence
8. F e m a l e L a b o u r y 37% in 2022-23, with rural female LFPR at 41.5% (Periodic Labour Force Survey, 2022-23).
Force Participation
Rate (LFPR)

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9. Women in MSMEs y Women own 20.5% of registered MSMES, approximately 1.2 crore enterprises (Udyam Portal, 2023).
10. Political y 14% of Lok Sabha MPs (78 out of 543) and 46% of PRI elected representatives are women in
Representation 2024 (Election Commission of India, 2024; MoPR, 2024).
11. Crimes Against y 4,45,256 cases registered in 2021, with a crime rate of 64.5 per lakh female population (NCRB
Women Crime in India Report, 2021).
12. Child Marriage y 23.3% of women aged 20-24 were married before age 18, down from 26.8% in 2015-16 (NFHS-
5, 2019-21).

3. Committees and Commissions on Women’s Issues

Committee Key Recommendations
1. National Commission on y Advocated for stronger laws on domestic violence and workplace harassment;
Women (1992) recommended amendments to Dowry Prohibition Act.
y Example: Pushed for the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
2. Justice Verma Committee y Recommended criminalizing marital rape, fast-track courts for sexual violence,
(2012) and stricter penalties for acid attacks.
y Example: Influenced amendments to the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013.
3. National Committee on the y Suggested measures to improve women’s education, employment, and political
Status of Women (1971) participation led to the establishment of NCW.
y Example: Recommended 33% reservation in PRIs.
4. High-Level Committee on y Proposed a Gender Atlas, women’s hostels, and increased budget allocation for
Status of Women (2015) women’s safety.
y Example: Recommended One-Stop Centres (Sambal).
5. Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar y Emphasised women’s inclusion in urban livelihood programs and skill development.
Yojana Review Committee (2010) y Example: Influenced Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-NULM.
6. Pam Rajput Committee (2012) y Recommended gender budgeting, women’s reservation in legislatures, and
measures to address violence against women.
y Example: Influenced policy discussions on Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023.
7. Kumud Bansal Committee y Focused on improving girls’ education, recommending infrastructure like hostels
(2005) and scholarships for rural girls.
y Example: Contributed to Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’s gender-focused interventions.
8. Hema Committee (2019) y Investigated sexual harassment in the Malayalam film industry, recommending
Internal Complaints Committees and gender sensitisation programs.
y Example: Led to stricter implementation of the PoSH Act in Kerala’s film industry.

4. Scholarly Ideas on Women from a Social Justice Perspective

Scholar/Thinker Key Idea Relevance to Social Justice Example
1. Amartya Sen y Capability Approach: y Addresses systemic barriers by y Sen’s approach
Emphasises enhancing focusing on enabling women to justifies Beti Bachao,
women’s capabilities realise their potential, aligning Beti Padhao for
(education, health, economic with the social justice’s aim of improving girls’
opportunities) to achieve equitable outcomes. education and
substantive freedom, rather survival.
than mere equality in laws.
2. Martha y Central Human Capabilities: y Promotes affirmative action and y Nussbaum’s
Nussbaum Lists ten capabilities (such as protective laws to counter framework supports
bodily integrity, political patriarchal oppression, One-Stop Centres for
participation) essential for ensuring women’s inclusion in violence survivors.
women’s dignity, advocating state social justice frameworks.
intervention to ensure these.
3. Kimberlé y Intersectionality: Highlights y Ensures social justice addresses y Crenshaw’s lens
Crenshaw how gender intersects with overlapping vulnerabilities, explains high
caste, class, and region, advocating targeted policies for anaemia rates among
creating compounded equitable resource distribution. rural women (NFHS-
discrimination for marginalised 5) due to class-
women (such as Dalit women). gender intersections.

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4. Sylvia Walby y Patriarchy as a System: Views y Calls for dismantling y Walby’s theory
patriarchy as a dynamic system patriarchal norms via policy supports Nari Shakti
operating through institutions and cultural shifts, aligning Vandan Adhiniyam to
(family, state, economy), with social justice’s reform political
requiring structural reforms for transformative goals. structures.
gender equality.
5. Naila Kabeer y Empowerment as Agency: y Emphasises economic and social y Kabeer’s framework
Defines empowerment as empowerment as core to social validates Deendayal
women’s ability to make justice, ensuring women’s Antyodaya Yojana-
strategic life choices through autonomy in decision-making. NRLM’s impact on
access to resources, agency, and 8.9 crore women.
achievements.

5. Status of Women in India: Opportunities and Challenges

Opportunities Challenges
y Improved Demographics: The sex ratio is projected to y Skewed Sex Ratios: Practices like female feticide persist
rise from 943 (2011) to 952 by 2036, reflecting a more due to son preference, with the rural sex ratio at 985
balanced gender composition. (NFHS-5).
y Example: Kerala and Puducherry had favorable sex ratios y Example: Haryana’s low sex ratio fuels trafficking and
in 2011 (Census 2011). violence (Centre for Social Research).
y Educational Gains: Female literacy rose to 64.63% y Educational Disparities: Only 8.3% of women complete
(2011), with GER at the higher secondary level reaching graduation (NSS 75th Round), with rural females
58.2% (2023-24). averaging 6.4 years of schooling.
y Example: Vigyan Jyoti promotes women in STEM fields. y Example: Dropout rates remain high in Bihar due to early
marriage.
y Health Improvements: MMR declined to 97/lakh live y Health Inequities: 57.2% of non-pregnant women are
births (2018-20), and institutional deliveries rose to 88.6% anaemic (NFHS-5), with only 52% receiving adequate
(NFHS-5). antenatal care.
y Example: PM Matru Vandana Yojana incentivises y Example: Rural Jharkhand lacks sufficient healthcare
maternal care. facilities.
y Economic Participation: Women own 20.5% of MSMEs y Low LFPR: Female LFPR is 37% (PLFS 2022-23), with a
(Udyam Portal) and constitute about 18% of recognized 20% gender pay gap.
Indian startup founders (2023). y Example: Urban women face high unemployment in the
y Example: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-NRLM empowers 15-29 age group (PLFS).
SHGs.
y Political Representation: 46% of PRI elected members y Underrepresentation: Only 14% of Lok Sabha MPs are
are women (2024), bolstered by the 106th Amendment Act women (2024), with just 13.7% in the Council of
for 33% reservation. Ministers.
y Example: Women-led panchayats prioritize water and y Example: “Sarpanchpati” practice undermines women’s
sanitation (Esther Duflo study). autonomy in PRIs.

6. Welfare Schemes and Their Impact

Scheme/Initiative Objective Impact Challenges
1. Beti Bachao, Beti y Promote girl y Reduced child marriage from 26.8% to 23.3% y Limited reach in
Padhao child education (NFHS-5); increased school enrollment. high-prevalence states
and survival. y Example: Haryana’s campaigns improved like Bihar, where child
the sex ratio at birth. marriage exceeds 40%.
2. PM Matru Vandana y Provide cash y Supported 1.5 crore women with maternity y Delayed disbursements
Yojana incentives for benefits (2023). and low awareness in
maternal and y Example: Increased institutional deliveries remote areas like tribal
child health. in rural UP. Odisha.
3. Deendayal y Empower y 8.9 crore women mobilised into SHGs, y Lack of market
Antyodaya Yojana- women through enhancing financial inclusion. linkages and credit
NRLM SHGs for y Example: SHGs in Tamil Nadu boosted access limits scalability
livelihoods. micro-enterprises. in rural areas.

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4. Nari Shakti Vandan y Reserve 33% y Expected to increase women’s political y Delayed
Abhiniyam, 2023 of seats for voice post-implementation. implementation and
women in y Example: Rwanda’s zipper method resistance from
legislatures. achieved 60% female MPs. patriarchal structures.
5. Sambal (One-Stop y Offer medical, y 700+ centres aided 26 lakh women (2023). y Inadequate
Centres) legal, and y Example: Delhi’s centres provided infrastructure and
shelter support counselling for domestic violence victims. trained staff in rural
for violence areas like Jharkhand.
survivors.

7. Mechanisms, Laws, and Institutions for Protection and Betterment

Mechanism/Law/ Purpose Strengths Limitations
Institution
1. Maternity Benefit y Extend paid maternity leave y Raised paid leave from y Applicable only to
(Amendment) Act, and support working mothers. 12 to 26 weeks; promotes formal sector women. It
2017 workplace dignity. does not extend to all
working women,
particularly those in the
informal sector
2. PCPNDT Act (1994, y Prevent sex-selective abortion y Mandatory registration of y Weak enforcement, low
amended 2003) and uphold girl child rights. clinics; banned prenatal conviction rates,
sex determination. corruption and collusion
persist in many regions.
3. National policy for y To bring about the y Focused on y Limited accountability
empowerment of advancement, development, mainstreaming gender mechanism; lacked clear
women (2001) and empowerment of women in all policies and action plans, monitoring
across all sectors. programs. indicators, or budgetary
backing.
4. Protection of y Safeguard women from y Provides protection orders y Low awareness and
Women from physical, emotional, and and residence rights. implementation gaps,
Domestic Violence economic abuse. y Example: Helped 1.2 with only 34% of cases
Act, 2005 lakh women secure legal resulting in protection
aid (2021, NCRB). orders (NCRB, 2021).
5. Sexual Harassment y Prevent and redress workplace y Mandates Internal y Underreporting due to
of Women at harassment. Complaints Committees. fear of retaliation,
Workplace Act, 2013 y Example: NCW handled especially in informal
2,500 complaints in 2021. sectors.
6. National policy for y Create a comprehensive y Focused on emerging y Still in draft stage—
women (Draft) 2016 framework for women's themes like digital never formally adopted;
welfare aligned with inclusion, women in lacks legal enforceability
contemporary needs and global conflict zones, asset
commitments (like SDG 5). ownership, and climate
change.
5. National y Advocate for women’s rights y Facilitates legal aid and y Limited enforcement
Commission for and monitor policy awareness. powers and urban-centric
Women (NCW) implementation. y Example: NCW’s helpline focus.
supported 3 lakh women in
2022.
6. 73rd and 74th y Reserve 33% of seats for y Empowered 1.4 million y “Sarpanchpati” and
Amendments women in PRIs and women in PRIs (2024). lack of training
municipalities. y Example: Women-led undermine effectiveness.
panchayats in Rajasthan
improved sanitation.
7. CEDAW y Align with global standards y Pushed for reforms like y Non-criminalization of
Compliance for eliminating discrimination. criminalizing marital rape marital rape violates
(Justice Verma CEDAW principles.
Committee).
y Example: Influenced the
Shah Bano case for
maintenance rights.

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 8. Ways to Reduce Gender Inequality in India
Intervention Description Impact Potential Example
1. Social Norm y Public campaigns to y Shifts societal y Bell Bajao campaign reduced
Campaigns challenge patriarchal attitudes, reducing domestic violence in targeted
stereotypes and promote tolerance for violence. areas (UNFPA).
gender equality.
2. Men’s y Involve men in gender y Reduces male y Pew Research (2020) found that
Engagement sensitisation to foster respect perpetration of 51% of Indians believe
Programs for women. violence. teaching boys respect for
women would improve
women’s safety.
3. Strengthening y Fast-track courts and y Increases reporting y Fast-track courts in Delhi
Legal women-friendly police and conviction rates. reduced case pendency by 30%
Enforcement stations to ensure justice. (2022).
4. Economic y Promote financial inclusion y Enhances women’s y PM AWAS Yojana’s female
Independence through microfinance and agency and bargaining ownership mandate boosted
asset ownership. power. women’s security in Gujarat.
5. Digital Literacy y Equip women with digital y Bridges the digital y SEWA’s Sanghini initiative
Initiatives skills to access opportunities divide, empowering increased digital access for
and report violence. rural women. 10,000 women in Gujarat.

9. Way Forward
Aspect Analysis Recommendations
1. Social Justice y Women’s empowerment is integral to addressing y Strengthen monitoring of schemes,
Perspective systemic inequalities rooted in patriarchy, caste, integrate gender budgeting, and
and economic disparities. promote community-driven
y Example: Schemes like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao awareness to dismantle patriarchal
and NRLM promote education and livelihoods, norms.
but implementation gaps and patriarchal resistance
persist.
2. Intersectionality y Challenges vary across caste, class, and region. y Design targeted interventions for
Dalit women face compounded discrimination, marginalized groups, such as Dalit and
while rural women lack access to digital and tribal women, with focus on healthcare
healthcare resources. access and skill development.
y Example: Tribal women in Jharkhand struggle
with health and economic exclusion.
3. Holistic y Beyond schemes, transforming social attitudes, y Implement legal reforms, scale up
Interventions legal reforms such ascriminalizing marital rape), campaigns like Bell Bajao, and invest
and infrastructure (such as childcare facilities) are in childcare and transport infrastructure
critical. to support women’s participation.
y Example: Bolivia’s Parity Law increased female
parliamentary representation to 50%.
4. Economic y Gender parity could add $770 billion to India’s y Formalize informal sector work,
Imperative GDP by 2025 (McKinsey). expand care economy investments, and
y Example: The care economy contributes 3.1% to promote women-led enterprises
GDP by women (Economic Survey 2024). through credit and market linkages.
5. Global Alignment y Aligning with CEDAW and adopting models like y Enforce CEDAW compliance,
Rwanda’s zipper method can accelerate progress criminalize marital rape, and adopt
toward Viksit Bharat by 2047. global best practices like gender quotas
in legislatures.

India’s progress on women’s status aligns with SDG-5, aiming for gender equality and empowerment. Though strides have been
made, sustained efforts are vital to ensure full participation and foster inclusive, equitable development.

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 2 Legislation for Women in India

Legislation for women in India aims to promote gender equality, protect rights, and address historical and
structural discrimination. These laws span domains like safety, employment, health, inheritance, and justice
to empower women and ensure their dignity and security.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. “ Though women in post-Independent India have excelled in various fields, the social attitude
towards women and the feminist movement has been patriarchal.” Apart from women education
and women empowerment schemes, what interventions can help change this milieu? (2021)

1. Key Legislation for Women in India

1.1 Family and Personal Laws
A. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Protection orders to y Restricts perpetrators from contacting or y Enhances victim safety; underreporting
prevent abuse. harming the victim. due to stigma limits reach.
2. Residence orders to y Allows women to remain in the shared y Prevents homelessness; empowers
secure housing household. women to assert housing rights.
3. Monetary relief for y Provides compensation for losses or y Ensures economic stability;
financial support. expenses due to abuse. implementation varies by region.
4. Counselling and legal y Facilitates access to support services for y Promotes holistic recovery; limited
aid under Section 12 victims. awareness hinders access.

B. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Prohibits giving or y Bans dowry transactions to reduce financial burdens. y Aims to curb dowry-related
taking dowry y Example: NCRB 2021 reported over 6,000 dowry death violence; cultural acceptance
cases, showing persistent issues. undermines enforcement.
2. Imposes y Minimum 5 years imprisonment for giving or y Deters dowry practices; low
imprisonment for taking dowry, extendable in related offences like conviction rates weaken the
violations dowry death (up to 7 years under IPC Section 304B). impact.
3. Fines for non- y Monetary penalties alongside imprisonment. y Intended as an additional
compliance deterrence, but poor monitoring
and legal delays dilute
implementation.

C. Hindu Succession Act, 1956 (Amended 2005)

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Grant's daughters y Equal inheritance rights in ancestral property as sons. y Promotes gender equity in
coparcenary rights y Example: In Vineeta Sharma v. Rakesh Sharma property; challenges patriarchal
(2020), the Supreme Court upheld daughters’ equal norms.
coparcenary rights.
2. Applies to joint y Covers ancestral assets under the Hindu Undivided y Enhances women’s financial
family property Family. security; rural awareness is low.
3. Retrospective y Rights extend to daughters born before the 2005 y Broadens the scope of inheritance;
application amendment. family resistance persists.

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 D. Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Maintenance under y Financial support for women lacking income y Ensures financial stability; legal
Section 24 during marriage or divorce. delays hinder timely relief.
2. Alimony for post- y Permanent financial support after divorce y Supports economic independence;
divorce support under Section 25 societal pressure to reconcile limited use.
3. Right to seek y Allows legal separation without dissolving the y Provides exit from abusive marriages;
judicial separation marriage. underutilised due to stigma.

1.2 Workplace and Economic Empowerment Laws

A. Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Equal pay for equal y Mandates the same wages for men and women for y Promotes economic equality;
work similar tasks. weak enforcement in informal
y Example: IT sector women benefited, reducing pay sectors.
gap (20%, Monster Salary Index, 2023).
2. Prohibits y Ensures gender-neutral hiring processes. y Enhances job access; repealed by
discrimination in the Code on Wages, 2019,
recruitment causing transition issues.
3. Prevents y Mandates equal opportunities for career y Supports career growth;
discrimination in advancement. compliance gaps in the
promotion unorganised sectors.

B. Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (Amended 2017)

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. 26 weeks of paid y For women in establishments with 10+ y Enhances maternal health; limited
maternity leave employees. reach in informal sectors.
2. Crèche facilities for y Mandatory for establishments with 50+ y Supports working mothers; inconsistent
workplaces employees; allows 4 daily visits. implementation in smaller firms.
3. Work-from-home y Allows flexibility post-26-week leave, subject y Improves retention; awareness low
options post-leave to employer agreement. among rural workers.
4. 12 weeks leave for y For surrogate mothers from child handover date. y Supports surrogacy; limited
commissioning y Example: A commissioning mother in Delhi awareness of provision.
mothers availed 12 weeks leave.
5. 6 weeks leave post- y Leave with wages post-medical termination or y Protects women’s health post-loss;
miscarriage miscarriage, upon proof. underutilized due to stigma.
6. Nursing breaks for 15 y Two daily breaks for nursing until child is 15 y Promotes child health; compliance
months months old. varies in small firms.

C. Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and

Redressal) Act, 2013
Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Mandates Internal y For workplaces with 10+ employees, to address y Fosters safe workplaces; poor ICC
Complaints harassment complaints. implementation in small firms.
Committees y Example: A Gurugram woman reported harassment via
(ICCs) ICC, leading to action (NCW, 2021: 2,500 complaints).
2. Requires POSH y Employers must adopt anti-harassment guidelines y Promotes accountability;
policies and conduct training. underreporting due to fear of
retaliation.
3. Provides redressal y Ensures timely, confidential resolution of y Empowers victims to seek justice;
mechanisms complaints. delays in small organisations.

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4. Fines up to y Penalties for failing to form ICCs or implement y Deters employer negligence;
₹50,000 for policies. enforcement is inconsistent.
non-compliance
5. Covers students y Extends protection to schools, colleges, and y Broadens the safety net; awareness
and patients hospitals. is low in non-corporate settings.
6. Allows Local y District-level committees for workplaces without y Enhances access to justice; LCC
Complaints ICCs. functionality varies by region.
Committees (LCCs)

1.3 Protection Against Violence and Exploitation

A. Indian Penal Code, Section 354A
Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Punishes unwelcome y Includes physical or verbal advances. y Deters harassment; social normalisation
sexual advances persists.
2. Criminalises explicit y Covers derogatory or sexual comments. y Protects dignity; low conviction rates
remarks (NCRB 2021: 27.8% for rape cases).
3. Penalises inappropriate y Includes non-verbal harassment acts. y Broadens the scope of protection;
gestures enforcement challenges remain.

B. Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act (POCSO), 2012

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Defines sexual assault y Covers physical and non-contact offences. y Safeguards girls; societal
on children y Example: Over 64,469 POCSO victims were reported in 2022; silence hinders reporting.
pendency of cases rose by 7.4%, crossing 1.3 lakh by March
2023, indicating judicial delays in child protection.
2. Mandates child- y Ensures sensitive handling of cases. y Reduces trauma for
friendly procedures victims.
3. Fast-tracks trials for y Special courts for POCSO cases. y Accelerates justice;
speedy justice backlog persists in courts.

C. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Prohibits indecent ads y Bans derogatory portrayals in advertisements. y Promotes respectful portrayal;
y Example: A 2020 ad campaign of Zatak Deo was digital enforcement lags.
banned for objectifying women.
2. Restricts print media y Covers magazines, newspapers, etc. y Curbs objectification; outdated for
portrayals modern media.
3. Covers digital media y Extends to online content. y Adapts to new platforms;
representations monitoring challenges persist.
1.4 Reproductive and Health Rights
A. Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 (Amended 2021)
Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Abortion up to 24 y Allowed for special categories (rape victims, incest, y Enhances reproductive
weeks disabled women) with two doctors’ opinions. autonomy; rural access limited.
y Example: X v/s NCT of Delhi (2022) upheld abortion
rights under Article 21.
2. No spousal y Empowers women’s independent decisions. y Strengthens personal liberty;
consent required social stigma persists.
3. Special provisions y Allows abortion with guardian consent. y Protects vulnerable girls;
for minors awareness low in remote areas.

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4. District-level y Formed for policy implementation and decision- y Improves governance;
committees making, including NGOs. inconsistent implementation.
5. One doctor for up y Reduces the requirement from two doctors for early y Simplifies access; overburdened
to 20 weeks abortions. healthcare systems.
6. Protects y Ensures the privacy of women seeking abortion. y Upholds dignity; enforcement
confidentiality varies by facility.

B. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Prohibits the y Sets legal marriage age to protect girls. y Promotes education and health;
marriage of girls y Example: NFHS-5 shows a decline in child cultural traditions resist change.
below 18 marriages due to enforcement.
2. Allows annulment of y Provides legal recourse to void marriages. y Empowers girls to exit forced
child marriages marriages; underutilised.
3. Penalties for y Punishes those arranging child marriages. y Deters violations; enforcement is
facilitators inconsistent in rural areas.

C. Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 (and 2024 Rules)

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Regulates altruistic y Permits surrogacy only for Indian married couples or y Protects surrogates from
surrogacy widows/divorcees (aged 23-50) without commercial gain. exploitation; restricts access for
y Example: A 2024 case in Delhi ensured altruistic single women.
surrogacy for a widow.
2. Surrogate must y Surrogacy (Regulation) Amendment Rules, 2023, y Ensures ethical surrogacy;
be a relative introduced a significant change by allowing any "willing limits pool of surrogates.
woman" to be a surrogate mother, rather than
restricting it to close relatives of the intending couple.
3. Bans commercial y Prohibits payment to surrogates beyond medical y Curbs commodification;
surrogacy expenses and insurance. reduces surrogacy options.
4. Establishes National y Oversees policy and compliance at the national level y Strengthens regulation;
Surrogacy Board (2024 Rules). bureaucratic delays are possible.
5. Mandatory y Covers the surrogate’s health for 36 months post- y Enhances surrogate welfare;
insurance for delivery (2024 Rules). enforcement challenges remain.
surrogate

1.5 Institutional and Support Mechanisms

A. National Commission for Women Act, 1990
Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Establishes NCW y Addresses gender discrimination and violence. y Amplifies women’s
for advocacy y Example: In 2021, the National Commission for Women (NCW) voices; urban-centric
received 250 complaints related to sexual harassment at the workplace. focus limits reach.
2. Recommends y Advises the government on women’s rights laws. y Shape gender-sensitive
policy reforms policies; resource
constraints persist.
3. Investigate rights y Probe cases of discrimination or abuse. y Ensures
violations accountability; limited
enforcement powers.

B. Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. Free legal aid at y For women unable to afford legal y Enhances access to justice; bureaucratic delays
central level support. hinder.
1. Lok Adalats y Special courts for amicable y Quick, low-cost resolution; useful for family and
(People’s Courts) settlement of disputes, especially civil matters. May not address complex legal issues
relevant in rural areas.

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 2. State-level legal y Extends aid through state y Broadens reach; awareness low in rural areas.
services authorities.
3. District-level y Local legal aid for grassroots access. y Supports marginalized women; inconsistent
support implementation.

C. Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023

Key Provisions Details Impact
1. 33% reservation for y Reserves one-third of seats for women in Lok Sabha. y Enhances women’s political
women in Lok Sabha y Example: Awaits implementation post-2026 representation; delayed
census and delimitation. implementation.
2. 33% reservation in y Applies to State Legislative Assemblies and Delhi y Promotes gender equity in
State Assemblies NCT Assembly. governance; delimitation delays
impact rollout.
3. Applies to SC/ST y Extends reservation to seats reserved for y Ensures inclusive representation;
reserved seats Scheduled Castes and Tribes. complexity in seat allocation.
4. Effective post- y Reservation to begin after census and delimitation, y Long-term impact on politics;
delimitation valid for 15 years. uncertainty in timeline.

2. Challenges in Implementation
Challenge Description Example
1. Weak y Delayed investigations and poor y Total case registrations rose from 199,954 in 2023 to
Enforcement victim support hinder justice delivery, 214,113 in 2024, about a 7% increase. Rape incidents
causing low reporting and prolonged saw an 8% rise with 3,054 cases registered in 2024
legal outcomes. compared to 2,826 in 2023.
2. Societal Norms y Deep-rooted patriarchal beliefs often y The 2021 Lokniti-CSDS study highlights a concerning
normalise violence and discourage societal issue: a significant portion of respondents
women from seeking legal recourse, believe that wives should tolerate violence.
perpetuating gender inequalities.
3. Lack of y Many women, particularly in rural y NFHS-5 (2019-21) noted low awareness of the MTP
Awareness areas, remain unaware of their legal Act in rural Bihar, restricting reproductive choices.
rights, limiting their ability to access
protections and benefits.
4. Administrative y Insensitive handling by police and y Human Rights Watch (2018) documented victim-
Bottlenecks bureaucratic inefficiencies create blaming in domestic violence cases in Uttar Pradesh.
barriers, often deterring women from
pursuing legal remedies.

3. Way Forward
Strategy Action Committee Recommendations
1. Strengthen y Train police and administrative officials y Justice Verma Committee (2013)
Implementation for gender-sensitive handling; ensure recommended setting up fast-track courts and
timely charge-sheeting and case monitoring. specialised police units for the swift handling of
sexual offence cases.
2. Awareness y Leverage media and community programs y NCW (2021): Suggested nationwide campaigns
Campaigns to educate women about their legal rights. to promote POSH Act awareness.

3. Economic y Promote education and skill development y Parliamentary Committee on Women (2020):
Empowerment to foster financial independence among Advocated vocational training for rural women.
women.
4. Shift Social y Launch public campaigns to challenge y UN Women India (2022): Recommended
Norms patriarchal attitudes and promote gender media-driven gender sensitisation programs.
equality.
5. Infrastructure y Create safe spaces and women-friendly y Ministry of Women and Child Development (2023):
Development police stations to support survivors. Proposed more One Stop Centres for victims.
Despite progressive laws, implementation gaps and societal biases hinder their full impact. Bridging these gaps is crucial for real
empowerment. As B.R. Ambedkar rightly said, “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women
have achieved.”

10
 3 Children
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To Read More

In India, a child is defined as an individual below 18 years of age, as per the National Policy for Children (2013) and
the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012. Recognised as a vulnerable group, children
require focused attention, protection, and opportunities to ensure their well-being and holistic development within the
framework of social justice.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, remains inadequate in
promoting an incentive-based system for children’s education without generating awareness
about the importance of schooling. Analyse. (2022)

2. Examine the main provisions of the National Child Policy and throw light on the status of its
implementation. (2016)

1. Constitutional Provisions for Children

Aspect Description Examples
1. Right to Education y Art. 21A ensures free and y Unni Krishnan v. State of AP (1993) expanded
compulsory education for children education rights. 98% primary school enrollment
aged 6-14, a fundamental right under (ASER 2023).
the Right to Education Act, 2009.
2. Protection from y Art. 24 prohibits child labour below y NCRB reports 1,329 cases (2015-2022) under the
Hazardous Work 14 in hazardous sectors like factories Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and
and mines, ensuring child safety. Regulation) Act, 1986.
3. Protection from y Art. 23 bans forced labour and y Delhi Police’s Anti-Human Trafficking Unit rescued
Exploitation trafficking, safeguarding children 104 missing children in nine months, overcoming
from exploitation. language barriers and unfamiliar locations across
Haryana, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.
4. Directive y Art. 39(e) & (f) direct the state to y Sheela Barse v. Union of India (1986) emphasized
Principles ensure children’s health, strength, child welfare.
and freedom from abuse, promoting
holistic development.
5. Equality and y Art. 14 & 15 ensure equality and y Supreme Court upheld girls’ equal access to Sainik
Non- prohibit discrimination, protecting Schools (2023).
Discrimination children’s fundamental rights.

2. Child Labour
Aspect Description
1. Present Situation y Over 10.1 million children (5-14 years) engaged in child labour (Census 2011), down from 12.6
million (2001).
y Uttar Pradesh, Bihar lead in child labour (NCRB 2023).
y In the past five years(2020-2025), 616 children engaged in child labour were rescued in Gujarat
2. Causes y Intergenerational Poverty Trap: As per Amartya Sen’s capability deprivation theory, families
prioritise survival over schooling.
y Educational Inequity: Poor infrastructure and inaccessible schools push children into work.
y Example: 60% of child labour linked to poverty (ILO 2023).
y Weak Enforcement & Governance Gaps: Low conviction rates and lack of labour inspections.
y Socio-cultural Acceptance: Normalization of child work in informal sectors, especially in rural,
caste-stratified economies.
y Seasonal & Distress Migration: Children accompany migrating parents; exploited in brick
kilns, farms, and factories.
y Informal Sector Pull: Demand for cheap, compliant labour in unregulated sectors.
y Digital & Urban Divide: Lack of access to digital education post-COVID forced many back
into work.

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3. Impacts y Physical and Cognitive Harm: Exposure to hazardous materials, long working hours leads to
stunting, developmental delays (WHO).
y Educational Deprivation: High dropout rates, weak learning outcomes; violates Article 21A
(Right to Education).
y Example: Around 22% of children drop out during elementary school (Classes I–VIII) in India
(UDISE+ 2023–24).
y Perpetuation of Intergenerational Poverty: Lack of skills = no upward mobility (echoed by
Gurupadswamy Committee).
y Social Marginalisation: Reinforces exclusion of SC/ST/minority children; affects dignity and
self-worth.
y Psychological Trauma: Early exposure to exploitation can cause anxiety, depression, and
identity loss (UN CRC, 1989).
y National Economic Loss: Undermines demographic dividend, lowers productivity.
4. Steps Taken A. Schemes:
y National Child Labour Project (NCLP): Rehabilitates children through education and
vocational training.
y Example: As on 2023, 14.3 lakh children were rescued, rehabilitated, and mainstreamed
under the National Child Labour Project since inception of the Scheme.
y PENCIL Portal: To ensure effective enforcement of the provisions of the Child Labour Act
B. Legislative Measures:
y Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986 (Amended 2016): Bans child labour
under 14 in hazardous work.
y Juvenile Justice Act, 2015: Protects rescued children.
C. Institutional Measures:
y NCPCR: Monitors child rights violations.
y District Task Forces: Conduct rescue operations.
5. Way Forward & y Strengthen Enforcement: 52nd Parliamentary Committee (2023) recommends stricter FIR
Committee registration.
Recommendations y Social Protection: Cash transfers to curb poverty.
y Child Tracking System: National database (52nd Committee).
y Example: Gurupadswamy Committee (1979) recommended rehabilitation and education for
child labourers in sectors like carpet weaving, linking poverty to child labour.
y NGO Collaboration: Partner with Bachpan Bachao Andolan.

3. Child Marriage
Aspect Description
1. Present Situation y 23.3% of women aged 20-24 married before 18 (NFHS-5, 2019-21), down from 47.4% (NFHS-
3, 2005-06).
y Rajasthan, Bihar lead in child marriage.
2. Causes y Feminisation of Poverty: Girls are viewed as economic burdens; early marriage is used to reduce
dowry costs and liabilities.
y Example: NFHS-5, as per NCRB, number of cases registered under Prohibition of Child Marriage
Act, 2006 during the last five years have increased from 395 (2017) to 1050 (2021).
y Gender Norms & Patriarchal Structures: Girls’ roles are socially constructed around marriage and
motherhood (Sylvia Chant’s theory of gendered poverty).
y Education Deprivation: Girls with no education are 6 times more likely to marry early (UNICEF).
y Customary Laws & Social Sanctions: Practices like gauna, bal vivah, and local traditions
supersede legal norms in rural belts.
y Example: As per UNICEF data, India is home to the largest absolute number of child brides—over
one in three of the world’s child brides live in India
y Weak Legal Deterrence: Low conviction under the PCMA (2006), inadequate Child Marriage
Prohibition Officers (CMPOs).
y Disaster-linked Vulnerability: Natural disasters increase child marriages as coping mechanisms.
y Example: Crises like COVID-19.
y Lack of Safe Spaces for Girls: Fear of sexual violence or elopement often forces early marriage.

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3. Impacts y Reproductive & Maternal Health Risks: Early pregnancies raise the risk of obstetric fistula,
maternal mortality, low birth weight.
y Educational & Skill Deficit: Married girls often drop out, limiting skill development and
employability. (Amartya Sen’s “capability deprivation”).
y Reinforcement of Gender Subordination: Entrenches women’s dependency and male
dominance in household decision-making.
y Cycle of Intergenerational Poverty: Early marriage perpetuates poverty for future generations.
y Mental Health Impact: Risk of depression, anxiety, and isolation due to marital abuse or
coercion (UN CRC, 1989).
y Increased Risk of Gender-Based Violence: Domestic violence, marital rape, and control over
mobility.
y Example: NFHS-5 data suggests about 30–35% of ever-married women experience domestic or
intimate partner violence.
y Violation of Rights: Breach of Article 21 (Right to Life and Dignity) and UN Convention on the
Rights of the Child.
4. Steps Taken A. Schemes:
y Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: Promotes girl child education.
y Kanyashree Prakalpa: Cash transfers to delay marriage.
y Example: Kanyashree has benefited millions of girls, with official references mentioning
about 7.2 million beneficiaries by 2023
B. Legislative Measures:
y Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: Sets minimum marriage age at 18.
y Pending Bill (2021): Proposes raising girls’ marriage age to 21.
C. Institutional Measures:
y NCPCR: Monitors child marriage violations.
y Child Marriage Prohibition Officers: Prevent illegal marriages.
5. Way Forward & y Legal Reform & Uniformity: Implement the Committee's recommendation to raise the legal
Committee age of marriage for girls to 21 to ensure gender parity and delayed motherhood.
Recommendations Example: Jaya Jaitly Committee emphasised education to curb child marriage.
y Education as a Social Vaccine: Promote universal secondary education for girls, in line with
SDG-4 and Right to Education (Article 21A).
y Community Engagement & Behavioural Change: Initiate social norm transformation via
ASHA workers, Anganwadi centres, and adolescent peer groups (as recommended by UNICEF
& Population Foundation of India).
y Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs): Expand and replicate schemes like Kanyashree (West
Bengal), Ladli Laxmi (Madhya Pradesh) that incentivise delayed marriage.
y Strengthen CMPOs & Grassroots Governance: Ensure proper appointment, training, and
monitoring of Child Marriage Prohibition Officers; decentralised monitoring by Gram Sabhas.
y Data & Early Warning Systems: Create district-wise child marriage risk indices using school
dropout data, marriage registrations, and adolescent pregnancies.
y Gender-Sensitive Curriculum: Include modules on reproductive health, legal rights, and consent in schools.

4. Child Malnutrition
Aspect Description
1. Present Situation y 35.5% children under 5 stunted, 19.3% wasted, 32.1% underweight (NFHS-5, 2019-21). Bihar,
UP worst affected.
y 40% stunting in Jharkhand (NFHS-5).
2. Causes y Multidimensional Poverty: Deprivation in income, nutrition, housing, and sanitation restricts
access to adequate food (as defined by Global MPI).
y Example: State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, 2023, around 74% of India’s
population could not afford a healthy diet, and 39% fell short of a nutrient-adequate one.
y WASH Deficit: Poor Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) leads to diarrhoeal diseases,
impairing nutrient absorption (World Bank, 2023).
y Example: A 2021 academic study revealed that over 20% of households in 12 Indian states,
notably Bihar, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh, lacked any access to usable, safe toilet facilities.
y Maternal Undernutrition & Adolescent Pregnancy: Low maternal BMI and early motherhood
contribute to low birth weight, as per the Lancet Nutrition Series.
y Food Insecurity & Knowledge Gap: Lack of dietary diversity and nutrition illiteracy hinders
balanced feeding practices (UNICEF, 2022).
y Weak Governance of Nutrition Schemes: Leakages in Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS) and Public Distribution System (PDS) lower programme impact.
y Climate Vulnerability: Droughts and floods reduce food security in tribal and agrarian regions (IPCC, 2023).

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3. Impacts y Cognitive Deficits: Undernourished children face stunted brain development, limiting academic
performance.
y Example: Sánchez et al.’s study in ‘World Development’ found early stunting at age 5 negatively
affects later executive function in Ethiopian and Peruvian children.
y Immunological Compromise: Weakened immunity leads to higher morbidity and mortality from
infections like pneumonia and TB.
y Economic Implications: Reports from the World Bank and UNICEF indicate that malnutrition
may cost India 2-3% of its GDP annually.
y Perpetuation of Intergenerational Inequality: Poor nutrition in childhood increases the likelihood
of malnourished offspring — a biological trap of poverty (Amartya Sen’s Capabilities Approach).
y Social Marginalisation: Malnourished tribal and Dalit children face long-term exclusion from
education and workforce participation.
y Example: Malnourished children generally score significantly lower in academic assessments
(UNICEF)
4. Steps Taken A. Schemes:
y POSHAN Abhiyaan: Targets malnutrition reduction by 2022.
y Example: Poshan Tracker has registered over 10.12 crore beneficiaries
y Mid-Day Meal Scheme: Provides nutritious meals in schools.
B. Legislative Measures:
y National Food Security Act, 2013: Ensures food rights.
y Maternity Benefit Act, 2017: Supports maternal nutrition.
y Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): Provides direct cash transfers for
nutrition support.
C. Institutional Measures:
y ICDS: Provides supplementary nutrition.
y Anganwadi Centres: Monitor child health.
5. Way Forward & y Life-Cycle Approach: Focus on nutrition from pregnancy to adolescence, as endorsed by NITI
Committee Aayog’s POSHAN 2.0 strategy (2023).
Recommendations y Community-Based Monitoring: Strengthen Jan Andolan under POSHAN to decentralize
accountability using SHGs, PRI members, and mothers’ groups.
y Fortification of Staples: Expand iron, folic acid, and micronutrient fortification of rice and edible oil
as advised by FSSAI and NITI Aayog.
y Integrated WASH-Nutrition Strategy: Link Swachh Bharat, Jal Jeevan Mission, and POSHAN for
a “Nutrition-Sensitive” policy framework (Global Nutrition Report 2021).
y Adolescent Nutrition Focus: Revive Weekly Iron Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) and
school-based awareness to break intergenerational malnutrition.
y Data-Driven Targeting: Use Real-Time Nutrition Monitoring Systems (RTNMS) for Anganwadi
Centres, as piloted in Maharashtra.
y Nutrition-Smart Agriculture: Promote crop diversification, kitchen gardens, and millets (Shree
Anna) to ensure local food security.
y Ensure sustained and enhanced budget allocation for nutrition under Saksham Anganwadi and
POSHAN 2.0, with a focus on performance-linked disbursal, as guided by the 15th Finance
Commission
y SDG Synergy: Align with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), and
SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation).

5. Child Abuse
Aspect Description
1. Present Situation y 53% of children face sexual, physical, or emotional abuse (MWCD Study, 2007). NCRB 2019
reported 1.5 lakh POCSO cases.
2. Causes y Socioeconomic Vulnerability: Poverty, homelessness, and child labour increase susceptibility to
exploitation (UNICEF 2023).
y Culture of Silence: Deep-rooted social stigma prevents disclosure, particularly in intra-familial abuse cases.
y Legal Systemic Gaps: Low conviction rates, delay in forensic examination, and vacancies in
Special POCSO courts.
y Awareness Deficit: Absence of structured Child Protection Education in schools (Kailash
Satyarthi Foundation).
y Dysfunctional Family Environment: Exposure to domestic violence, parental substance
abuse, or neglect.
y Digital Vulnerability: Rise of online grooming, cyberbullying, and child sexual abuse material (CSAM).
y Example: National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP), under the aegis of the Cyber Crime
Prevention against Women and Children (CCPWC) scheme, recorded 1.94 lakh child
pornography incidents as of April 2024.

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 3. Impacts y Psychological Trauma: Long-term Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), anxiety,
depression (NIMHANS 2023).
y Example: 40% of abused children show PTSD symptoms (NIMHANS 2023).
y Attachment Disorders: Difficulty in forming trusting relationships due to betrayal trauma.
y Educational Disruption: Low attendance, school dropouts, and learning disabilities.
y Perpetuation of Violence: Risk of intergenerational transmission—victims may become
future abusers (Harvard School of Public Health).
y Social Alienation: Loss of self-esteem, stigma, and withdrawal from peer groups.
y Public Health Burden: Abuse survivors are at higher risk of substance abuse and chronic diseases.
4. Steps Taken A. Schemes:
y CHILDLINE 1098: 24/7 helpline for child protection.
y Example: CHILDLINE rescued 20,000 children in 2023.
y Mission Vatsalya: Supports child welfare.
B. Legislative Measures:
y POCSO Act, 2012: Addresses child sexual abuse.
y Juvenile Justice Act, 2015: Ensures child-friendly justice.
C. Institutional Measures:
y NCPCR: Investigates child abuse cases.
y Child Welfare Committees: Provide rehabilitation.
5. Way Forward & y Fast-Track Courts: Justice Verma Committee (2013) recommends speedy POCSO trials.Verma
Committee Committee urged child-centric justice systems.
Recommendations y Awareness Campaigns: Promote child safety education.(such as UNICEF’s #EndViolence).
y Counselling Services: Expand mental health support.
y Community Vigilance: Strengthen local monitoring.

6. Other Issues
Issue Description
1. Child y Over 10,000 children are trafficked annually (NCRB 2023). Driven by poverty, organised crime.
Trafficking Art. 23 and the Anti-Trafficking Bill, 2021 address it.
2. Street Children y 1.8 million street children (MWCD 2023) face exploitation, malnutrition.
3. Child Beggary y Prevalent in urban areas, linked to poverty, trafficking. Juvenile Justice Act and NCPCR
interventions aim to curb it.
y Example: Indore administration launched an anti-begging drive, offering ₹1,000 reward for
reporting forced child begging cases.
4. Children in y Juvenile delinquency rising (NCRB 2023). Juvenile Justice Act, 2015, emphasises rehabilitation
Conflict with over punishment.
Law y Example: 80% of juvenile offenders rehabilitated in Karnataka (2023).
Children’s rights demand unwavering commitment to social justice. “Every child deserves a future free from fear and want.” –
Kailash Satyarthi. Strengthening enforcement and awareness ensures dignity and development for all.

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 4 Elderly and Senior Citizens

India is undergoing a demographic shift, with its elderly (60+ years) population projected to reach 20% by 2050 (UNFPA, 2023).
Census 2011 recorded over 10 crore elderly, a number rising rapidly. This underscores the need for policies ensuring elderly care,
health, and financial security, in line with Article 41 of the Constitution, which mandates state support for old age and disability.
Strengthening social justice for the elderly remains a critical priority.

1. Population Figures on Ageing

Aspect Details
1. Current y 149 million elderly population (60+ years), 10.5% of India’s population (2022, UNFPA India
Demographics Ageing Report 2023). 104 million in 2011 (8.6%, Census 2011).
y In 2011, Tamil Nadu's elderly proportion was 10.4%. Projections show it rising to 13.7%+ by
2021–2036.
2. Projected Growth y Elderly population will reach 347 million (20.8%) by 2050; will surpass children (0-15 years)
by 2046. Decadal growth: 41%.
y Kerala projects 22.8% elderly by 2036 (UNFPA 2023).
3. Rural-Urban y 71% elderly population (73 million) in rural areas, 29% (31 million) urban (Census 2011).
Divide Rural elderly face greater vulnerability.
y Most of Bihar’s elderly reside in rural areas
4. State Variations y Southern states (Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and Northern states (Himachal Pradesh, Punjab) have
higher elderly population shares than national average.
y Kerala’s elderly share is 16.5%, vs. 8-9% in UP (UNFPA 2023).

2. Issues of Elderly Population in India

Aspect Details Examples
1. Healthcare y Rise in multi-morbidity and chronic non- y 75% suffer from chronic diseases, with
Challenges communicable diseases (NCDs) like hypertension growing cases of geriatric depression and
and diabetes. High prevalence of geriatric functional disabilities (LASI 2020).
depression, dementia, and mental health disorders.
y Poor geriatric integration in primary healthcare y A significant proportion of elderly in rural UP
services.Inadequate rural health outreach and report lack of adequate healthcare access
healthcare inequity.
2. Economic y Elderly people, especially in informal sectors, face y Existing schemes like NSAP remain
Vulnerability significant income insecurity due to a lack of inadequate.
universal pension coverage.
y Elderly dependency on households is rising, y 40% of the elderly are in the poorest quintile;
particularly in poorer segments. 18.7% have no income (UNFPA 2023); 47%
depend on family.
y Most elderly people in informal employment lack y 90% of the elderly in the unorganised sector
access to any form of pension. lack pensions.
y Feminisation of poverty, especially widows and y 60% of the elderly in Bihar rely on family
single women, face compounded economic support (NSSO 2023).
vulnerabilities.

3. Social y Elderly face increased emotional and mental y Up to 50% of Mumbai's elderly report
Isolation health issues, including loneliness and neglect, due loneliness (HelpAge India 2023).
to reduced social interaction and support.
y Weakening of intergenerational bonds due to y 30% report loneliness, 25% face social isolation;
urban migration and nuclear families. 40% urban elderly live alone (LASI 2020).

16
4. Elder Abuse y Widespread prevalence of ageism and intra-family y 1,000 elder abuse cases in Delhi (2024)
conflicts over property or caregiving.
y Forms include emotional, physical, financial abuse, y 50% elderly face elder abuse (physical,
and neglect. emotional, neglect); 30% by family (HelpAge
India 2023). Property disputes drive abuse.
y Low institutional reporting and social silence y Studies indicate that only about 15–20% of
around abuse. older people know of this Act and available
protections
5. Digital y Significant digital exclusion due to a lack of digital y A large majority of rural elderly struggle to use
Divide literacy and infrastructure in rural areas. digital government services like SAMPANN,
mainly due to digital literacy, poor access, and
device limitations.
y Dependency on intermediaries for accessing welfare y A survey by the Agewell India Foundation
schemes. Technology design rarely follows found that 95 percent of elderly women are
gerontechnology principles (elderly-friendly tech). digitally illiterate
6. Housing and y Poor adoption of universal design in public y A very small fraction of public buildings in
Mobility buildings and transport. India are accessible or senior-friendly, with
significant gaps in barrier-free design.
y Lack of affordable and accessible senior housing or y Nearly 44% of elderly in India live with
assisted-living facilities. Mobility impairments functional or mobility impairments; the
restrict participation in public and social life. percentage is higher for those over 75.

3. Feminisation of Ageing
Aspect Details Examples
1. Sex Ratio y Women outnumber men in older age groups y Kerala’s elderly sex ratio: 1,084 women
due to higher life expectancy, leading to a per 1,000 men (Census 2011).
skewed elderly sex ratio. This longevity gap
amplifies gender-specific challenges.
2. Life Expectancy y Women’s longer lifespan (72 vs. 68 years at y The India Ageing Report 2023 highlights
60, LASI 2020) results in extended rising elderly women, especially widows,
widowhood, increasing vulnerability to social in states like Tamil Nadu, facing poverty,
and economic marginalisation. illiteracy, and social vulnerability.
3. Socio-Economic y Patriarchal structures limit women’s access y 60% or higher widowed elderly women rely
Challenges to income and property, with many elderly on family support (HelpAge India 2023).
women financially dependent. Economic
precarity is acute among widows.
4. Health Disparities y Elderly women face higher rates of chronic y 35% of elderly women in UP report
illnesses and mental health challenges, depression (NIMHANS 2023).
particularly depression, exacerbated by
widowhood and social isolation.
5. Social y Widowed and rural elderly women experience y 40% of rural elderly women live alone
Vulnerabilities social exclusion, elder abuse, and neglect, with (NSSO 2023).
very old dependent women at heightened risk.
6. Policy Gaps y Gender-neutral policies fail to address elderly y Overall pension coverage for the elderly is
women’s unique needs, particularly in rural around 27%, but rates are lower for rural
areas. Targeted interventions for gendered women.
ageing are urgently needed.

4. Issues with Existing Government Mechanisms

Aspect Details Examples
1. Limited Awareness y Widespread information asymmetry hampers elderly access y 70% of rural elderly are
to schemes like Annapurna. Awareness of legal protections, unaware of Elderline 14567
such as the Maintenance and Welfare Act, 2007, remains (HelpAge India 2023).
critically low.

17
2. Inadequate y Social protection schemes like NSAP offer meagre pensions, y 3 crore elderly under
Coverage failing to address economic vulnerability. IGNOAPS, millions
y Coverage excludes most unorganised sector workers, and excluded (2024).
Ayushman Bharat’s reach was limited pre-2024.
3. Urban Bias y Geriatric care and old age homes are skewed toward urban y Only 2% of rural elderly
areas, neglecting the rural majority. This geographic access geriatric care
inequity marginalises rural elderly healthcare access. (MoHFW 2023).
4. Regulatory Gaps y Unregulated private old age homes foster elder abuse and y 20% of private homes are
neglect due to absent oversight. The lack of a centralised non-compliant (HelpAge
monitoring framework exacerbates institutional neglect. India 2023).
5. Implementation y Stalled reforms, like the Senior Citizens Amendment Bill, y Bill pending since
Delays 2019, hinder progress on home-based care. Bureaucratic 2019, stalling reforms
inefficiencies perpetuate policy inertia. (MoSJE 2024).
6. Digital Exclusion y Digital platforms like SAMPANN and SACRED exclude the y 80% of elderly cannot
rural elderly due to the pervasive digital divide. E-governance access pension portals
barriers limit access to critical services. (MoRD 2023).

5. Measures for Elderly Welfare in India

Aspect Details Examples
1. Healthcare y Expand geriatric care (special units in y National Programme for Health Care of the
Access hospitals), mobile medical units, Elderly(NPHCE): Geriatric care at primary, secondary
mental health services, subsidized & tertiary levels.
elderly healthcare. y Ayushman Bharat-PMJAY: Covers elderly 70+ for ₹5
lakh treatment (2024).
y Tamil Nadu’s 50 mobile clinics
y served 1 lakh elderly (2024).
y AIIMS Geriatric Units in 10 hospitals.
2. Financial y Universalize pensions, encourage y IGNOAPS: ₹200–500/month for BPL elderly; 3 crore
Security private savings (such as, Atal Pension beneficiaries (2024).
Yojana), ensure tax reliefs, enhance y Atal Pension Yojana: 6 crore enrolled (2024).
PMVVY and reduce dependence. y PMVVY: 8% return; 5 lakh elderly benefited (LIC 2023).
3. Social y Promote elderly SHGs, y Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana (AVYAY): Funds 500
Inclusion multigenerational families, panchayat- day-care centres (2024).
level clubs, and social engagement y Karnataka: 200 senior citizen clubs (2023).
spaces to reduce isolation.
4. Digital y Launch digital literacy programs, y Delhi: 10,000 elderly trained through digital camps
Empowerment ensure easy-to-use digital interfaces, (2024).
bridge the rural digital gap for better
service access.
5. Housing & y Create age-friendly infrastructure, y Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana: 1 lakh aids distributed
Mobility housing, assistive devices, safe public (2023).
transport, and recreation spaces like y Tamil Nadu: 10 senior housing projects (2024).
libraries.
6. Protection & y Prevent elder abuse, ensure y Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior
Legal Rights maintenance, create redress Citizens Act, 2007: Only 12% aware.
mechanisms, and strengthen legal y Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior
literacy among the elderly. Citizens (Amendment) Bill, 2019: Includes step-/
adoptive children, proposes home-based care.
y Elderline 14567: Resolved 10,000 complaints (2023).
y Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Protects elderly women.
y National Policy on Older Persons (1999) & Senior
Citizens (2011): Outdated, needs revision.

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 6. Silver Economy
Aspect Details Examples
1. Economic y Silver economy leverages elderly population as y Elderly spending on healthcare,
Potential consumers and contributors; projected to reach $1 trillion travel boosts GDP
by 2030 (NITI Aayog 2023). Driven by retirement (FICCI 2024).
spending.
2. Employment y Elderly can contribute via consulting, mentorship, y Kerala’s elderly mentors trained
Opportunities part-time work in sectors like education, healthcare. 10,000 youth in skills (2024).
Promotes active ageing.
3. Consumer y Growing demand for senior-friendly products (such as y Silver tourism packages grew in
Markets assistive devices, geriatric care services, retirement Rajasthan (2023).
homes). Silver tourism and wellness markets expanding.
4. Skill y Upskilling elderly for digital literacy, entrepreneurship y Delhi’s digital literacy program
Development enhances economic participation. Bridges digital divide. trained 10,000 elderly for
e-commerce (2024).
5. Challenges y Limited financial inclusion, digital access, and ageism y 70% rural elderly lack digital
hinder silver economy growth (UNFPA 2023). Need for skills (NSSO 2023).
policy support.
6. Policy Support y Incentivize the silver economy through tax breaks for y Tamil Nadu’s senior startup fund
senior-focused businesses, public-private partnerships supported 50 ventures (2024).
(NITI Aayog 2023). Foster inclusive markets.

7. Way Forward
Aspect Details
1. Healthcare y Scale up geriatric care units to 500 by 2030; integrate mental health services (NITI Aayog
Expansion 2023). Subsidize private healthcare costs.
y Vayomithram project in Kerala is a successful initiative focused on providing comprehensive
healthcare to senior citizens.
2. Universal y Implement universal pension for all elderly, including unorganized sector (15th Finance
Pension Commission). Address economic vulnerability.
y Tamil Nadu has one of the widest pension coverages among Indian state.
3. Gender-Specific y Develop gender-sensitive schemes for elderly women, focusing on widowhood, healthcare
Policies (UNFPA 2023). Target rural women.
y Rajasthan’s widow pension aids 5 lakh women (2024).
4. Digital Inclusion y Expand digital literacy programs; simplify e-governance for elderly (NITI Aayog 2023). Bridge
digital divide.
y Delhi’s digital camps trained 10,000 elderly (2024).
5. Community y Promote senior citizen clubs, intergenerational programs to reduce social isolation (UNFPA
Engagement 2023). Strengthen community vigilance.
y Karnataka’s 200 senior clubs engaged 50,000 elderly (2023).
6. Regulatory y Regulate private old age homes; pass Senior Citizens Amendment Bill, 2019 (NITI Aayog
Framework 2023). Establish a monitoring body.
y Maharashtra regulates 100 homes (2024).

India’s elderly population deserves dignity, security, and opportunity. Old age is not a burden but a crown of experience.
Strengthening healthcare, pensions, gender-specific policies, silver economy, and community engagement ensures social justice
and a vibrant silver dividend.

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 5 Persons with Disability

In India, Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) face multiple barriers to education, employment, and social participation. As per Census
2011, they comprise 2.21% of the population, highlighting the need for inclusive policies and targeted interventions. The Indian
Constitution, under Article 41 (Directive Principles of State Policy), directs the State to make effective provisions for securing the
right to work, education, and public assistance in cases of disability, among others.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. The Rights of Persons with disabilities Act, 2016 remains only a legal document without intense
sensitisation of Government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment. (2022)
2. Does the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 ensure an effective mechanism for
empowerment and inclusion of the intended beneficiaries in the society? Discuss. (2017)

1. Overview
Aspect Details
1. Current y 2.68 crore PwDs (2.21% of population, Census 2011); NFHS-5 estimates 4.52% (60 million). 5-8%
Demographics per World Bank (2023).
2. Types of y RPWD Act, 2016 lists 21 disabilities, including locomotor, visual, hearing, intellectual, autism,
Disabilities mental illness, and acid attack victims.
3. Rural-Urban y 69% PwDs (1.85 crore) in rural areas; 31% urban. Rural PwDs face greater accessibility barriers.
Divide
4. Gender y 1.5 crore male PwDs, 1.18 crore female (Census 2011). Women face higher discrimination, gender-
Disparities based violence.
5. Age Group y 7.62% PwDs aged 0-6 years; 45% illiterate (Census 2011). Early intervention is critical.

2. Challenges Faced by Persons with Disabilities

Aspect Details Examples
1. Educational y Structural exclusion and lack of Universal y According to the 76th round of National
Exclusion Design for Learning (UDL) impede access. Sample Survey (NSS), among persons with
Inadequate teacher training and ableist disabilities of age 3 to 35 years, only 10.1%
pedagogy deepen educational marginalisation. attended a pre-school intervention programme.
2. Employment y Labour market discrimination, violation of y India has almost 3 crore people with
Barriers the principle of reasonable accommodation, and disability (PwD) of which around 1.3 crore is
informal sector exclusion affect the economic employable but only 34 lakh of them have
inclusion of PwDs. been employed .
3. Healthcare y Lack of disability-sensitive infrastructure and y According to NITI Aayog's 2021 data, a mere
Hurdles inadequate implementation of inclusive health 5% of Primary Health Centers (PHCs) in
policies violate the right to health enshrined in India possess disability-friendly
the UNCRPD. infrastructure.
4. Social Stigma y Deep-rooted ableism, symbolic violence y According to the 76th round of National
(Bourdieu), and patriarchal intersectionality Sample Survey (NSS), the percentage of
lead to social invisibility and higher persons with disabilities who were living
vulnerability, especially for women PwDs. alone was 3.7 %.
5. Accessibility y Non-compliance with universal design norms y A 2020 Web Accessibility Annual Report
Issues results in infrastructural and digital found that 98% of websites fail to comply
inaccessibility. with accessibility requirements for People
y Barrier-free access remains a rhetorical goal With Disability.
rather than a reality.
6. Policy y The gap between rights-based legislation y In 2021, according to the Department of
Implementation (RPwD Act 2016) and its ground-level Personnel and Training (DoPT), 56% of
enforcement is due to institutional apathy, lack reserved posts for Persons with Disabilities
of inter-departmental coordination, and data (PwDs) in the government sector were lying
deficit. vacant.

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3. Measures for PwDs
Category Details
1. Schemes y Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan): Enhances accessibility in buildings,
transport, ICT; targets 50% compliance by 2025.
y DeenDayal Rehabilitation Scheme: Funds NGOs for special schools, vocational training,
community-based rehabilitation (CBR).
y ADIP Scheme: Provides assistive devices (prosthetics, hearing aids) to BPL PwDs.
y PM-DAKSH: Skill development for PwDs; boosts employability in the private sector.
y National Fellowship for PwDs: Scholarships for PwD students in higher education.
2. Legislative y Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016: Mandates inclusion, accessibility, 4% job
Measures reservation, 5% education reservation.
y Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992: Regulates rehabilitation training.
y Mental Healthcare Act, 2017: Protects mental illness rights.
y National Trust Act, 1999: Supports autism, cerebral palsy, intellectual disabilities.
3. Institutional y Chief Commissioner for PwDs (CCPD): Monitors RPWD Act compliance, addresses grievances.
Measures y National Trust: Provides guardianship, care services for severe disabilities.
y Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI): Certifies rehabilitation professionals; trained 10,000 (2024).
y NGOs (e.g., Enable India): Support skill training, employment for PwDs.
y Unique Disability ID (UDID): National database streamlines benefit delivery.

4. Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016

Aspect Details
1. Definition of PwD y A person with long-term physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairment that limits
full participation in society.
2. Recognized y 21 types including blindness, hearing impairment, intellectual disability, mental illness,
Disabilities acid attack victims, and more.
3. Rights of PwDs y Right to equality, dignity, protection from abuse, right to family, reproductive rights, voting
accessibility, and property ownership.
4. Persons with Benchmark y Individuals with at least 40% disability certified by authorities, eligible for special
Disabilities benefits and reservations.
5. Guardianship y Limited guardian appointed if PwD cannot make decisions; based on mutual trust and
respect PwD’s will; total support granted if needed.
6. Social Security y Government must create programs to ensure adequate living standards and support
independent or community living for PwDs.
7. Institutional y Establishes Central and State Advisory Boards for policy guidance;
Mechanisms y Strengthens the Chief and State Commissioners for monitoring and grievance redressal;
y Creates National/State Funds and district committees;
y Designates Special Courts for violations.
8. Penalties for Offences y Violations attract fines ranging from ₹10,000 to ₹5 lakh and imprisonment from 6 months
to 2 years; intentional insult, intimidation, or exploitation of PwDs carries imprisonment
from 6 months up to 5 years.
9. Implementation y Inadequate resource allocation with stagnant budgets;
Challenges y Poor coordination between the Centre and the states;
y Lack of updated data for evidence-based policies;
y Limited rural accessibility and rehabilitation services.

5. Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Amendment) Rules, 2024

Feature Details
1. Notification and y Notified by the Union Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment under the RPwD Act, 2016.
Authority y Disability certificates issued by medical authorities at the district level, based on the applicant's
residence.
2. Disability Certificate y Requires proof of identity, a recent photograph (not older than 6 months), and an Aadhaar card.
Application y Submitted via UDID portal.
3. Processing and y Processing time extended from 1 month to 3 months.
Lapse y Applications lapse if undecided for over 2 years; applicants must reapply or reactivate.
4. Colour-Coded � White: Disability below 40%. � Yellow: Disability between 40% and 80%.
UDID Cards � Blue: Disability of 80% or above.

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 5. Concerns with y Aadhaar requirement may exclude rural or marginalised communities.
Amendments y An extended 3-month processing time could delay access to services and entitlements.

6. Issues with Existing Mechanisms

Aspect Details Examples
1. Implementation y RPWD Act faces non-compliance; around 50% y Only 23 to 25 states have State Advisory
Gaps reservation posts vacant (DoPT 2024). Delayed Boards (MoSJE 2024).
rules hinder execution.
2. Awareness y 60% PwDs unaware of RPWD Act benefits (NSSO y 58% of PwDs unaware of RPwD Act
Deficit 2023). provisions (NSSO 76th Round, 2018).
3. Accessibility y 80% public buildings, transport non-accessible y CPWD skipped pre-access audits in 80%
Failures (CPWD 2024). Digital platforms lack universal of old government buildings before making
design. them PwD-accessible.
4. Coordination y Lack of inter-ministerial convergence on health, y NITI Aayog (2021) highlights exclusion of
Issues education, employment (NITI Aayog 2024). PwDs from health/education schemes.
5. Grievance y Weak monitoring; Chief Commissioner for PwDs y The Supreme Court in Rajive Raturi v.
Redressal understaffed (MoSJE 2024). UOI (2024) flagged understaffing in
enforcement bodies.
6. Data Deficiency y No comprehensive disability survey since 2011; y Census 2011 reports 2.2% disability
hinders policy planning. prevalence, which has become a decade-old.

7. Measures to Improve Quality of Life

Aspect Details Examples
1. Inclusive y Implement NEP 2020 for inclusive schools; y The National Institute for Empowerment of
Education train teachers, provide assistive devices. Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (NIEPID)
trains teachers annually.
2. Employment y Enforce 4% job reservation; incentivise the y PM-DAKSH empowers PwDs through skill
Opportunities private sector via PM-DAKSH. Promote development and training.
self-employment, entrepreneurship.
3. Healthcare y Expand rehabilitation centres, mental y The Niramaya Health Insurance Scheme is
Access health services; integrate PwDs in designed to meet the diverse medical needs of
Ayushman Bharat. persons with disabilities (PwDs)
4. Accessibility y Enforce Accessible India Campaign; y Paytm redesigned app post-CCPD order (2022).
Standards retrofit 80% of public buildings by 2027
(CPWD 2024).
5. Social Inclusion y Awareness campaigns to reduce stigma; y Kerala’s Vidya Jyothi program reduced stigma
promote Indian Sign Language (ISL). through school campaigns (2020).
6. Structured y Alternative dispute resolution for y The Supreme Court used structured negotiation
Negotiation accessibility issues; involve PwDs in in Rajive Raturi v. UOI (2024) for public places
solutions. accessibility for PwDs.

8. Way Forward
Aspect Details
1. Policy Enforcement y Strengthen RPWD Act implementation; establish National Commission for PwDs.
2. Universal Accessibility y Achieve 100% accessibility in public infrastructure by 2030; enforce universal design in ICT.
3. Skill Development y Scale up PM-DAKSH; train 1 million PwDs by 2030 (NITI Aayog 2024).
4. Awareness Campaigns y Nationwide sensitisation to reduce stigma; involve media, NGOs.
5. Research & y Invest in prosthetics, assistive technologies; improve disability data (MoSJE 2024).
Development
6. Community-Based y Expand CBR programs; integrate PwDs in rural communities.
Rehabilitation

Creating an inclusive society for Persons with Disabilities requires equal opportunities, accessibility, and awareness. As A.P.J. Abdul
Kalam remarked, “When I see children run around and cycle with the artificial limbs we designed, it is sheer bliss.” Let us
innovate and collaborate to empower PwDs, ensuring their dignity and contribution to nation-building.

22
 6 Transgenders
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Transgender persons, whose gender identity differs from the sex assigned at birth, represent one of the most marginalised sections
in India. and social acceptance, they face challenges in accessing education, employment, healthcare, and dignity.

1. Overview
Aspect Details
1. Current y 4.88 lakh transgenders (0.04% of population, Census 2011); likely underreported due to stigma.
Demographics y Estimates suggest 10-15 lakh (MoSJE 2024).
2. Regional y Top states: Uttar Pradesh (28%), Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar. Urban areas report higher
Distribution visibility.
3. Socio-Cultural y Includes Hijras, Kinnars, Aravanis, Jogtas, genderqueer, and non-binary. Recognised under
Identities the NALSA Judgment (2014).
4. Literacy Rates y 57% transgenders literate (Census 2011); 70% drop out before Class 10 due to discrimination.
5. Economic Status y 90% transgenders in unorganised sector; 30% rely on begging, sex work.

2. Constitutional and Legal Framework

Aspect Details
1. Constitutional y Article 14: Equality before the law.
Provisions y Article 15: Prohibits discrimination.
y Article 19: Freedom of expression.
y Article 21: Right to dignity, life.
2. Transgender y Defines transgender; prohibits discrimination in education, employment, and healthcare;
Persons Act, 2019 allows self-identification.
3. Landmark y NALSA v. Union of India (2014): Recognised third gender, mandated reservations.
Judgments y Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018): Decriminalized Section 377 IPC.
y Ms. X v. State of Karnataka (2024): Allowed name, gender change on birth certificates.
4. Other Laws y Mental Healthcare Act, 2017: Ensures mental health access.
y Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969: Permits gender updates post-2024 ruling.
5. International y UNCRPD (2007): Promotes non-discrimination. SDG 10: Reduced inequalities.
Commitments

3. Challenges Faced by the Transgender Community

Aspect Details
1. Social Stigma y Trans persons face structural violence rooted in cisnormative and patriarchal norms,
which label them as “abnormal” or “deviant”.
y Experiences of identity erasure and exclusion from social institutions are common.
y Social death due to family rejection leads to homelessness and mental distress.
y Example: Only 2% of transgender individuals live with their families; 99% face social
rejection, including familial ostracisation. (NHRC Study, 2018).
2. Educational y Education systems reflect institutional exclusion due to bullying, gendered infrastructure,
Barriers and the absence of trans-affirmative pedagogy.
y High dropout rates hinder access to higher education and job opportunities.
y Example: The literacy rate of transgender individuals is 46%, compared to the national
average of 74%.
3. Employment y Labour market marginalisation persists due to bias and the absence of inclusive HR
Discrimination policies.
y The NALSA judgment (2014) directed reservations for transgender persons, but enforcement
has been negligible.
y Example: Shanavi Ponnusamy, a transgender woman from Tamil Nadu, took on Air India in
the Supreme Court for denying her a cabin crew position, allegedly based on her gender.

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4. Healthcare Access y Trans persons face cis-normative medical practices, making gender-affirming care
inaccessible.
y Mental health services are inadequate, and conversion therapy is still practised.
y Example: In 2022, the Madras High Court banned conversion therapy, calling it
unconstitutional.
5. Legal Recognition y The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, lacks provisions for marriage,
Gaps adoption, or reservations, which creates legal invisibility.
y Section 19 of the Act criminalises traditional livelihood practices like begging, affecting
dignity and survival.
y Example: Under Section 144 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the Pune police
commissioner in 2024 banned transgender persons from begging at traffic signals, private
residences and other public spaces, hospitals, etc.
6. Prison Treatment y Binary prison policies result in misgendering, isolation, and abuse.
y Lack of gender-affirming accommodations leads to custodial trauma and violation of
Article 21 rights.
y Example: Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) report (2024) documented torture
and solitary confinement of transgender prisoners in Uttar Pradesh jails, where they were
housed with male inmates.

4. Measures for Transgenders

Category Details
1. Schemes y Garima Greh: Shelter homes for transgenders; 20 homes operational (2024).
y SMILE Scheme: Supports livelihood, education, and includes transgender welfare.
y National Portal for Transgender Persons: A Digital platform for identity certificates.
y PM-DAKSH: Skill training for transgenders in private sector.
y Ayushman Bharat: Covers gender-affirming surgeries for transgenders (2024).
2. Legislative y Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019: Prohibits discrimination, ensures self-
Measures identification.
y Mental Healthcare Act, 2017: Protects mental health rights.
y Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969: Updated post-2024 for gender changes.
3. Institutional y National Council for Transgender Persons: Formulates policies, monitors inclusion (2020).
Measures y Chief Commissioner for PwDs: Addresses transgender grievances.
y NGOs (such as Transgender Welfare Equity): Provide education, employment support.
y Election Commission (2009): “Others” option in voter forms.
y Finance Ministry (2024): Allows joint bank accounts for LGBTQ+.

5. Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019

Aspect Key Points
1. Objective y Ensures protection of rights and dignity of transgender persons.
y Based on NALSA v. Union of India (2014) which upheld self-identification and mandated
socio-economic inclusion.
2. Definition y Covers trans-men, trans-women, intersex, genderqueer, hijra, etc.
y Criticism: Uses a medicalised lens; lacks full recognition of non-binary identities.
3. Self-Identification y Allows gender identity based on self-perception but requires a Certificate from the District
Magistrate.
y Critique: Violates NALSA’s spirit of full self-identification.
4. Anti-Discrimination y Prohibits discrimination in education, employment, healthcare, and services.

5. Healthcare Rights y Mandates inclusive healthcare and HIV programs.

y Gap: No provision for gender-affirming surgeries or hormone therapy.
y Example: Kerala and Karnataka offer free gender-affirming surgeries (MoHFW 2024).
6. Education & y Calls for inclusive education and vocational training.
Employment y Missing: No mention of reservation as mandated by NALSA.
y Example: Madras HC directed the TN government to consider reservation for trans
persons.

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7. Traditional Livelihoods y Criminalises forced begging but has ambiguously affected the traditional practices of
& Section 19 hijra and kinnar communities.
8. Institutional y Establishes National Council for Transgender Persons (NCTP).
Mechanism y Criticism: Lacks real enforcement powers and accountability.
9. Recent Amendments y Online Application Reforms: Self-identification now possible via National Portal without
(2023-2024) physical verification in many states.
y Draft Amendment Bill (2024): Proposed to:
y Remove the DM-certification step entirely.
y Include reservation in education/jobs.
y Recognize gender-affirming healthcare as a right.
y (Pending Parliamentary approval as of April 2025).
10. Judicial Support y SC (2024) reprimanded states for non-implementation of NALSA’s reservation mandate.
y Madras HC (2022) banned conversion therapy and promoted trans healthcare.
11. Way Forward y Remove DM-certification; provide statutory reservations.
y Recognise gender-affirming care under health rights.
y Empower NCTP with oversight powers.
y Decriminalise traditional livelihoods in line with Article 21.

6. Issues with Existing Mechanisms

Aspect Details Examples
1. Implementation y Transgender Persons Act lacks y Only 5% of transgender persons accessed identity
Gaps reservation, marriage, and certificates by 2023, despite the 2019 Act’s
adoption provisions; begging is provisions.
criminalised.
2. Awareness Deficit y 70% transgenders unaware of Act y 50-60% of transgender individuals never attend
benefits; rural outreach weak. school due to systemic discrimination. (NHRC Study,
2018)
3. Underfunding y Only 11% of transgender welfare y In Karnataka, only ₹3.6 crore was allocated for
budget was spent (2021-24). transgender welfare in 2023-24, significantly lower
Schemes are “inaccessible”. than the ₹50 crore demand.
4. Discrimination y Workplace, healthcare exclusion; y 52% of transgender persons denied healthcare in
Persists lighter penalties for transgender Maharashtra (NHRC, 2017).
assault vs. cisgender.
5. Prison Policy Gaps y Gender-binary prison rules cause y Transgender inmates in Kerala jails faced solitary
abuse; no trans-specific policies. confinement until the 2023 High Court order.
6. Legal Ambiguities y Act conflicts with NALSA on y NCRB (2020) reported 236 transgender crime
reservations, self-identification victims (0.006% of total), with no registered cases of
processes. rape or trafficking of minors involving trans victims.

7. Measures to Improve Quality of Life

Aspect Details Examples
1. Inclusive y Implement NEP 2020 for transgender- y Kerala launched India’s first transgender
Education inclusive schools; provide scholarships, scholarship program in 2023.
gender-neutral facilities.
2. Employment y Enforce NALSA’s reservation; expand y Tata Steel, RJ Corp, Publicis Sapient and other big
Opportunities PM-DAKSH for skill training. Promote companies in India Inc. are ramping up hiring of
entrepreneurship. transgender workers.
3. Healthcare y Scale up gender-affirming care; ban y Transgender individuals are included in Ayushman
Access conversion therapy; integrate Bharat (2023), enabling access to free gender-
transgenders in Ayushman Bharat. affirming surgeries in empanelled hospitals.
4. Social y Launch sensitisation campaigns; promote y Swati Bhattacharya, creative chairperson of FCB
Inclusion Hijra cultural festivals. India, has co-conceptualised a campaign called
"Unbox me" that tries to symbolically address the
isolation and marginalisation of trans children, which
she believes begins right in their own families.

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 5. Legal y Amend Transgender Persons Act for y The National Council for Transgender Persons
Reforms marriage, adoption, reservations; proposed amendments to the Transgender Persons
decriminalise begging. Act in 2023.
6. Prison y Develop trans-specific prison policies; y Karnataka’s trans prisoner policy piloted in 2 jails
Reforms ensure gender-neutral facilities. (2024).

8. Best Practices for the Betterment of Transgender Lives in India

Initiative Description Key Features
1. International
y Yogyakarta y A set of 29 principles (2006) and 9 y Affirms rights to equality, non-discrimination, legal
Principles additional principles (2017) outlining the recognition, bodily integrity, and protection from
(2006 & application of international human rights violence.
YP+10, 2017) law to sexual orientation, gender identity, y Referenced in India’s Navtej Singh Johar case
gender expression, and sex characteristics (2018).
(SOGIESC). y Non-binding but guides states and courts globally.
2. Central
y Third Gender y Introduced by the Ministry of Railways y Added to railway reservation/ticket forms and
Column in (2016) and the Ministry of Personnel central government job application forms.
Forms (2020) to include 'transgender' as an y Enhances visibility and recognition of transgender
option in forms. identity.
3. State
y Sakalyam y Imparts vocational training to y Targets economic upliftment of deprived
Scheme transgender individuals to create transgender communities.
(Kerala) employment opportunities.

9. Way Forward
Aspect Details
1. Policy Enforcement y Strengthen Transgender Persons Act; ensure National Council authority.
2. Universal Inclusion y Achieve transgender-inclusive education, workplaces by 2030; enforce gender-neutral
facilities.
3. Skill Development y Scale up PM-DAKSH; train 50,000 transgenders by 2030 (NITI Aayog 2024).
4. Awareness Campaigns y Nationwide sensitisation via media, NGOS; ban conversion therapy.
5. Healthcare Expansion y Establish transgender clinics; fund gender-affirming surgeries.
6. Community Engagement y Support Hijra collectives, transgender-led NGOs for advocacy.

Inclusion of the transgender community requires more than just laws—it needs social acceptance, equal opportunities, and dignity
in daily life. As activist Apsara Reddy powerfully reminds us, ‘We demand equality, not pity.’ True progress lies not in policies
alone but in changing mindsets. With sustained awareness and genuine inclusion, India can ensure transgender individuals live
not as marginalised voices, but as empowered and respected members of society.

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 7 Schedule Caste
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Scheduled Castes (SCs) are historically disadvantaged communities recognized under Article 341 of the Constitution, who have
faced social exclusion and untouchability, and are entitled to affirmative action for their upliftment. India’s Scheduled Castes,
marginalised as “untouchables,” continue to face social exclusion and economic deprivation.

1. Constitutional Provisions
Aspect Description
1. Abolition of y Article 17 explicitly bans untouchability, a dehumanising practice that historically relegated
Untouchability SCs to menial roles.
2. Equality and y Article 14 guarantees equality before law, while Article 15 prohibits discrimination based
Non-Discrimination on caste, countering systemic casteism.
3. Reservations y Articles 330, 332, 243D, and 243T reserve seats for SCs in Parliament, state legislatures,
panchayats, and municipalities, aiming to amplify their political voice.
4. Educational/ y Article 46 (DPSP) mandates the state to promote the education and economic upliftment of
Economic Interests SCs, addressing their historical exclusion from resources and opportunities.
5. National y Article 338 establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) to monitor
Commission safeguards, investigate grievances, and recommend policy reforms.
6. Appointments y Article 335 ensures SC representation in government jobs while maintaining administrative
efficiency, addressing their underrepresentation in public services.

2. Issues Faced by Scheduled Castes

Aspect Description Examples
1. Social y Persistent structural exclusion, rooted in y NCRB 2023: 45,961 cases under the
Discrimination Brahmanical patriarchy and graded inequality SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act.
(Ambedkar), manifests through untouchability, y Hathras case (2020) – gangrape and
denial of access to public spaces, caste-based forced cremation of a Dalit girl
segregation, and hate crimes. highlighted systemic caste violence.
2. Economic y Continued occupational immobility, prevalence in y NSSO 2024 – 70% SCs in informal
Marginalization informal labor, landlessness, and lack of asset sector; Census 2011 – only 10% SC
ownership due to historical deprivation and households own agricultural land.
exclusion from capital. Reflects ‘economic
untouchability’.
3. Educational y Affected by caste stigma, peer bullying, y Over 2,424 students from the
Barriers discriminatory pedagogy, and financial Scheduled Caste (SC) community have
constraints, the absence of culturally responsive dropped out of Central Universities in
education and under-implementation of Right to 2023 according to MoE.
Education Act provisions.
4. Political y Despite political reservations (Article 330/332), y PRS India 2024 – only 5% SC MPs in
Underrepresentation lack of substantive representation, Parliamentary Standing Committees;
marginalisation in decision-making bodies, and no Dalit member in recent Law
tokenism prevail due to the dominance of upper Commission.
castes in parties.
5. Healthcare y SCs face caste-based medical discrimination, y NFHS-5 (2022) – SC IMR: 45 per
Disparities under-provisioned public health infrastructure in 1,000 vs. national 35; MoHFW 2024
SC-dominated areas, and intersectional neglect – 50% SCs lack access to quality
of caste with health policies. healthcare.
6. Manual Scavenging y Reflects extreme caste-based occupational y Safai Karamchari Andolan (2023)
& Hazardous stratification and violation of Article 23. Practice – over 400 deaths in sewers since
Labour persists despite prohibition under the Prohibition of 2016; National Commission for Safai
Employment as Manual Scavengers Act (2013). Karamcharis Report.

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7. Digital & y SCs face digital divide due to lack of access to y NSSO (2022) – <20% rural SC
Technological devices, internet, and digital literacy, which households have access to a computer
Exclusion deepens educational, economic, and civic or smartphone; low digital enrolment
exclusions. in PMGDISHA.
8. Urban y Dalits in cities face invisible casteism, y Delhi High Court (2023) took
Marginalisation ghettoisation, and residential segregation in cognisance of caste-based
slums lacking basic amenities. Urban policies ghettoisation in resettlement colonies;
often ignore caste realities. Mumbai’s Dharavi studies show
caste-clustered occupational traps.
9. Caste–Gender y Dalit women face triple marginalisation – caste, y NCRB 2023 – 15% of total rape cases
Intersectionality class, and gender – resulting in higher sexual against Dalit women; Delta Meghwal
violence, school dropouts, and lack of case (2016) highlights caste-gender-
reproductive health access. based violenc

4. Barriers to Progress for Scheduled Castes

Reason Description Examples
1. Historical y Centuries of caste hierarchy relegated SCs to y Chamar, Bhangi communities faced
Oppression menial roles, fostering social stigma and economic untouchability for generations
exclusion that persist despite legal reforms. (Census 2011).
2. Weak y SC/ST (PoA) Act, scholarships, and reservations y Only 20% PoA cases result in convictions
Implementation suffer from bureaucratic apathy, corruption, and due to police bias (NCRB 2023). 30%
underfunding, limiting their impact on SC welfare. scholarship funds unutilized (CAG 2024).
3. Economic y Lack of land ownership, skill training, and y ~80% engaged in manual scavenging are
Deprivation formal jobs traps SCs in poverty cycles, with SCs (MoSJE 2024). Only 5% access
manual scavenging still prevalent despite bans. formal employment (NSSO 2024).
4. Lack of y Many SCs are unaware of constitutional rights, y 60% SCs unaware of Post-Matric
Awareness schemes, or grievance mechanisms due to illiteracy Scholarship in Odisha (NHRC 2022
and poor outreach, hindering access to benefits. report).
5. Political y NCSC and state bodies face political pressure, y NCSC delayed numerous complaints due
Interference diluting their autonomy and ability to address SC to funding cuts, political influence
issues effectively. (Annual Report 2022-23).

4. Initiatives For SCs

A. Schemes
Scheme Description Examples
1. Post-Matric y Provides financial aid for higher education, y Supported 60 lakh SC students, increasing
Scholarship reducing dropout rates and fostering social literacy by 10% since 2011 (MoSJE 2024).
mobility among SC students. Covers tuition, books for 80% beneficiaries.
2. Pradhan Mantri y Develops SC-majority villages with roads, y Transformed villages with electrification,
Adarsh Gram sanitation, and schools, aiming to bridge water supply (MoSJE 2024). 50% villages
Yojana infrastructure gaps and improve living now have health centres.
standards.
3. Stand-Up India y Offers loans to SC entrepreneurs for startups, y Funded SC startups, creating over 1 lakh
promoting economic independence and jobs (SIDBI 2024). Focus on women SC
reducing reliance on unorganised labour. entrepreneurs (30% beneficiaries).
4. Ambedkar Social y Incubates SC-led startups for social impact, y Incubated SC-led ed-tech startups in
Innovation providing mentorship, funding to innovate in Maharashtra (MoSJE 2024).
Incubation Mission education, health.
5. Pradhan Mantri y Consolidates infrastructure development, y Covered SC villages with roads, skill
Anusuchit Jaati skill training, and livelihood support in centers; trained 2 lakh SC youth in IT,
Abhyuday Yojana SC-dominated areas to promote holistic retail (MoSJE 2024). Budget: Rs. 2,000
(PM AJAY) upliftment and sustainable development. crore (2024-25).

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 B. Legislative Measures
Legislation Description Examples
1. SC/ST (PoA) y Criminalises atrocities like violence, humiliation y SC/ST Amendment Act (2018) restored
Act, 1989 against SCs, with special courts for swift justice stringent provisions post-SC dilution.
and no anticipatory bail for offenders. 45,000+ cases filed (NCRB 2023).
2. Constitution (SC) y Updates SC list to include/exclude communities, y Added 5 communities (such as Valmiki
Order (Amendment) ensuring accurate representation and access to in Odisha) to SC list, benefiting 2 lakh
Act, 2023 reservations, schemes. people (MoSJE 2024).
3. Bonded Labour y Frees SCs from bonded labour, prevalent in y Freed 3 lakh bonded labourers, mostly
System (Abolition) agriculture, brick kilns, providing rehabilitation SCs, with Rs. 1,00,000 aid per person
Act, 1976 and livelihood support. (MoLE 2024).
4. Minimum Wages y Ensures fair wages for SCs in unorganized y Covers 70% SC workers, raising wages
Act, 1948 sectors, reducing exploitation in low-skill jobs by 15% in 5 states (MoLE 2024).
like construction, scavenging.

C. Institutional Measures
Institution Description Examples
1. National y Monitors constitutional safeguards, investigates y Flagged reservation violations in
Commission for atrocities, and advises on SC welfare policies, acting PSUs (NCSC Report 2022-23).
SCs (NCSC) as a watchdog for social justice.
2. Dr. Ambedkar y Promotes SC education, cultural preservation through y Funded 10,000 SC students;
Foundation scholarships, awards, and Ambedkar study centres, established 50 Ambedkar chairs in
fostering empowerment. universities (MoSJE 2024).
3. State-Level y Oversee SC/ST Act enforcement, monitor atrocities, y Active in 20 states, reduced case
Vigilance and ensure scheme implementation at the grassroots. pendency by 15% in UP, Bihar
Committees (MoSJE 2024).

5. Way Forward
Measure Description
1. Strengthen y Grant NCSC statutory powers to enforce reservations, atrocity laws, reduce political
NCSC interference, and ensure accountability.
Autonomy y Sachar Committee (2006): Increase NCSC funding by 30%, grant quasi-judicial powers.
y NCSC budget doubled (MoSJE 2024).
2. Enhance y Leverage ICT tools (such as, PRAGATI portal, mobile apps) to raise awareness, streamline
Scheme scheme access, especially in rural areas.
Outreach y Lokur Committee (1965): Strengthen monitoring; only 30% SCs access scholarships (MoSJE 2024).
y Digital campaigns reached 5 states (2024).
3. Economic y Scale up Stand-Up India, PM-DAKSH for skill training, targeting 1 crore SCs by 2030 to reduce
Empowerment unorganised sector dependence.
y NITI Aayog (2024): Promote SC entrepreneurship; 50,000 startups funded (SIDBI 2024).
4. Educational y Implement NEP 2020 for SC-inclusive schools, increase scholarship funding, and train teachers to
Inclusion curb discrimination.
y NCSC Report (2022-23): Raise Post-Matric Scholarship budget by 20%. Kerala model enrolled 1
lakh SC students (MoE 2024).
5. Stricter Atrocity y Amend the SC/ST (PoA) Act to raise conviction rates, impose harsher penalties, and expand
Laws special courts for deterrence.
y Justice A.K. Rajan Committee (2021): Increase special courts to 500; conviction rate 20% (NCRB
2023). SC/ST Amendment (2018) restored provisions.
6. Social y Launch media campaigns, ban casteist terms, and promote Ambedkar’s philosophy to reduce
Sensitization stigma and foster inclusion.
y SC Guidelines (2024): Ban casteist slurs in media; campaigns in 10 states reached 1 crore people
(MoSJE 2024).
Scheduled Castes need holistic upliftment through robust constitutional safeguards, schemes, and sensitisation. Overcoming
casteism, implementation gaps, and awareness deficits will ensure social justice, fulfilling Ambedkar’s vision of equity.

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 8 Schedule Tribe
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India’s Scheduled Tribes (STs), comprising 8.6% of the population, face socio-economic marginalisation despite constitutional
safeguards. Social justice efforts aim to address exploitation, displacement, and cultural erosion for their empowerment.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. Why are the tribals in India referred to as ‘the Scheduled Tribes’? Indicate the major provisions
enshrined in the Constitution of India for their upliftment. (2016)

1. Constitutional Provisions
Aspect Explanation
1. Definition and y Article 342: President specifies STs for states/UTs after consultation with governors, ensuring
Recognition legal recognition of tribal communities.
2. Protection Against y Article 23: Prohibits human trafficking, forced labor, and protects STs from bonded labor.
Exploitation y Article 24: Bans child labor in hazardous jobs.
3. Educational/ y Article 46: Directs state to promote STs’ education, economic interests, and prevent social
Economic Interests injustice.
4. Reservations y Articles 330, 332, 243D, 243T: Reserve seats for STs in Parliament, state legislatures,
panchayats, and municipalities to ensure political representation.
5. Safeguards for y Article 19(5): Restricts non-tribal land transfers in ST areas. Fifth/Sixth Schedules: Govern
Land/Culture Scheduled Areas, protecting land, autonomy.
6. National y Article 338A: Establishes NCST to monitor ST safeguards, investigate rights violations, and
Commission advise on development.

2. Issues Faced by Scheduled Tribes

Aspect Explanation Examples
1. Land Alienation y STs face dispossession from customary lands due to y MoTA Report (2023-24) – over 9
development-induced displacement, mining, million STs displaced; Jharkhand coal
infrastructure, and encroachment. mining displaced 50,000 tribals.
y Lack of implementation of FRA 2006 weakens their y Forest Rights Act claims rejected in
tenurial security and violates their ethno- over 40% cases.
environmental rights.
2. Economic y Tribal economies are marked by subsistence farming, y NFHS-5 (2020–21): 40.6% STs below
Backwardness limited market access, and absence of livelihood poverty line; SECC 2011: 70% STs
diversification. lack access to institutional finance.
y Structural poverty is perpetuated by forest-based
dependence and exclusion from formal credit and
skilling systems.
3. Educational y Poor infrastructure, language mismatch, and y Over 50% ST students drop out before
Deprivation culturally irrelevant pedagogy hinder learning. Class 10; Tribal literacy rate at 59% vs.
y Remote habitations, teacher absenteeism, and seasonal national average of 73%
migration worsen dropout rates. (Census 2011).
4. Health y Tribal populations face the double burden of y NFHS-5 (2020–21): ST IMR is
Disparities undernutrition and disease, poor public health 41.5/1,000 vs. national 34.8; Anaemia
infrastructure, and cultural alienation from modern among ST women is 69.4%.
healthcare. Maternal and child health indicators
remain poor.
5. Atrocities & y STs are subjected to institutional discrimination, y NCRB 2023 8,802 cases under SC/ST
Exploitation bonded labor, trafficking, and sexual violence, Act;
aggravated by their geographical isolation and lack y Odisha: 1,500 cases of tribal exploitation
of legal awareness. and displacement (NHRC).

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6. Climate y Climate change-induced events like floods and y IPCC (2022) & UNDP India – tribal
Vulnerability & droughts increase tribal vulnerability due to low belts in Jharkhand and Odisha most
Displacement adaptive capacity, dependence on natural resources, climate-sensitive; over 20,000 tribal
and exclusion from climate action plans. households displaced by floods in
Assam (2023).

3. Barriers to Progress for Scheduled Tribes

Reason Explanation Examples
1. Geographical y STs’ remote habitats (forests, hills) limit access to y 80% STs in Northeast live in hilly
Isolation schools, hospitals, markets, perpetuating areas with deplorable roads (MoTA
backwardness. 2023-24).
2. Historical y Colonial forest laws and post-independence y Forest Act, 1927, restricted STs’ forest
Neglect development policies alienated STs from land, rights; continued till the FRA 2006.
resources, fostering exclusion.
3. Weak Policy y FRA, PESA, and schemes suffer from bureaucratic y Only 40% FRA titles distributed in
Implementation apathy, corruption, and low awareness, reducing Odisha (MoTA 2023-24).
impact.
4. Development- y Mining, dams, and infrastructure displace STs y Narmada Dam displaced 2 lakh STs;
Induced without adequate rehabilitation, disrupting only 30% rehabilitated
Displacement livelihoods, culture. (MoTA 2023-24).
5. Cultural y Globalisation, urban migration, and non-tribal y Andaman tribes (such as Jarawa) face
Erosion influx erode STs’ languages, customs, threatening cultural dilution due to tourism
their identity. (MoTA 2023-24).

4. Measures Taken
A. Schemes
Scheme Explanation Examples
1. Dharti Aaba Janjatiya y Aims for improving socio- y The program targets 549 districts, 2,740
Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan economic conditions of tribal blocks, and approximately 63,000 villages
aka Pradhan Mantri communities with basic across 30 states and union territories, aiming to
Janjatiya Unnat Gram entitlements under government benefit over 5 crore tribal people
Abhiyan (PM-JUGA) schemes.
2. Eklavya Model y Provides free education (Classes y 405 EMRS are functional, providing free
Residential Schools 6-12) in tribal areas, promoting residential education to more than 1.23 lakh ST
(EMRS) literacy, skill development for ST students nationwide
students.
3. Van Dhan Yojana y Empowers STs by promoting y 3,000 Van Dhan Vikas Kendras; 10 lakh STs
self-help groups for forest produce benefited (MoTA 2023-24).
value addition, ensuring livelihoods.
4. Tribal Sub-Plan y Allocates funds for ST development y Rs. 1.05 lakh crore allocated (2023-24); 60%
(TSP) (education, health, infrastructure) spent on health, education
proportional to the ST population. (MoTA 2023-24).

5. PM Vanbandhu Kalyan y Holistic scheme for ST education, y The scheme is national in scope, with an outlay
Yojana health, livelihoods, and cultural of over Rs. 26,000 crore from 2021–22 to
preservation in tribal areas. 2025–26, and aims to support integrated village
development across all major ST regions

B. Legislative Measures
Legislation Explanation Examples
1. Forest Rights Act y Recognises STS’ land rights, y As of October 2023, over 23.43 lakh forest rights titles
(FRA), 2006 forest resource access, have been distributed to tribal and other eligible
reversing colonial restrictions. communities under the FRA.

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 2. SC/ST (Prevention y Punishes atrocities against STs; y According to NCRB data approximately 50,000 to
of Atrocities) special courts ensure swift 70,000 cases are registered annually for crimes against
Act, 1989 justice. The 2015 Amendment both Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes
strengthened penalties. (STs) under the SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act.
3. PESA Act, 1996 y Empowers Gram Sabhas in y PESA applies to 10 Fifth Schedule states. As of 2023,
Scheduled Areas to manage 8 of these states have notified or framed PESA Rules
resources, minor minerals, and
enhance local governance.
4. Constitution (ST) y Updates the ST list to include y Added the Hatti community to Himachal’s ST list
Order (Amendment) new communities, ensuring
Act, 2021 benefits reach marginalised
tribes.

C. Institutional Measures
Institution Explanation Examples
1. National Commission y Monitors safeguards, investigates y NCST raised concerns over delays in FRA
for STs (NCST) rights violations, and advises on ST implementation and flagged tribal displacement in
development under Article 338A. mining zones in Chhattisgarh.
2. Tribal Cooperative y Markets ST forest produce, y TRIFED’s “Tribes India” platform has popularised
Marketing Development ensuring fair prices, economic tribal products like Araku Valley Coffee and
Federation (TRIFED) empowerment. Mahua Honey, boosting tribal entrepreneurship
3. Ministry of Tribal y Formulates policies, schemes for y Launched Adi Adarsh Gram Yojana to develop
Affairs (MoTA) ST welfare, coordinating with tribal villages with integrated infrastructure and
states. basic services.
4. Tribal Research y Research ST culture, development y TRIs have helped document and digitize
Institutes (TRIs) needs, preserving heritage, and endangered tribal languages like Bonda and Ho,
informing policies. preserving intangible tribal heritage.

5. Way Forward
Measure Explanation Committee Recommendations
1. Strengthen FRA y Expedite land title distribution, train y Xaxa Committee (2014): Simplify FRA
Implementation officials to reduce rejections, empower processes; only 40% titles distributed
Gram Sabhas. (MoTA 2023-24).
2. Enhance NCST y Grant NCST statutory authority to y NCST Report (2022-23): Recommended
Powers enforce safeguards, penalise violations, quasi-judicial powers; currently advisory
and ensure accountability. only.
3. Boost Education y Expand EMRS, introduce tribal language y Bhuria Committee (1995): Promote tribal-
Access curricula, and increase scholarships to medium schools; 1.2 lakh STs enrolled
curb dropouts. (MoTA 2023-24).
4. Prevent y Ensure consent, fair compensation, and y Xaxa Committee (2014): Enforce FPIC (Free,
Displacement rehabilitation for STS affected by Prior, Informed Consent); 9 million STs
projects. displaced (MoTA 2023-24).
5. Promote y Scale up Van Dhan, skill training in IT, y Virginius Xaxa Committee (2014): Link STs to
Livelihoods tourism, to reduce poverty, migration. markets; 10 lakh benefited via Van Dhan
(MoTA 2023-24).
6. Cultural y Document tribal heritage, restrict tourism y Lokur Committee (1965): Protect isolated tribes;
Preservation in sensitive areas, promote ST festivals. Sentinelese policy enforced (MoTA 2023-24).
Scheduled Tribes require inclusive development through robust land rights, education, and livelihoods. Strengthening FRA,
NCST, and cultural preservation will ensure social justice, fulfilling constitutional promises.

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 9 Health
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According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity. India’s public health expenditure remains low at 1.9% of GDP, underscoring the need
for strengthened healthcare systems to achieve comprehensive well-being.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. In a crucial domain like the public healthcare system, the Indian State should play a vital role
to contain the adverse impact of marketisation of the system. Suggest some measures through
which the State can enhance the reach of public healthcare at the grassroots level. (2024)
2. “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary
precondition for sustainable development.” Analyze. (2021)
3. In order to enhance the prospects of social development, sound and adequate health care policies
are needed in the fields of geriatric and maternal health care. Discuss. (2020)
4. Appropriate local community-level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for
All’ in India. Explain. (2018)
5. Public health system has limitations in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that the
private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (2015)
6. Identify the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that are related to health. Discuss the success
of the actions taken by the Government for achieving the same. (2013)

1. Data related to health in India

Aspect Details
1. Government y India’s public health expenditure stands at 1.9% of GDP, below the National Health Policy
Healthcare Spending 2017 target of 2.5% by 2025.
2. Budget Allocation for y ₹90,958 crore allocated in the 2024–25 Budget, marking a 12.96% rise from the revised
Healthcare ₹80,517 crore allocation in the previous year.
3. High Out-of-Pocket y Household OoPE makes up about 48% of total health spending and about 1.3% of
Expenditure (OoPE) GDP
4. Gaps in Insurance y Around 400 million people in India remain uninsured and exposed to health-related
Coverage financial risks (NITI Aayog).
5. Urban-Rural y Urban areas have better healthcare access, while rural regions suffer shortages, with
Healthcare Disparities doctor-population ratios as low as 1:2,000 against the WHO norm of 1:1,000.

2. Constitutional Provisions related to Health

Constitutional Description
Provision
1. Article 21 y Guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which the Supreme Court has interpreted to
include the right to health and medical care as essential for a dignified life.
2. Article 39(e) y Directs the State to protect the health and strength of workers, including men, women, and
children, preventing their exploitation.
3. Article 41 y Obligates the State to provide public assistance to those who are sick, disabled, or elderly, ensuring
their welfare.
4. Article 42 y Mandates the State to secure maternity benefits and protect the health of mothers and infants.
5. Article 47 y Requires the State to improve nutrition, living standards, and public health, including measures to
prohibit harmful substances like intoxicating drinks and drugs.
6. Article 48A y Calls on the State to strive for a pollution-free environment to promote good health and well-being.

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3. Public Health Care
Significance of Public Health Care Issues in Public Health Care
y Improved healthcare access by enhancing the availability y Limited access to healthcare due to shortages of
and quality of services, addressing India’s low global infrastructure and healthcare professionals, especially in
ranking in healthcare access. rural areas.
y Example: India’s Ayushman Bharat initiative has y Example: India ranks 145th among 195 countries in terms
established over 1.76 lakh Health & Wellness Centres of quality and accessibility of healthcare.(Lancet HAQ
(HWCs) by April 2025. Index)
y Better health outcomes through early detection and y Low government expenditure on health, around 1.9% of
treatment, reducing disease burden and improving GDP, which is significantly less than peer countries,
population health. limiting system capacity.
y Reduced financial burden on households by lowering y Insufficient emphasis on preventive care despite the triple
out-of-pocket expenses and preventing medical burden of communicable, non-communicable, and
impoverishment. emerging diseases.
y Promotion of social justice by ensuring universal, y Focus on short-term results like hospital construction
publicly funded healthcare that provides equitable access rather than long-term development of primary and
regardless of socio-economic status. secondary healthcare weakens the system.
y Strengthened disease prevention and control through y Over-reliance on physician-centric care without
improved sanitation, surveillance, and health education, integrating multidisciplinary expertise from public health,
preventing outbreaks and enhancing community health. sociology, and environmental science.

4. Primary Healthcare
Issue Faced by Primary Healthcare Solutions
y Poor Infrastructure and Non-adherence to Standards: y Strengthen infrastructure by upgrading PHCs and Sub
Only about 13% of Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and Centres into Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs)
3.4% of Sub Centres meet Indian Public Health under Ayushman Bharat, aiming for comprehensive
Standards (IPHS), lacking basic facilities like beds, primary care with adequate facilities.
water supply, and equipment.
y Severe Shortage of Healthcare Professionals: There is a y Expand medical and nursing education capacity,
shortfall of over 79.9% specialists at CHCs and increase recruitment, and implement retention incentives
significant vacancies among doctors, nurses, and for rural postings.
paramedics, especially in rural areas. y Schemes like Daksh (skill upgradation) and increasing
medical college seats address workforce gaps.
y Urban-Rural Disparity in Access: Rural populations y Promote equitable resource allocation, incentivise rural
face limited access due to uneven distribution of facilities service, and use telemedicine and mobile health units to
and staff, with PHCs and Community Health Centres improve rural healthcare reach.
(CHCs) serving populations far beyond norms.
y Low Quality and Limited 24x7 Functionality: Less than y Strengthen 24x7 service delivery at PHCs through
half of PHCs operate round-the-clock, and many lack improved staffing and infrastructure; implement quality
specialists or essential services, affecting quality and assurance and monitoring mechanisms under the National
timely care. Health Mission.
y High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure and Dependence on y Expand coverage and utilisation of Ayushman Bharat
Private Sector: Public primary care remains under- PM-JAY for secondary and tertiary care; reinforce
resourced, with India’s health spending at 1.9% of public primary health care to reduce dependence on private
GDP—below the 2.5% target set by the National sector.
Health Policy, 2017.

5. Maternal Health Care

y According to WHO, maternal health refers to the health of women during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postnatal period,
encompassing care from family planning to postnatal support to ensure safe and fulfilling outcomes.
y India has reduced the Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) by 25% (from 130 in 2014–16 to 97 in 2018–20 per 1,00,000 live
births), showcasing significant progress toward achieving the SDG target of reducing MMR below 70 by 2030.

Issues Solutions
y Delay in antenatal care registration and y Promote early registration and ensure regular, quality antenatal
inadequate check-ups during pregnancy. check-ups through community outreach and awareness programs.

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 y High out-of-pocket expenditure on delivery y Provide free or subsidized maternity services including delivery,
and maternal care deters institutional access. medicines, diagnostics, and transportation to encourage institutional
deliveries.
y Widespread maternal anaemia due to poor y Implement comprehensive nutrition programs focusing on screening,
nutrition and lack of supplementation. treatment of anaemia, and nutrition education for pregnant women.
y Limited access to quality emergency y Strengthen healthcare facilities with emergency obstetric services,
obstetric care in rural and remote regions. improve referral systems, and upgrade labour rooms to ensure timely
and quality care.
y Inadequate financial and social support for y Provide financial incentives and social support to pregnant women to
pregnant women, especially among poor improve healthcare utilisation and reduce economic barriers.
households.

6. Community Health Care

Community health, a subset of public health delivered outside hospitals by health workers and volunteers, plays a crucial role in
bridging communities with formal healthcare systems. In India, it is essential for achieving the universal goal of ‘Health for All’
through localised interventions tailored to diverse population needs.
Issues Solutions
y Limited access to healthcare in remote and underserved y Establish health centres, mobile clinics, and telemedicine
areas restricts timely and quality care. facilities to bring healthcare services closer to rural and
tribal populations.
y Inadequate infrastructure and shortage of trained y Strengthen primary healthcare infrastructure and
healthcare workers hinder effective community health expand community health worker programs like ASHA
delivery; only 4,413 specialist doctors available against a under the National Health Mission to improve outreach and
need of 21,964 in rural CHCs (March 2023). service quality.
y Low health literacy and lack of awareness contribute to y Conduct targeted health education campaigns and
poor health-seeking behavior and persistence of capacity-building initiatives to raise awareness and
preventable diseases. encourage adoption of healthy practices.
y Fragmented service delivery and poor coordination y Enhance the integration of community health programs
between community and formal health systems reduce with primary healthcare centres and leverage digital health
effectiveness. platforms for better coordination and monitoring.
y Socio-economic and cultural barriers limit community y Promote inclusive policies and culturally sensitive
engagement and equitable access to healthcare. programs that engage marginalised groups and empower
local leadership in health decision-making.

7. Mental Health Care

Mental health, as defined by the World Health Organization, is a state of well-being that enables individuals to cope with life’s
stresses, realise their potential, and contribute meaningfully to society. Ensuring good mental health is essential for social justice,
as it promotes emotional resilience, reduces stigma, and supports equitable access to care for those affected by mental disorders
and psychosocial disabilities.
Issue Solution
y Low Policy PriorityGovt allocation remains low y Increase funding as a greater share of the health budget, and
(₹1,000 crore in 2025-26 vs. ₹93,000 crore equitable distribution across all care levels. The National Mental
needed); mental health budget is ~1% of total Health Programme (NMHP) aims to integrate services at all
health spend. levels.
y Inadequate Infrastructure and WorkforceOnly y Strengthen infrastructure at district/community levels; Expand
0.75 psychiatrists per 100,000 population; training through NIMHANS, iGOT-Diksha, and public-private
shortage of facilities and professionals. partnerships.
y High Treatment Gap and CostsTreatment gap at y Scale affordable access via National Tele Mental Health
83%; 20% of households face financial distress Programme (Tele-MANAS); reduce OOPE through public
due to costs. provision and subsidies.
y Implementation Challenges in enforcing Mental y Ensure timeline-based implementation, resource allocation, and
Health Policy 2014 and Mental HealthCare Act monitoring.
2017.
y Stigma and DiscriminationSocial stigma reduces y Conduct mass awareness campaigns; integrate Kiran Helpline,
treatment-seeking behavior. MANAS App, and school-based education to improve mental
health literacy.

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 y Lack of Awareness and EducationMental health y Integrate mental health into school curriculum and workplace
often misunderstood or ignored. wellness via iGOT-Diksha; train local health workers under
Ayushman Bharat.

8. Universal Health Coverage

Need for Universal Description
Health Coverage in India
1. Increase Public Health y India’s public health expenditure is low at 1.9% of GDP (2023-24), below the
Spending National Health Policy 2017 target of 2.5%. This limits the capacity to strengthen
primary healthcare, leading to over-reliance on costly tertiary care and late diagnosis
of manageable diseases.
2. Address Urban-Rural y Healthcare infrastructure and professionals are concentrated in urban areas, while 65%
Healthcare Disparities of the population lives in rural regions with inadequate access, resulting in
inequitable health outcomes and poor service delivery.
3. Manage Rising Burden of y NCDs account for over 65% of deaths in India, aggravated by pollution, poor
Non-Communicable sanitation, and malnutrition, requiring comprehensive preventive and curative
Diseases (NCDs) healthcare interventions at all levels.
4. Improve Implementation y Inefficiencies such as poor awareness, data errors, and fraud undermine the
of Health Schemes effectiveness of government health programs, reducing their reach and impact on
vulnerable populations.
5. Expand Health Insurance y Limited insurance penetration leaves most Indians uninsured, with high out-of-pocket
Coverage and Financial expenses pushing millions into poverty; expanding schemes like Ayushman Bharat
Protection PM-JAY is critical for financial risk protection.

8.1 Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB PM-JAY)
Key Features of PM-JAY Details
1. Largest Government-Funded y Fully financed by the government, covering over 12 crore poor and vulnerable
Health Assurance Scheme families (approx. 55 crore beneficiaries).
2. Coverage y Provides health cover up to ₹5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary
Amount hospitalization.
3. Comprehensive y Covers around 1,949 medical procedures across 27 specialties including drugs,
Coverage diagnostics, food, lodging, physician fees, room charges, OT and ICU charges.
4. No Restrictions on Family y Ensures inclusivity with no limits on number of family members or pre-existing
Size, Age or Gender conditions covered from day one.
5. Cashless and Paperless y Beneficiaries receive cashless treatment at empanelled public and private hospitals
Treatment across India.
6. Pre- and Post-Hospitalization y Includes expenses up to 3 days before hospitalisation and 15 days after
Coverage discharge.
7. Nationwide Portability y Beneficiaries can avail of services at any empanelled hospital anywhere in India.
8. Beneficiary y Based on Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC) 2011 data, targeting deprived rural
Identification households and specific urban occupational groups.
9. Public Hospital y Public hospitals are reimbursed at par with private hospitals, incentivising quality
Reimbursement care and infrastructure strengthening.
10. Implementation and y Managed by the National Health Authority (NHA) with robust digital monitoring,
Monitoring audits, and fraud prevention mechanisms.

9. One Health Approach

The ‘One Health’ approach, as defined by WHO, emphasizes coordinated action across human, animal, and environmental health
sectors to achieve optimal public health outcomes. With rising zoonotic infections and environmental challenges, this integrated
framework has gained critical importance in recent years.
Aspect Significance of One Health Approach
1. Risk of disease y Growing human encroachment into animal habitats increases close contact with
transmission animals, raising the chances of zoonotic infections.
y Example: National One Health Mission (NOHM) addresses zoonotic spillover risks.

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 2. Climate change and y Environmental disruptions like deforestation and intensive farming enhance
land use transmission opportunities for zoonotic diseases.
y Example: Health Bengaluru Initiative integrates climate daa with disease surveillance to
predict hotspots.
3. Global movement and y Increased international travel and trade facilitate rapid cross-border spread of diseases
trade from animals to humans.
4. Need for collaborative y Human-animal shared ecosystems necessitate joint efforts;
response y Example: Rabies is preventable by vaccinating animal sources.
5. Zoonosis and drug y Crucial for managing food safety, zoonotic diseases like flu and rabies, and controlling
resistance control antibiotic resistance transmission.
y Example: The National Action Plan for Dog-Mediated Rabies Elimination (NAPRE) 2030
involves human health (vaccination), animal welfare (stray dog sterilization), and local
governance.
6. Viral surveillance in y Monitoring animal viruses aids in developing effective human vaccines, especially for
animals potential influenza outbreaks.
7. Coordinated y Tackling antimicrobial resistance requires synchronised action in both animal and
containment strategies human health sectors.

10. Privatisation of Health Care in India

Benefits of Privatisation Challenges of Privatisation
y Improves access to specialized healthcare by bringing in y Increases inequality by widening the gap between rich
private expertise, advanced technology, and modern and poor, favouring those who can afford private care.
equipment.
y Enhances infrastructure quality through public-private y Public hospitals offer subsidised or free services, making
partnerships, utilizing government facilities with private many people prefer them over expensive private hospitals.
sector efficiency and investment.
y Achieves economies of scale by sharing services like y Uninsured patients face high treatment costs in private
ambulances, blood banks, and mortuaries between private facilities, leading to financial distress.
and public hospitals, improving resource use.
y Ensures timely and better diagnosis through advanced y Lack of regulation in the private sector can lead to
medical devices, reducing regional disparities in healthcare exploitation of patients financially or through poor-quality
services. care.
y Promotes holistic medical growth by encouraging private y Private healthcare providers often lack accountability to
investment in research, infrastructure, and job creation in government regulatory bodies, leading to unchecked
the health sector. practices.

11. Digital Health

Digital health refers to the use of digital technologies and innovations to enhance healthcare delivery, improve health outcomes,
and make health systems more efficient and accessible. It encompasses a broad range of tools such as electronic health
records, telemedicine, wearable devices, artificial intelligence, and big data analytics to support personalized, equitable,
and sustainable healthcare.
Significance of Digital Health Concerns Related to Digital Health
y Enables easy sharing of medical records like prescriptions y Risk of unauthorised data access compromising patient
and test reports across healthcare providers. privacy and leading to misuse of personal health information.
y Example: While ABDM’s Health Information Exchange
(HIE) requires patient consent for data sharing, gaps persist in
rural digital literacy.
y Provides a unique digital health ID for every citizen to y AI and other technologies may cause biased or
streamline interactions with healthcare professionals. discriminatory healthcare outcomes.
y Example: ABHA (Ayushman Bharat Health Account) is a
14-digit unique health ID under ABDM for seamless digital
access and sharing of medical records across healthcare
providers.
y Supports effective management of chronic diseases, a y Unequal access to digital tools and low digital literacy can
growing public health challenge. exclude marginalised groups, especially in rural areas.
y Example: Apollo Hospitals uses AI models for the early y Example: According to the NSSO data, only 24% of rural
detection of tuberculosis. Indian households have access to the Internet, compared to
a 66% penetration in cities.

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 y Enhances public health monitoring and supports y Lack of trust in digital health platforms can hinder
data-driven policy decisions. adoption, as seen in failed systems like the UK NHS
y Example: CoWIN Platform managed COVID-19 vaccine digital project.
doses, enabling real-time tracking and data-driven policy
adjustments.
y Speeds up treatment for critically ill patients by enabling y Absence of standardised digital health cards causes issues
quick access to comprehensive medical histories. in data transfer and security across systems.

12. Government Schemes

Scheme Description
1. Surakshit Matritva y Ensures assured, dignified, respectful, and quality maternal and newborn health services
Aashwasan free of cost in public health facilities; aims to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality by
(SUMAN) strengthening service delivery and infrastructure.
2. Pradhan Mantri y Provides guaranteed, comprehensive, and quality antenatal care to pregnant women on the
Surakshit Matritva 9th of every month; focuses on early detection and management of high-risk pregnancies to
Abhiyan (PMSMA) reduce maternal and infant mortality.
3. Rashtriya Bal y Screens children from birth to 18 years for 4 Ds – Defects at birth, Diseases, Deficiencies,
Swasthya and Developmental delays; covers 32 health conditions for early detection and free treatment
Karyakram (RBSK) including surgeries; implemented under National Health Mission.
4. Mission y Aims to increase full immunisation coverage to at least 90% by targeting unvaccinated and
Indradhanush partially vaccinated children and pregnant women; focuses on hard-to-reach and vulnerable
populations to reduce vaccine-preventable diseases.
5. National Vector y Umbrella program for prevention and control of vector-borne diseases like Malaria, Dengue,
Borne Disease Kala-Azar, Lymphatic Filariasis, and Japanese Encephalitis; includes elimination efforts
Control Programme and mass drug administration, surveillance, and vector control strategies.
(NVBDCP)

13. Way Forward

Way Forward Explanation
1. Implement NITI Aayog Action y Increase government health expenditure to 2.5% of GDP and shift focus
Plan for Health towards preventive care rather than predominantly curative care.
2. Establish National Commission y Set up a commission to recommend healthcare spending priorities and monitor
for Healthcare Cost Management the performance and efficiency of healthcare systems.
3. Health-Education-Livelihood y Establish integrated rural campuses combining community health centres,
(HEL) Campuses skill development centers, and health-tech incubators. Provide local youth with
healthcare jobs, boosting human resources and rural economies.
4. Mental Wealth Initiative y Reframe mental health as an economic asset; offer corporate tax incentives for
mental health programs, integrate mental health education across professions, and
train local health workers ("Mind Mitras") to provide counselling.
5. Pharma-to-Plate Integrity y Use blockchain to track pharmaceuticals from raw materials to patient
Chain consumption. Launch a global app for consumers to verify medicine
authenticity, combating counterfeit drugs and enhancing the reputation of Indian
pharma.
6. Ayush in Action y Increase integration of AYUSH practitioners in allopathic settings; promote
wellness activities like mid-week yoga in schools and workplaces to foster holistic
health and prevent non-communicable diseases.
The ancient shloka “Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah, Sarve Santu Niramayah” (May all be happy, may all be free from disease)
embodies the ideal of universal well-being and health. This vision aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal
(SDG) 3, which strives to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages through universal health coverage, equitable
access to quality healthcare, and financial risk protection.

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 10 Education Click or Scan
To Read More

Education in India, a pillar of social justice and economic growth, is influenced by constitutional mandates and policies such as NEP
2020. According to the 2011 Census, India's literacy rate was 74.04%, with males at 82.14% and females at 65.46%. This reflects progress
but persistent gender and access gaps, which need to be addressed through active reforms and community participation.
1. Constitutional Provisions
Aspect Description
1. Fundamental Rights y Article 21A mandates free, compulsory education for ages 6-14. Article 28 ensures freedom from
religious instruction. Article 30 allows minorities to manage institutions.
2. Directive Principles y Articles 41, 45 promote education, work, early childhood care for children under 6 years, guiding
universal access.
3. Fundamental Duties y Article 51A(k) requires parents to provide education for ages 6-14, emphasising social duty.
4. Official Language y Article 350A ensures mother-tongue instruction for linguistic minorities at the primary stage.
5. Seventh Schedule y Concurrent List subject: Union sets standards, states manage school, and vocational education.

2. Facts on Education in India

Indicator Data
1. Gross Enrollment Ratio y Primary (Class 1-5): 103.4%
(GER) 2021-22 y Upper Primary (Class 6-8): 94.7%
y Secondary (Class 9-10): 79.6%
y Higher Education: 28.4% (UDISE+ 2021-22, AISHE 2021-22)
2. Pupil-Teacher Ratio y Primary schools is 26:1
(UDISE 2021-22) y Upper Primary is 19:1
y Secondary school is 17:1
y Higher Secondary School is 27:1
3. Government Expenditure on y The combined central+state education spending is 2.5–2.9% of GDP in
Education 2024-25. Budget allocations have increased in rupee-terms, but as a percentage
of GDP it is still low.
4. Dropout Rates(2024-25) y Primary: 1.9 %
y Upper Primary: 5.2%
y Secondary: 14.1%
5. Gender Parity Index (GPI) y Higher Education: 1.01 (AISHE 2021-22)

3. Challenges in Indian Education

Challenge Description Example
1. Inadequate y Limited budgetary allocation restricts y Budget 2024-25: 2.9% GDP on education,
Funding infrastructure, teacher training, and resources, below 6% NEP target.
hindering quality education.
2. Teacher y Insufficient teachers, poor training lead to y RISE Programme suggests a net deficit of
Shortages substandard teaching; outdated curricula, around 246,346 teachers in India, despite
methods fail to foster critical thinking. having a surplus in some areas
3. Traditional y Rote learning, traditional pedagogy dominate; y ASER 2023: 30% Class 8 students can’t solve
Methods minimal technology, audio-visual aids stifle basic math.
innovation, practical skills.
4. Privatization y Private institutions (>50%) prioritize profit, y Uttar Pradesh: 60% private schools lack
Issues compromise quality; high fees exclude low- trained teachers, per DISE 2023.
income students, widen inequities.
5. Infrastructure y Inadequate facilities (classrooms, labs, y PM Poshan Scheme (2024): 20% schools lack
Gaps sanitation) in rural government schools limit proper kitchens.
learning environments, especially for girls.

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6. Socio-Economic y Poverty, caste, and regional disparities y More than 13,500 students from Scheduled
Barriers restrict access; dropouts are common among Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward
the marginalised due to economic pressures. Classes have dropped out of courses they were
taking at Central Universities,IITs, IIMs.
7. Gender y Gender biases limit girls’ education; lower y Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2024): 15% rise in
Disparities literacy (Female - 65.46% and male - 82.14%, female enrollment, Haryana.
2011 Census) due to marriage, safety, norms.

4. Impacts of Educational Challenges

Impact Description Example
1. Low Learning y Poor quality education leads to weak y ASER 2023: 50% of Class 5 students
Outcomes foundational skills, limiting employability, global can’t read Class 2 texts.
competitiveness among youth.
2. Economic y Unequal access perpetuates poverty cycles; y Education inequity costs ~2–3% of GDP
Inequality disadvantaged groups lack skills for better jobs, annually in developing nations
widening income gaps. (UNESCO, 2023).
3. Social y Marginalised communities (SC/ST, girls, rural) y ASER 2023: ~20% of rural girls drop out
Exclusion face limited opportunities, reinforcing caste, gender, due to lack of schools & socio-economic
and regional divides. barriers.
4. Unemployment y Skill mismatches from outdated curricula create y CMIE 2024: 20% of graduates
unemployable graduates, increasing youth unemployed, highest in a decade.
unemployment, and social unrest.
5. Global Lag y Inadequate education hampers innovation, y In QS World University Rankings 2025, IIT
research, and reduces India’s global standing in Bombay, IIT Delhi, and IISc Bangalore are
technology, knowledge economies. among the top 200 globally.

5. Measures to Strengthen Education

Measure Description Example
1. Increased y Higher budgetary allocation (6% GDP, NEP 2020) y Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (2024):
Funding supports infrastructure, teacher recruitment, ₹37,000 crore for school upgrades.
technology, and ensuring quality education.
2. Teacher Training y Incentives, professional development enhance y NISHTHA 3.0 (2024): Trained 25 lakh
teaching quality; modern pedagogy, technology teachers in digital teaching.
foster critical thinking.
3. Technology y Digital tools, smart classrooms, and e-learning y PM e-VIDYA (2024): 200+ e-channels
Integration platforms modernise teaching, improve access, and for remote learning.
engagement in rural areas.
4. Infrastructure y Upgrading facilities (classrooms, labs, sanitation) y Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2024): 80% of
Development creates conducive learning environments, reducing schools with sanitation facilities.
dropouts for girls, rural students.
5. Student- y Outcome-based education emphasises skill y NEP 2020: Introduced
Centered development, critical thinking, problem-solving, and multidisciplinary education in
Learning shifting from rote learning. schools.
6. Decentralization y Local governance ensures accountability, community y Kerala’s Samagra Shiksha: 90%
involvement, tailored solutions, improved operations, schools managed locally, per state
and resource allocation. (2024).
7. International y Global partnerships facilitate knowledge exchange, y India-UK NEP collaboration (2024):
Cooperation technical support, funding, and aligning education Trained STEM teachers.
with international standards.

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 6. Emerging Issues and Trends
Issue Description Example
1. Digital Divide y Unequal access to digital tools and, internet y TRAI 2024: 40% of rural households have
limits e-learning, exacerbating inequities for internet access.
rural, low-income students.
2. Privatization y Profit-driven private institutions compromise y Rajasthan: 50% of private schools non-
Concerns quality; untrained teachers, high fees exclude compliant with RTE, per MHRD (2024).
marginalised groups.
3. Skill Mismatch y Outdated curricula fail to align with industry y NASSCOM 2024: 60% of IT graduates lack
needs, producing graduates lacking employable AI/data science skills.
skills, hindering growth.
4. Mental Health y Academic pressure, exam stress impact student y NIMHANS 2024: 30% of students report
well-being, requiring counselling, holistic exam-related anxiety.
education for mental health.
5. Inclusive y Barriers for disabled, minority, and economically y RPWD Act, 2016: 4% reservation for
Education weaker students demand inclusive policies, disabled students, partially implemented.
training, and accessible infrastructure.

7. Way Forward
Strategy Description
1. Policy y Effective execution of NEP 2020 ensures multidisciplinary education, vocational training, and
Implementation universal access, aligning with global standards.
2. Public-Private y Collaborations leverage private expertise, public funding to enhance infrastructure, teacher
Partnerships training, technology, and reduce disparities.
3. Inclusive y Targeted schemes for girls, SC/ST, and disabled promote equity; scholarships, safe
Policies infrastructure curb dropouts.
4. Digital y Universal internet access, device provision, and bridging the digital divide, ensuring e-learning
Equity reaches rural, marginalised communities.
5. Mental Health y Counselling services, stress-free curricula address student well-being, integrating life skills for
Support resilience, emotional health.
Transforming India's education system requires tackling chronic underfunding, systemic disparities, and pedagogical shortcomings
through holistic, inclusive reforms. Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 (Quality Education) will cultivate equitable,
innovative, and resilient learning ecosystems, advancing social equity and sustainable progress for all.

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 11 School Education in India Click or Scan
To Read More

India’s school education system plays a foundational role in shaping human capital, yet continues to grapple with issues of access,
quality, and equity. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, alongside targeted government reforms, envisions a shift towards
an inclusive, learner-centric, and competency-based framework aimed at transforming education delivery and outcomes.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, remains inadequate in
promoting an incentive-based system for children’s education without generating awareness
about the importance of schooling. Analyse.(2022)
2. How have digital initiatives in India contributed to the functioning of the education system in the
country? Elaborate on your answer. (2020)

1. Overview and Present Situation

Aspect Explanation Substantiation
1. Structure y Covers pre-primary to Class 12, managed by y India's school education system serves 24.8
central, state, and local governments. crore students across 14.72 lakh schools with
Includes public, private, and aided schools. 95.07 lakh teachers (UDISE+ 2021-22).
2. Access y Near-universal primary enrollment, but y GER: Primary (99.1%), Upper Primary
secondary enrollment lags, especially in (94.7%), Secondary (79.6%)
rural areas. (UDISE+ 2021-22).
3. Literacy y Significant progress, but gender and regional y Literacy rate: 77.7% (male 84.7%, female
gaps persist, particularly in rural/tribal areas. 70.3%) (NSO 2020-21).
4. Infrastructure y Improved facilities, but rural schools lack y 89% of schools have toilets, 83% have
toilets, electricity, and digital tools. electricity (UDISE+ 2021-22).
5. Teachers y Shortage and inadequate training affect quality. y 95.7 lakh teachers; 8% schools single teacher
Single-teacher schools prevalent in rural areas. (UDISE+ 2021-22).
6. Learning y Low foundational literacy and numeracy y 37% of Class 3 students can read Class 2 text;
Outcomes skills, especially in government schools. 25% solve basic subtraction (NAS 2017).

2. Issues
Issue Explanation Examples
1. Access Gaps y Geographical barriers, poverty, and inadequate public y Forty-nine villages in Bijnor are
transport facilities limit access to schools. The lack of bereft of a primary school within
educational facilities, especially at the secondary level, creates a radius of 1 km as their
an urban-rural divide. population is less than 300 each.
y Social mobility is hindered due to the absence of schools in
remote areas.
2. Poor Quality y Pedagogical issues such as rote learning, outdated curricula, y The percentage of Class 3
Education and a lack of trained teachers. The curriculum often lacks children who can perform at
relevance to real-life skills, contributing to low learning least subtraction at the basic
outcomes. arithmetic level was 33.7% in
y Lack of critical thinking and problem-solving skills is a 2024. (ASER, 2024).
major drawback.
3. Infrastructure y Physical infrastructure issues such as inadequate y 89% of single-teacher schools
Deficits classrooms, toilets, libraries, and digital learning tools. are in rural areas, with
y Rural schools are particularly affected, impeding learning dilapidated buildings and a lack
outcomes and the implementation of reforms like the of electricity/digital tools.
National Education Policy (NEP), which calls for digital (UNESCO Report, 2021)
literacy and inclusive learning spaces.

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4. High y Socio-economic factors such as poverty, child labor, early y 49.2% of tribal students in
Dropouts marriage, and lack of support systems contribute to the high Chhattisgarh drop out by
dropout rates. elementary level due to poverty
y Gender disparities exacerbate this issue, with girls being more and conflict.
vulnerable due to gender norms and cultural expectations.
5. Inequity y Caste-based, gender-based, and economic disparities in y In Uttar Pradesh, Dalit students
access to education create systemic inequality. face discrimination and are often
y Biases in school admissions, discriminatory teaching excluded from classroom
practices, and lack of inclusive curricula further entrench activities and peer groups
disparities, particularly for Dalit, Tribal, and Girls. (National Commission for
Scheduled Tribes, NCST 2023).
6. Teacher y - Teacher absenteeism, insufficient training, and low y In conflict-affected Sukma
Shortage & teacher morale are major issues. (Chhattisgarh), schools lack
Quality y - Inadequate teacher-student ratio and poor remuneration qualified teachers, with one
contribute to high turnover rates, leading to inconsistency in teacher managing all primary
the quality of education provided. classes.
7. Lack of y Absence of vocational education in the school curriculum y Only 5.6% of rural youth aged
Vocational limits students' ability to develop practical skills. 14–18 opt for vocational
Training y The focus on traditional academic subjects, rather than training, perpetuating
hands-on skills, increases the risk of youth unemployment unemployment.
and economic vulnerability.
8. Digital Divide y Unequal access to digital resources such as computers, y 32 million underprivileged
tablets, and the internet widens the gap between urban and children lack access to education
rural education. due to the digital divide.
y Technological literacy is crucial for modern education, but
the lack of infrastructure hampers the use of digital
platforms, especially after the pandemic.
9. Privatization y Rise of privately managed schools and the y In Telangana, 57.5% of urban
of Education commercialization of education, especially in urban areas, primary students attend private
leads to a growing divide. schools, reflecting affordability
y While these schools provide better facilities, they are often barriers for low-income families.
inaccessible to lower-income families due to high fees,
exacerbating educational inequality.

3. Initiatives
A. Schemes
Scheme Objective
1. Samagra Shiksha y Integrates pre-primary to Class XII education for equitable, inclusive, quality learning
aligned with NEP 2020.
y Supports equity & inclusion; addresses NEP 2020 goals.
2. Free Uniforms & y Provides free uniforms & textbooks at an elementary level to reduce financial barriers,
Textbooks improve retention.
y Promotes access and retention for disadvantaged groups.
3. Transport/Escort Facility y Offers transport/escort support up to secondary level for marginalised students to bridge
access gaps.
y Ensures school access for remote, tribal, marginalised communities.
4. ICT Labs & Smart y Bridges rural-urban digital divide via PM e-Vidya, DIKSHA, SWAYAM PRABHA.
Classrooms y Reflects digital integration in education under NEP 2020; reduces tech gap.
5. Prashast App y Early screening of children with special needs in schools for inclusion.
y Promotes inclusive education for differently-abled students; aligns with SDG 4.
6. Kasturba Gandhi Balika y Residential schools for SC/ST/OBC/minority girls to improve gender equity.
Vidyalayas y Addresses gender equity and educational empowerment of marginalised girls.
7. PM-JANMAN Hostels y Hostels for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) for safe residential
education.
y Focuses on educational inclusion of PVTGs; supports tribal welfare goals.

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 8. Holistic Progress Card y Tracks academic & non-academic growth via 360-degree assessments.
y Emphasises competency-based, holistic evaluation under NEP 2020.
9. Teacher Capacity y Hybrid teacher training to improve pedagogy for diverse learners, including Children
Building (NISHTHA) With Special Needs(CwSN).
y Strengthens teacher quality and capacity building; aligns with NEP 2020 reforms.

B. Legislative Measures
Legislation Explanation Examples
1. RTE Act, y Guarantees free, compulsory education for y Ensured 99% primary enrollment (UDISE+
2009 ages 6-14, prohibits discrimination. 2021-22).
2. NEP 2020 y Introduces 5+3+3+4 structure, emphasises y National Curriculum Framework for Foundational
holistic, multidisciplinary education, and Stage (NCF-FS) was launched in October 2022, and
digital learning. states began phased implementation in 2023–24.

C. Institutional Measures
Institution Explanation Examples
1. NCERT y Develops curricula, textbooks, y NCERT released the National Curriculum
and teacher training to Framework for Foundational Stage (NCF-FS) in
standardise quality education. October 2022, aligning with NEP 2020.
2. DIETs(District Institutes y Train teachers at the district level y Under the NISHTHA 3.0 program, DIETs trained
of Education and to improve pedagogy, align with 1.7 million teachers in 2022–23 on foundational
Training) NEP 2020. literacy, numeracy, and inclusive education.
3. Vidya Samiksha y Data repositories for real-time y VSKs have integrated 30+ states and Union
Kendras (VSKs) monitoring of schemes, Territories for real-time education data monitoring
attendance, and learning (MoE 2023-24).
outcomes.

4. Right to Education Act,2009

The Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which came into force on 1st April 2010, makes education a fundamental right for
children aged 6 to 14 in India, ensuring free and compulsory schooling for all.
Dimension Impact Challenges
1. School y Significant rise in enrolment, especially at the y Ghost enrolments and irregular attendance
Enrollment upper primary level; enrolment increased by continue in some states; quality of retention
19.4% between 2009–2016. is questionable.
2. Infrastructure y Construction of 18.03 lakh classrooms, and y Infrastructure often lacks maintenance, quality
Development sanitation facilities, including 5.07 lakh girls’ control, or integration with child-friendly
toilets (Rajya Sabha, 2018). design; poor facilities in remote areas.
3. Accountability y School Management Committees (SMCs), y SMCs are often ineffective due to a lack of
Mechanisms grievance redressal systems, and participatory training, politicisation, or low awareness
models (such as Lokmitra, Oxfam) enhanced among parents, especially in rural areas.
community involvement.
4. Inclusivity y RTE mandates non-discrimination and y In practice, exclusion persists, especially
inclusion of marginalised groups (SC/ST, among orphaned children, nomadic tribes,
Muslims, CWSN); enrolment parity achieved and children without documentation.
for SC (94%) and Muslims (95%).
5. Dropout y Dropout among children aged 6–14 fell by y Post-primary (Grade 9 onwards) dropout
Reduction 55% between 2005 and 2014; primary dropout remains high; socio-economic barriers like
declined from 6.8% to 4.3% (PIB). child labour, early marriage persist.
6. Women’s y RTE has enhanced girl child education, y Gender disparities reappear post Grade 8,
Empowerment empowered families to send daughters to especially in conservative/rural settings;
school. safety and sanitation remain concerns.
y NGOs like Indus Action have facilitated
outreach and vocational training.

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 7. Disability y Separate toilets for Children With Special y Lack of trained special educators, physical
Inclusion Needs (CWSN); mandated inclusive classroom accessibility, and inclusive pedagogy limit
policies. the act's full implementation.
8. Educational y RTE introduced Continuous and y Successive ASER reports show declining
Quality Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) to improve learning outcomes; teachers not trained in
learning. CCE; rote learning still prevalent.
9. No Detention y Ensured promotion of students till Grade 8 to y Misused and poorly implemented, the 2019
Policy reduce pressure and dropout. amendment reintroduced exams in Grade 5
and 8 due to poor academic standards.
10. Legal Status y Education became a Fundamental Right (Art. y RTE does not cover children below 6 and
21A) via the 86th Constitutional above 14, excluding pre-primary and
Amendment. secondary education—a major gap.
11. Administrative y Central and state governments provided funds, y Corruption, fund misallocation, and
Efficiency and some successful state-level innovations. inefficiencies reported in SSA and RTE
implementation (such as the CAG report, 2006).
12. Digital and y Catalysed school expansion in rural India; y Digital divide and lack of ICT infrastructure
Modern encouraged awareness about formal education. make the system outdated for a digitally
Education Needs transforming society.

5. Way Forward
Aspect Recommendations
1. Enhance y Kasturirangan Committee (2020) recommended emphasizing critical thinking; initiatives like
Quality Delhi’s Happiness curriculum have improved Social and Emotional Learning.
2. Teacher y NEP 2020 mandates 50-hour annual teacher training; Tamil Nadu’s teacher workshops have
Training shown improved learning outcomes (MoE 2023-24).
3. Infrastructure y NITI Aayog (2024) emphasised prioritising digital infrastructure; schemes like CM RISE (MP)
Upgrade have upgraded 9,200 schools to improve learning environments.
4. Reduce y Xaxa Committee (2014) highlighted targeting tribal girls; Haryana’s cycle scheme reduced
Dropouts dropouts by 10% (PIB 2024), showing the success of such incentives.
5. Digital y Kasturirangan Committee (2020) advocated universal e-learning; Gujarat’s Vidya Samiksha
Integration Kendra leveraged AI dashboards to improve monitoring and learning outcomes (MoE 2023-24).
6. Public-Private y NITI Aayog (2024) recommended promoting PPPs; models like the Azim Premji Foundation’s
Partnerships work in Karnataka enhanced community engagement and educational quality (MoE 2023-24).
A robust, inclusive, and equitable school education system is key to realising India’s demographic dividend. As the Kothari
Commission (1964–66) rightly stated, “The destiny of India is now being shaped in her classrooms.” With sustained efforts in
improving quality, strengthening infrastructure, and ensuring social equity, school education can serve as the foundation for
meaningful and lasting national transformation.

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 12 Higher Education in India Click or Scan
To Read More

Higher education in India is the third largest globally, with over 1,100 universities and 43 million students (AISHE 2021-22).
Governed by bodies like UGC and AICTE, it plays a vital role in economic growth, innovation, and skilled workforce development.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally
competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve
the quality of technical and higher education in the country? Discuss. (2015)
2. Should the premier institutes like IITs/IIMs be allowed to retain premier status, allowed more
academic independence in designing courses and also decide mode/criteria of selection of
students. Discuss in light of the growing challenges. (2014)

Overview of Higher Education in India

1. Issues in Higher Education

Issue Explanation Examples
1. Access & Equity y Persistent disparities in enrollment among y Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for
Gaps rural, SC/ST, Muslim, and marginalised groups Scheduled Tribes (STs) reached 21%, and
due to socio-economic and geographic barriers. for Muslims, it was 16.4% in 2021–22,
compared to the national average of 28.4%.
2. Quality & y Many HEIs suffer from poor accreditation, y Only 2 Indian institutes in QS Global Top
Accreditation outdated curricula, rote learning, and low global 200 (2024).
Deficit ranking, undermining academic standards and
learning outcomes.
3. Faculty & Research y Shortage of qualified faculty and low R&D y India’s student-faculty ratio in top
Deficiency investment weaken research output, innovation, universities is 18:1, far higher than the
and academic mentorship in higher education global benchmark of 10:1.
institutions.
4. Employability y Higher education often fails to equip students y The India Skills Report 2025 found that
Mismatch with relevant skills (digital, analytical, only 55% of graduates are employable.
communication), leading to low employability.
5. Affordability & y Rising costs in private HEIs, inadequate y 78.6% of colleges in India are privately
Privatisation Issues scholarships, and commercialization trends owned, but many lack accreditation.
make higher education inaccessible for low-
income students.
6. Regulatory & y Fragmented regulation, bureaucratic y India hosted <50,000 international students,
Internationalisation hurdles, and weak international partnerships while China hosted 492,185 in 2018.
Challenges reduce institutional autonomy and global y National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 aims
engagement. to streamline regulations, but
implementation remains slow.

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2. Initiatives
A. Schemes
Scheme Objectives
1. Institutions of Eminence y Empowers 10 public & 10 private HEIs to become world-class; grants academic &
(IoE) financial autonomy; ₹1,000 crore grant for public institutions; selected by the
Empowered Expert Committee.
2. Higher Education y Provides financial support for infrastructure & R&D in top educational institutions;
Financing Agency joint venture of Canara Bank & the Ministry of Education.
3. Rashtriya Uchchatar y Centrally Sponsored Scheme: provides strategic funding to state universities (60:40,
Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) 90:10, 100% funding based on state category); outcome-based funding approach.
4. PM Internship Scheme y It aims to provide 1 crore internships over five years to enhance employability and
skill development.
5. National Credit y A comprehensive system introduced under NEP 2020 to integrate academic learning
Framework (NCrF) with vocational and experiential education.
6. National Apprenticeship y 1-year program for technical graduates to gain practical work skills via an industry-
Training Scheme (NATS) based apprenticeship.
7. SHREYAS y Scheme for Higher Education Youth in Apprenticeship and Skills offers
apprenticeships to graduates to enhance their employability under NAPS.
8. PM Vidyalaxmi y Offers loans and scholarships to ensure affordable education for talented students
from low-income families.

B. Legislative Measures
Legislation Explanation Examples
1. NEP 2020 y Promotes multidisciplinary learning, y ABC enables credit transfers in over 500 HEIs
Academic Bank of Credits (ABC), and (MoE, 2023-24).
global partnerships for holistic education.
2. UGC Regulations, y Facilitates twinning, joint degrees with y Delhi University (DU) has tie up with University
2022 foreign universities to boost of Glasgow, UK
internationalisation.
3. NAAC Reforms, y Introduces binary accreditation to y Under the new system, severl HEIs have enrolled
2024 simplify quality assurance, encouraging in the pilot phase for Maturity-Based Graded
HEI participation. Accreditation (MBGL) to achieve higher quality
benchmarks (MoE, 2024).

C. Institutional Measures
Institution Explanation Examples
1. UGC y Oversees standards, funds research, and y Operationalised the Academic Bank of Credits
drives NEP reforms like credit frameworks. (ABC) in 1,000+ HEIs by 2024 (MoE, 2023–24).
2. AICTE y Regulates technical education, approves y Approved several new-age courses (AI, robotics) in
industry-aligned courses to enhance 2023 (AICTE, 2023).
employability.
3. NIRF y Ranks HEIs to promote quality, y IISc Bangalore retained #1 rank in NIRF 2023
transparency, and healthy competition. (NIRF, 2023).
4. NAAC y Ensures quality through accreditation,
mentoring smaller HEIs for improvement.

3. Policy & Reform Recommendations

Reform Area Recommendations
1. Regulatory y Establish HECI to replace UGC/AICTE under NEP 2020.
Restructuring
2. Enhancing y NEP 2020 mandates continuous professional development (CPD) for teachers, including at least
Faculty 50 hours of training annually, and suggests performance-linked promotions.
Quality

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 3. Research and y Strengthen the ANRF (Anusandhan National Research Foundation) and promote industry-
Innovation academia collaboration to boost innovation.
4. Curriculum y Promote interdisciplinary learning, inclusion of emerging areas (AI, climate), and regular updates
Reform to the curriculum to ensure relevance and global competitiveness (NKC Report).
5. Increase Public y Raise higher education expenditure to at least 1.5% of GDP as an interim target, with emphasis on
Investment equity-linked funding (Kothari Commission & NEP).
6. Digital y Expand platforms like NDEAR, develop local-language content, and distribute digital devices to
Infrastructure bridge the rural-urban tech divide (MoE Digital Strategy 2023).
7. International y Enable foreign universities in designated zones like GIFT City and encourage joint degrees and
Collaboration exchange programs (NEP 2020; Draft Foreign Education Bill 2023).
8. Institutional y Grant premier institutions like IITs/IIMs full autonomy in curriculum design, recruitment, and
Autonomy financial decisions.
India’s higher education must embrace NEP 2020, which rightly states: “India’s higher education must be transformed to meet
the challenges of the 21st century.” By enhancing research, fostering global partnerships, and prioritising equity, quality, and
innovation, it can empower youth for a Viksit Bharat.

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 13 National Education Policy 2020
and Three Language Formula Click or Scan
To Read More

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, announced on July 29, 2020, is a transformative framework aimed at overhauling India's
education system. It replaces the 1986 National Policy on Education and aligns with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. Built on the pillars of Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability, and Accountability, NEP 2020 seeks to make India
a global knowledge superpower by fostering holistic, flexible, and multidisciplinary education.
Emphasising India's linguistic diversity, the policy promotes the three-language formula, encouraging the use of regional languages
while ensuring flexibility and no imposition of any particular language on states or students.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030).
It intends to restructure and reorient the education system in India. Critically examine the
statement. (2020)

1. Overview of NEP 2020

Aspect Details
1. Background y It was formulated by a committee led by Dr. K Kasturirangan aiming to transform India into a vibrant
knowledge society.
y NEP 2020 provides Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability, Accountability, aligned with SDG 4 for
inclusive and equitable education.
2. Vision y Holistic, flexible, multidisciplinary education to bring out the unique capabilities of each student,
with provisions like multiple entry/exit options in higher education.
3. Targets y 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in preschool to secondary by 2030.
y 50% GER in higher education by 2035.
y Universal foundational literacy and numeracy by 2025 through initiatives like NIPUN Bharat.

2. School Education Reforms

Category Details Significance
1. Universal y Ensure access from pre-primary to Grade 12, targeting 2 y Broadens educational reach,
Access crore out-of-school children through open learning via significantly reducing dropout
NIOS, vocational courses, and adult literacy programs. rates and fostering inclusivity
y Tracks students’ learning levels to reintegrate dropouts. across all levels.
2. Early y Replaces 10+2 with 5+3+3+4 structure, covering ages 3-8 y Lays a strong foundation by
Childhood Care for ECCE. prioritising mental development
and Education y NCERT to develop a National Curricular and during the critical early years of
(ECCE) Pedagogical Framework for ECCE. 3-6.
3. Foundational y National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy y Strengthens core skills, ensuring
Literacy and to ensure skills by Grade 3 by 2025, supported by NIPUN every child achieves proficiency
Numeracy Bharat. in reading and math by Grade 3.
4. Curriculum and y Promotes holistic development with no rigid separation y Cultivates versatile thinkers
Pedagogy between arts, sciences, vocational, and academic streams. equipped with critical 21st-
y Vocational education from Grade 6 with internships and century skills for a dynamic
flexible subject choices. world.
5. Multilingualism y Mother tongue as medium of instruction till Grade 5 y Celebrates and preserves India’s
(preferably Grade 8). rich linguistic diversity,
y Sanskrit and foreign languages as options, with projects like enhancing cultural connect.
‘Ek Bharat Shrestha Bharat’ and Indian Sign Language
standardisation.
6. Assessment y Shifts to competency-based, formative assessments. y Eases exam pressure,
Reforms Board exams twice yearly with PARAKH as the standard- encouraging deeper
setting body. understanding through holistic
y SAFAL tests for Grades 3, 5, and 8 to assess core concepts. evaluation.

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7. Equitable y Focus on Socially and Economically Disadvantaged y Builds an inclusive system
Education Groups (SEDGs) via Gender Inclusion Fund, Special where every child, regardless of
Education Zones, and Bal Bhavans. background, thrives.
y Supports children with disabilities through assistive devices
and Samajik Chetna Kendras.

3. Higher Education Reforms

Category Details Significance
1. GER Target y Increase GER from 26.3% (2018) to 50% by 2035, y Opens doors to higher
adding 3.5 crore seats. education for millions, creating
y Multidisciplinary streams introduced in institutes like a more skilled workforce.
IITs, such as IIT Delhi offering non-engineering
courses.
2. Holistic Education y Flexible, multidisciplinary UG programs with y Empowers students with flexible
multiple entry/exit options (Certificate after 1 year, learning paths, accommodating
Diploma after 2 years, Degree after 3/4 years). diverse aspirations.
y Academic Bank of Credit for credit transfer.
3. Research Promotion y National Research Foundation (NRF) and y Sparks innovation, positioning
Multidisciplinary Education and Research India as a global leader in
Universities (MERUs) to match IIT/IIM standards. cutting-edge research.
4. Regulation y Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) with y Simplifies governance, ensuring
four verticals: NHERC (regulation), GEC (standard efficiency while maintaining
setting), HEGC (funding), NAC (accreditation). high standards.
y ‘Light but Tight’ regulation to reduce bureaucracy.
5. Internationalization y Top Indian universities to set up campuses abroad; y Elevates India’s global
global universities to operate in India through academic stature, fostering
institutional collaborations. cross-cultural exchange.
6. Open and Distance y Expansion of online courses, MOOCs, and digital y Expands access to quality
Learning repositories to boost GER. UGC’s 2021 regulations for education, especially for remote
online degrees and NDEAR for digital infrastructure. and underserved areas.

4. Teacher Education, Technology, and Governance Reforms

Category Details Significance
1. Teacher Training y 4-year integrated B.Ed. by 2030. National Curriculum y Elevates teaching
Framework for Teacher Education (NCFTE) by 2021. standards, preparing
y Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya National Mission on educators for modern
Teachers and Teaching scheme trained faculty with stage- classrooms.
specific training.
2. Recruitment and y Transparent, merit-based recruitment and promotions. y Builds a motivated,
Career Path National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST) by accountable teaching
2022 with multi-source performance appraisals and workforce with clear
progression to educational administration. career paths.
3. Mentoring y National Mission for Mentoring with senior/retired faculty, y Nurtures new teachers,
including support in Indian languages. fostering professional
growth and confidence.
4. EdTech Integration y National Educational Technology Forum (NETF) for idea y Transforms learning,
exchange. making education
y Technology in classrooms and administration via NDEAR accessible and engaging
for digital infrastructure. for all.
5. Online Education y Dedicated unit for digital content and capacity building. y Ensures resilience,
y UGC’s online degree programs and MOOCs for education delivering education
during pandemics. seamlessly during
disruptions.
6. Public Investment y Increase to 6% of GDP for education through Centre-State y Fuels infrastructure
collaboration. growth, enabling a robust
education ecosystem.

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 7. Governance y School complexes/clusters for resource sharing. State y Streamlines operations,
School Standards Authority (SSSA) for regulation and promoting transparency
SCERT’s School Quality Assessment Framework for and resource efficiency.
transparent self-disclosure.
8. Anti- y Education institutions as ‘not-for-profit’ with standardized y Safeguards education’s
Commercialization audits and checks to curb commercialization. integrity, prioritizing
learning over profit.

5. Criticisms and Challenges

Challenge Details Implication
1. Implementation y Systemic complexity and diversity of India’s education y Creates a scalability bottleneck,
Scale sector, with institutional inertia in education ministries, potentially delaying transformative
pose challenges in coordinated execution across states. outcomes.
2. Linguistic y Multilingual mosaic of 22 official languages and y Leads to fragmented
Diversity dialects complicates curriculum localisation for mother implementation, risking uneven
tongue instruction. learning experiences.
3. Digital Divide y Technological inequity, with only 30% of the population y Causes digital exclusion, leaving
affording smartphones, limits e-learning penetration, marginalised groups behind.
especially in rural hinterlands.
y Sugata Mitra’s "Hole in the Wall" experiments
underscore the need for inclusive digital access.
4. Resource y Fiscal competition for 6% GDP target amid other y Results in resource scarcity, slowing
Constraints priorities delays infrastructural upscaling. the pace of systemic change.

6. Outcomes and Initiatives

Outcome/Initiative Details Impact
1. Universalization y Inclusive outreach to achieve 100% GER from ECCE y Drives equitable access, aligning
to secondary by 2030. with SDG 4’s vision of inclusive
y Vidya Pravesh ensures seamless transition for Grade education.
1 preparation.
2. Skill Development y Skill empowerment ensures every child learns at least y Boosts employability, preparing
one skill through vocational education from Grade 6. students for diverse career
y Paulo Freire’s "pedagogy of the oppressed" opportunities.
emphasises skill-building for self-reliance.
3. Assessment Reforms y Competency-driven testing of core concepts via y Promotes holistic learning,
SAFAL for formative evaluation. nurturing creativity and analytical
y Ken Robinson’s work on creative education supports skills.
assessments that foster critical thinking.
4. Digital y Tech-enabled education through NDEAR and y Democratizes access, bridging
Infrastructure UGC’s online degree programs to support digital urban-rural educational divides.
inclusivity.
y Sal Khan’s Khan Academy model highlights scalable
digital learning solutions.

Three Language Formula

The Three Language Formula (TLF), a key component of India’s language education policy, was first introduced in the National
Policy on Education (NPE) 1968 and retained with modifications in the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. Aimed at promoting
multilingualism, national integration, and cognitive development, TLF has faced significant implementation challenges due to India’s
linguistic diversity and federal structure.
Constitutionally, Article 351 mandates the promotion of Hindi, while Article 29 safeguards minority languages and cultural rights.
Additionally, with education on the Concurrent List, tensions often arise between the Centre and States over language policy
implementation.

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 Evolution Stage

2. Key Features of TLF in NEP 2020

Features Details Significance
1. Language y Students learn three languages: two Indian languages y Promotes inclusivity, easing
Selection (one regional) and English or another language, with state fears of Hindi imposition.
flexibility.
2. Medium of y Mother tongue as medium till Grade 5 (preferably Grade 8). y Boosts comprehension and
Instruction y Example: Andhra Pradesh’s English-medium shift faced cognitive growth.
teacher proficiency issues.
3. Teacher y Multilingual training for teachers to teach local languages. y Enhances teaching quality for
Training y Example: Recruiting fluent regional language teachers. TLF success.
4. Digital y Online materials in Indian languages. y Makes multilingual education
Resources y Example: Digital repositories for Tamil, Punjabi. accessible.

3. Advantages and Implementation Challenges

Advantages Implementation Challenges
y Cognitive Development: Learning multiple languages y Resource Constraints: Lack of teachers and funding.
enhances brain plasticity and problem-solving. y Example: Andhra Pradesh’s failed English-medium
y Example: Students taught in their mother tongue are transition exemplifies systemic issues.
14–60% more likely to achieve reading proficiency.
y National Integration: Exposure to diverse languages y Linguistic Diversity: 19,500 dialects and 121 languages
fosters cultural understanding. complicate curriculum adaptation.
y Example: Tamil Nadu’s resistance to TLF reflects y Example: Tamil Nadu’s refusal to adopt TLF highlights
historical tensions but also underscores the need for resistance to "one-size-fits-all" policies.
balanced language policies.
y Career Opportunities: Proficiency in English and y Federal Tensions: State autonomy causes conflicts.
regional languages offers a competitive edge. y Example: Tamil Nadu’s two-language policy opposes
y Example: Tamil Nadu’s English skills drive IT success. TLF, risking ₹2,152 crore in Samagra Shiksha funds.
y Cultural Preservation: Promotes regional languages to y Declining Teaching Standards: Poor teacher proficiency
prevent extinction. in English and regional languages.
y Example: Teaching Punjabi in northern schools revives y Example: Andhra Pradesh’s English-medium transition
usage. failed.
y Global Competitiveness: Multilingual skills meet global y Academic Burden: Three languages increase student
demands. workload.
y Example: Tamil Nadu’s focus on English and Tamil y Example: Hindi-speaking states rarely teach southern
equips graduates for global IT and service sectors. languages like Tamil.

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 4. Recommendations for Effective Implementation
Recommendation Details
1. Strengthen Teacher y Invest in multilingual training programs like training teachers in Tamil for Haryana schools
Training to promote southern languages.
2. Leverage y Use AI tools like BHASINI for translations and develop digital repositories in regional
Technology languages such as Bharatiya Bhasha Pustak Scheme that provides digital textbooks and
study materials in multiple Indian languages.
3. Cooperative y Encourage dialogue between the Centre and States to ensure smooth NEP 2020
Federalism implementation and avoid funding delays.
4. Data-Driven y Collect sociolinguistic data to tailor TLF to regional needs like Bahubhasha Shabdkosh that
Policy aims to create a multilingual dictionary repository.
5. Reduce Academic y Integrate language learning with subjects like social studies by teaching Tamil culture
Burden alongside language to make learning engaging.
The National Education Policy 2020 envisions a future-ready, inclusive, and knowledge-driven India. As PM Modi rightly said,
"NEP will lay the foundation of a New India — an India of the 21st century."

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 14 Digital Education
(E-Learning)
Digital education, also known as e-learning, involves the use of digital tools, technologies, and platforms to impart knowledge and
skills. It represents a shift from traditional chalk-and-board methods to a more flexible, interactive, and accessible mode of
learning, leveraging the internet, e-books, webinars, and other digital resources. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020
emphasises investment in digital infrastructure, online teaching platforms, and tools to promote multilingualism and innovative
teaching methods.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. Has digital illiteracy, particularly in rural areas, coupled with a lack of Information and
Communication Technology(ICT) accessibility, hindered socio-economic development? Examine
with justification. (2021)

1. Overview of Digital Education

Aspect Details
1. Context y Accelerated by COVID-19, digital education addresses school closures and aligns with NEP 2020’s
focus on technology integration for SDG 4 (inclusive education). Example: PM e-VIDYA is a
multi-mode digital initiative that unifies online and on-air education.
2. Objectives y Enhance access to education, improve learning outcomes, foster skill development, and promote
inclusivity across urban-rural divides.
y Example: An Online platform offers 1000+ MOOCs for 28 lakh learners.
3. Significance y Revolutionises traditional chalk-and-board methods, making education engaging, cost-effective, and
globally accessible.

2. Advantages of Digital Education

Advantage Details Impact
1. Convenience y Offers 24/7 access and self-paced learning, eliminating geographical y Empowers working
and Flexibility barriers. students and those in
y Example: SWAYAM Prabha is a group of 32 DTH channels that remote areas to learn at
broadcast educational content 24/7. their pace.
2. Engaging y Uses audio-visual, interactive multimedia (animations, gamification) y Enhances student
Learning for better comprehension. engagement, making
y Example: Gyan Darshan, an educational TV channel under learning enjoyable and
SWAYAM Prabha, delivers interactive modules for K-12 students, effective.
including animations and live sessions.
3. Cost- y Reduces costs for transportation, infrastructure, and materials. y Makes education
Effectiveness y Example: National Digital Library of India (NDLI) offers free affordable, expanding
access to 6.5 crore+ resources, including textbooks, MOOCS, and access to low-income
research papers, eliminating expenses for physical books. groups.
4. Inclusivity y Provides special content for the visually/hearing impaired and y Promotes equity,
reaches marginalised communities. ensuring education for
y Example: PM eVidya includes radio podcasts and ISL (Indian Sign diverse learners.
Language)-enabled content for hearing-impaired students.
5. Skill y Offers MOOCs and certifications from top institutions. y Prepares students for
Development y Example: IIT Madras has announced the introduction of five courses in global job markets,
Artificial Intelligence (AI) to be conducted through SWAYAM Plus. aligning with NEP 2020.
6. Environmental y Enables paperless learning, reducing resource consumption. y Supports sustainability,
Benefits y Example: Rashtriya e-Pustakalaya has saved ~10,000 tonnes of contributing to eco-
paper annually by replacing physical textbooks with digital books. friendly education.

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 3. Challenges of Digital Education
Challenge Details Implication
1. Digital Divide y Only 15% of rural households have internet access, and 4.4% y Excludes rural and
have computers (NSSO 2017-18). marginalized students,
y Example: Students in Jammu & Kashmir protested due to poor widening educational
connectivity. inequities.
2. Inadequate y Lack of electricity, computers, and internet in schools. y Limits technology adoption,
Infrastructure y Example: In 2021-22, only 14.4% of government schools had hindering digital education’s
functional smart classrooms, compared to 18.0% of private reach.
schools.
3. Digital y Teachers, parents, and students lack ICT skills. y Slows implementation,
Illiteracy y Example: A 2021 study by Azim Premji University found 60% reducing effectiveness of digital
of teachers in Karnataka lacked skills to use digital tools platforms.
effectively for teaching.
4. Content y Shortage of vernacular content and lack of local customization. y Restricts accessibility for
Barriers y Example: Platforms like DIKSHA and SWAYAM have limited non-English medium students.
resources in regional languages such as Telugu, Odia, and
Assamese, affecting 60% of non-English medium students
(Ministry of Education, 2021).
5. Social y Lack of peer interaction leads to isolation and poor y Impacts emotional and social
Isolation communication skills. development, critical for
y Example: 65% of students reported feelings of isolation due to holistic growth.
lack of peer interaction during online learning (CRY, 2021).
6. Teacher y Inadequate training for online teaching. y Reduces teaching quality,
Training y Example: Only 70% KV & CBSE students satisfied with affecting learning outcomes.
e-learning but 20-30% faced difficulties.

4. Impact of Digital Illiteracy on Socio-Economic Development

Digital illiteracy, the inability to effectively use digital technologies, significantly hinders socio-economic development in India,
particularly in rural and marginalised communities. It restricts access to education, employment, healthcare, financial services,
and governance, deepening inequalities and slowing progress toward inclusive growth.
Aspect Impact on Socio-Economic Development Examples
1. Education y Restricted Access to Learning: Digital illiteracy limits y Bihar’s e-LOTS portal offers
engagement with online education platforms, critical during digital learning, but many poor
COVID-19 disruptions. students lack internet access,
y As of 2024, around 40% of rural households have internet, widening learning gaps.
but digital literacy and device access remain major barriers
for poor students, widening learning gaps
2. Employment y Limited Job Opportunities: Lack of digital skills prevents y The Pratham–Code Club
access to online training and job portals. programme trains youth in
y Over 70% of new jobs in India now demand some level of underserved communities (such as
digital proficiency, marginalizing youth without access to Odisha) in coding and digital skills.
skill-building opportunities."
3. Healthcare y Barriers to Digital Health Services: Digital illiteracy restricts y Only 26% of rural women in
the use of telemedicine and e-health platforms, limiting India use mobile internet,
awareness of schemes like Ayushman Bharat Digital widening health disparities.
Mission.
4. Financial y Exclusion from Digital Banking: Inability to use UPI or y Farmers in Uttar Pradesh,
Inclusion online banking excludes rural populations from financial unable to use e-NAM due to
services. digital illiteracy, sell crops at
y 65% of rural India remains unbanked or underbanked (RBI, lower prices to middlemen.
2022).
5. Governance y Reduced Access to E-Governance: Digital illiteracy hinders y Rural beneficiaries in
the use of e-governance services like PM-KISAN or Chhattisgarh struggle to access
Aadhaar-enabled schemes, limiting welfare benefits and civic PM-KISAN payments online,
participation. delaying financial support.

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 6. Social y Widening Disparities: Digital illiteracy exacerbates urban- y Women in rural Rajasthan cannot
Inequality rural and gender gaps. access online educational
y Only 10% of rural women use the internet (GSMA, 2023), resources, limiting their economic
marginalising disadvantaged groups. and social empowerment.

5. Key Government Initiatives

Initiative Details Significance
1. School-Level Platforms
y DIKSHA y National digital platform with 501 crore learning sessions and y Provides curriculum-aligned
292,178 e-content pieces (as of July 2022). Includes QR- content, bridging access gaps for
coded textbooks and 3,474 audio books for accessibility. students and teachers.
y PM eVIDYA y Unifies digital/online/on-air education with one class, one y Ensures multi-mode access,
channel, radio, and 3,520 ISL videos for visually/hearing promoting inclusivity for diverse
impaired. learners.
y e-Pathshala y NCERT’s portal/app with textbooks, audio-visual materials y Enhances resource availability,
for classes 1-12, accessible to students, teachers, and parents. supporting self-paced learning.
2. Higher Education Platforms
y SWAYAM y Offers 1000+ MOOCs with 28 lakh enrollments, covering y Boosts skill development and
school to postgraduate levels, with discussion forums and employability through flexible
certifications. learning.
y National Digital y Hosts 1.5 crore e-books/documents from 160 contributors, y Creates a virtual repository,
Library (NDL) serving 30 lakh users across 9,000 institutions. democratizing access to knowledge.
y e-Shodh Sindhu y Provides quality e-resources (full-text, bibliographic y Supports research and higher
databases) at lower subscription rates for academic institutions. education affordability.
3. Innovative Models
y Operation Digital y Converts classrooms into digital classrooms with y Modernizes teaching methods,
Board (ODB) interactive boards. enhancing engagement.
y Pen-Drive y Distributes pen-drives with study materials in remote areas, y Overcomes connectivity
Schools like Nagaland. barriers, ensuring education in
underserved regions.
y Bolki Shaala y Uses loudspeakers for tribal learning in Maharashtra, y Innovates low-tech solutions,
supported by volunteers. reaching marginalized communities.

6. Ways to Improve Digital Education in India

Recommendation Details
1. Bridge Digital y Expand broadband connectivity to provide 100 Mbps bandwidth to all Gram Panchayats and
Divide promote community learning centres.
y Example: Connectivity project aims to link 2.5 lakh panchayats.
2. Enhance y Invest in electricity, computers, and low-bandwidth tools like mobile apps for low-
Infrastructure connectivity areas.
3. Capacity Building y Train teachers and parents in ICT skills through technology forums.
y Example: Train teachers to use the national digital platform effectively.
4. Vernacular y Develop regional language resources for online platforms.
Content y Example: Create Tamil content for southern states.
5. Policy Framework y Formulate a National ICT Policy for education, with quality benchmarks and monitoring
systems.
y Example: Align with SDG 4 goals.
6. Public-Private y Collaborate with NGOs and the private sector to fund and innovate.
Partnerships y Example: Provide remote learning kits for deaf children.
Digital education can bridge India’s learning gap by expanding connectivity, infrastructure, and local-language content. As PM Modi
said: “IT + IT = IT” (Indian Talent + Information Technology = India’s Tomorrow). With strong policies and partnerships, it
can ensure inclusive and accessible learning for all.

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 15 Skill Development Click or Scan
To Read More

Skill Development is a paradigm for leveraging India’s demographic dividend, with over 62% of its population in the
working-age group (15-59 years). It serves as a catalyst for bridging education and employment, fostering sustainable
economic growth, social mobility, and global competitiveness. Despite robust initiatives, systemic challenges like low
participation and skill-job mismatch persist.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. “‘Earn while you learn’ scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill
training meaningful.” Comment. (2021)
2. Skill development programmes have succeeded in increasing human resources supply to various
sectors. In the context of the statement analyse the linkages between education, skill and
employment. (2023)

1. Overview of Skill Development

Aspect Details
1. Definition y Skill Development entails the strategic acquisition or enhancement of technical, vocational, and soft
skills through targeted training to boost employability and productivity.
2. Context y India’s youthful workforce (~46% below 25 years) necessitates adaptive skilling to meet Industry 4.0
demands. Only 5.6% of the workforce is formally skilled, underscoring the urgency.
3. Objectives y Facilitate economic empowerment, social equity, and entrepreneurial innovation, aligning
competencies with dynamic market needs.
4. Significance y Underpins Viksit Bharat 2047 by addressing unemployment-employability disparities and fostering
a high-skills ecosystem.
y Example: Vision 2025 targets learner-centric skill markets.

2. Advantages of Skill Development

Advantage Details Impact
1. Economic y Equips youth for high-demand sectors like renewable energy (3.5 y Catalyses GDP growth
Growth million jobs by 2030) and AI (USD 7.8 billion market by 2025). and labor productivity.
2. Social Mobility y Enhances employability for marginalised communities. y Mitigates poverty and
y Example: 77.05% of JSS trainees shifted occupations in 2021-22. fosters social inclusion.
3. Entrepreneurship y Promotes self-employment through skills like digital literacy. y Stimulates innovation
y Example: Rural entrepreneurship via Common Service Centres. and job creation.
4. Global y Aligns skills with international benchmarks. Example: The y Positions India as a
Competitiveness National Council for Vocational Education and Training global knowledge
(NCVET), established in 2018, standardises skill certifications. economy.

3. Challenges of Skill Development

Challenge Details Implication
1. Low y Only 5.6% of youth (15-29 years) receive formal vocational y Constrains skill diffusion,
Participation training. undermining employability.
y Example: NITI Aayog (2023) notes rural enrollment in
skilling programs is 35% lower than in urban areas.
2. Skill Mismatch y 69% of the workforce lacks job-relevant competencies. y Diminishes placement
y Example: ITI curricula often lag behind AI-driven industry outcomes, with only 21.4 lakh
needs. placed from 1.1 crore trained.
3. Informal y 92.4% of the labour force in the unorganised sector lacks y Weakens formal skilling efficacy
Sector formal training. and wage growth.
Dominance y Example: MSMEs prioritise on-the-job learning over
certifications.

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4. Limited Access y Rural areas face shortages of training facilities and y Exacerbates regional disparities,
qualified instructors. excluding marginalised groups.
y Example: Only 10% of the rural workforce is formally
skilled.
5. Technological y Rapid advancements in AI and automation outpace skill y Creates a reskilling deficit,
Disruption updates. challenging program relevance.
y Example: 50% of employees require reskilling by 2025.

4. Linkages Between Education, Skill, and Employment

Linkage Details Example Analysis
1. Education to y NEP 2020 integrates vocational y Vocational electives in y Strength: Establishes
Skill education from Grade 6, government schools foundational skills.
fostering a synergy between prepare students for y Gap: Rural schools lack
academic and practical advanced skill infrastructure for effective
competencies. programs. integration.
2. Skill to y Skill initiatives like PMKVY y Industry-driven courses y Strength: Aligns with industry
Employment and NAPS deliver market- at training centres secure needs.
oriented training, enhancing placements in IT and y Gap: Limited placements (21.4
job readiness. 1.57 crore trained renewable energy. lakh from 1.1 crore trained)
under PMKVY. due to skill mismatches.
3. Education- y A holistic framework combines y ITI graduates with y Strength: Produces a
Skill- formal education, vocational apprenticeships secure competent workforce. Gap:
Employment training, and on-the-job roles in manufacturing. Weak industry-academia
Cycle exposure to ensure sustainable collaboration hinders seamless
employability. transitions.

5. Key Government Initiatives

Initiative Details Significance
1. Flagship Schemes
y Pradhan Mantri Kaushal y Launched in 2015, trained 1.57 crore youth, with y Enhances employability through
Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) 1.21 crore certified. Version 4.0 emphasises AI, industry-aligned training.
robotics, and soft skills.
y SANKALP y World Bank-assisted program to improve short- y Strengthens institutional capacity
term training quality and include marginalised for inclusive skilling.
sections.
2. Training Infrastructure
y Pradhan Mantri Kaushal y State-of-the-art centres in every district, offering y Creates sustainable ecosystems
Kendra (PMKK) industry-driven courses with up to ₹70 lakh for quality training delivery.
soft loans.
y Industrial Training y Government-run institutes providing vocational y Supplies skilled manpower to
Institutes (ITIs) education post-secondary level, governed by DGT. sectors like manufacturing.
3. Specialized Programs
y Jan Shikshan Sansthan y Offers vocational training to non/neo-literates and y Improves livelihood opportunities
(JSS) dropouts, benefiting 5.1 lakh in 2021-22. for undereducated groups.
y National Apprenticeship y Launched in 2016, supports apprenticeships with y Bridges the theoretical-practical
Promotion Scheme financial incentives (₹1,500/month stipend) for divide via on-the-job training.
(NAPS) MSMEs.
4. Emerging Sectors
y TEJAS Skilling Project y Focuses on new-age competencies like 3D y Prepares youth for future-ready
printing, IoT, and drones to meet Industry 4.0 occupations in high-growth
requirements. sectors.

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 6. Skill Development in the Digital Era
Opportunities Challenges
y Scalable Digital Platforms: Online portals like Skill y Digital Divide: Only 38% of rural households have
India Digital Hub democratize access to industry- internet access (TRAI 2023), excluding rural youth from
aligned courses (such as AI, IoT), enabling flexible, digital training.
self-paced learning for millions. y Example: Bihar’s rural students struggle with online
y Example: NSDC 2023 data reports 3.5 lakh students course access due to poor connectivity.
enrolled in digital skill hubs in 2022–23.
y New-Age Skill Development: Training in AI (USD 7.8 y Skill Obsolescence: Rapid technological advancements
billion market by 2025), cybersecurity, and 3D printing (such as automation) render skills outdated, with 44% of
aligns with global digital demands. employees needing reskilling by 2025.
y Example: TEJAS project trains youth in drone technology y Example: ITI curricula lag behind AI-driven industry
for smart city projects. needs.
y Gig Economy Opportunities: Digital literacy and self- y Digital Illiteracy: Lack of ICT skills among rural and
management courses prepare youth for the gig economy, marginalised groups hinders engagement with digital
projected to reach 23.5 million jobs by 2029-30. platforms.
y Example: PMKVY 4.0 offers gig-focused modules for y Example: Tribal women in Jharkhand cannot navigate
platform-based work. online training portals.
y Global Competitiveness: Certifications in quantum y Infrastructure Gaps: Shortages of computers and
computing and cybersecurity position India as a qualified trainers in rural areas limit digital skilling.
knowledge economy. Example: National Mission on y Example: Only 4.4% of rural training centres have
Quantum Technologies trains youth in cutting-edge fields. adequate digital facilities.
y Entrepreneurial Innovation: Digital skills enable y Funding Constraints: Limited budgets for digital
e-commerce and tech startups, fostering infrastructure and trainer upskilling hamper program
self-employment. scalability. Example: Many PMKKs lack funds for
y Example: Common Service Centres train rural youth in advanced tech labs.
digital marketing, boosting local businesses.

7. Way Forward for Skill Development

Recommendation Details
1. Demand-Driven y Leverage AI-driven labor market analytics to forecast skill demands. Example: Singapore’s
Skilling Skills Future model informs national strategies.
2. Industry-Academia y Establish Skill Centres of Excellence with private sector collaboration. Example: ITI
Synergies Upgradation Scheme 2024 modernises training.
3. Rural Inclusion y Transform Common Service Centres into Digital Skill Hubs for rural training.
y Example: CSC-based training in Bihar delivers local skills.
4. Gender 0 Equity y Implement women-centric programs to boost participation.
y Example: 58% of women trained under PMKVY in FY25.
5. Future-Ready y Introduce modular certifications for AI, quantum computing, and green skills.
Reskilling y Example: The TEJAS project trains in drones.
Skill development in India is crucial for harnessing the demographic dividend and building an Aatmanirbhar Bharat. By promoting
industry-relevant, inclusive, and future-ready skills, India aims to boost employability, entrepreneurship, and global
competitiveness across all sectors.

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 16 Hunger Click or Scan
To Read More

Hunger, as defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), is an uncomfortable or painful physical sensation caused
by insufficient consumption of dietary energy. It becomes chronic when a person does not consume enough calories regularly to lead
a normal, active, and healthy life.
In India, hunger remains a significant challenge despite economic growth and advancements in food production. The country continues
to grapple with issues of poverty, malnutrition, and unequal food distribution. According to the Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2024,
India ranks 105th out of 127 countries, with a score of 27.3, indicating a 'serious' level of hunger.
UPSC Previous Year Question
1. There is a growing divergence in the relationship between poverty and hunger in India. The
shrinking of social expenditure by the government is forcing the poor to spend more on non-food
essential items, squeezing their food budget. Elucidate. (2019)
2. Hunger and Poverty are the biggest challenges for good governance in India still today. Evaluate
how far successive governments have progressed in dealing with these humongous problems.
Suggest measures for improvement. (2017)

1. Causes of Hunger in India

Cause Description Example
1. Poverty y The primary driver, that families below y "State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World" (SOFI)
the poverty line struggle to afford report, 2023, a collaborative effort by several UN agencies,
nutritious food. indicates that approximately 74% of India's population was
unable to afford a healthy diet in 2021.
2. Unequal Land y Large landowners dominate, limiting y World Inequality Report 2022,stated that 60% of
Distribution small farmers’ access to fertile land, agricultural households in India owned less than 1 hectare
exacerbating food insecurity. of land.
3. Gender y Patriarchal norms prioritise men/ y NFHS-5: 59.1% of girls are anaemic, reflecting
Inequality boys, limiting women’s/girls’ access to intra-household disparities, per the Ministry of Health.
nutritious food.
4. Child Marriage y Young mothers lack nutritional y NFHS-5: 23.3% of women aged 20-24 married before 18,
knowledge, leading to malnourished linked to low birth weight babies.
infants.
5. Climate Change y Droughts, floods, and erratic y Economic Survey 2024: Climate change may reduce
monsoons disrupt agricultural agricultural yields by 15% by 2030.
production, causing food shortages.
6. Poor y Corruption, leakages in PDS, and a y CAG Report (2022): 30% of PDS grains diverted to the
Implementation lack of monitoring hinder food open market in some states.
distribution.
7. Poor Sanitation y Diarrhoeal diseases from inadequate y WHO (2023): 12% of India’s population lacks access to
sanitation impair nutrient absorption. safely managed sanitation, per the JMP report.

2. Impact of Hunger and Malnutrition

Impact Description Example
1. Physical and y Reduces cognitive function, weakens y Lancet Study (2023): Stunted children in India
Mental Health immunity, and increases disease susceptibility. lose 7-10 IQ points by adulthood.
2. Child y Stunting and wasting impair physical and y NFHS-5: 35.5% of children under five are
Development cognitive growth, limiting potential. stunted, per Ministry of Health data.
3. Intergenerational y Malnourished mothers give birth to low y UNICEF (2023): Malnutrition contributes to
Cycle birth weight infants, perpetuating hunger. 50% of under-five deaths in India.
4. Productivity y Reduces workforce efficiency, costing up to y World Bank (2023): Malnutrition costs India
Loss 4% of GDP and 8% of productivity. $12 billion annually in lost productivity.
5. Social Unrest y Hunger can fuel conflict and instability as y Case: 2018 Marathwada farmers’ protests linked to
people struggle for basic needs. drought-induced hunger, per NCRB data.

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 3. Government Initiatives to Tackle Hunger
Initiative Objective Impact
1. National Food y Ensure food security through subsidized food y Covers 810 million people,
Security Act (NFSA), grains via TPDS, covering 75% rural and 50% providing 5 kg/person/month at Rs
2013 urban populations, under Article 47. 3/2/1 for rice/wheat/coarse grains.
2. Poshan Abhiyan y Reduce stunting, wasting, anaemia, and low y Reduced stunting by 1.5%
(National Nutrition birth weight by 2-3% annually, launched in 2018. annually in 112 aspirational
Mission) districts, per NITI Aayog (2024).
3. Pradhan Mantri y Provide nutritious meals to schoolchildren to y Serves 118 million children,
Poshan Shakti Nirman improve nutritional status, extended to reducing dropout rates by 2%,
(PM POSHAN) pre-primary in 2021. per Ministry of Education (2024).
4. Pradhan Mantri y Cash incentives (Rs 5,000) for pregnant/ y Supported 2 crore women,
Matru Vandana lactating mothers to improve maternal health, increasing institutional deliveries by
Yojana (PMMVY) under ICDS. 10%, per MWCD (2024).
5. Integrated Child y Provide supplementary nutrition, education, and y Serves 80 million beneficiaries,
Development Services health services via 1.4 million Anganwadis. reducing anaemia by 5% in
(ICDS) children, per MWCD (2024).

4. Challenges in Eradicating Hunger

Challenge Description Example
1. Low Status of y Limited decision-making power restricts y NFHS-5 (2019–21): 59.1% of women aged
Women women’s access to nutrition, violating Article 15–49 are anaemic, often due to intra-
15(3) (special provisions for women). household food allocation favoring males.
2. Low Budget y Reduced funding hampers nutrition y Budget 2024-25: Nutrition allocation at 0.2%
Allocation programs’ reach and quality. of total expenditure, down from 0.3% in
2020-21, per CBGA (2024).
3. Lack of y Ineffective real-time tracking hinders scheme y Poshan Tracker covers only 60% of
Monitoring outcomes. Anganwadis, per MWCD (2024).
4. Food Wastage y Inefficient supply chains lead to a 40% loss y The UNEP Food Waste Index Report 2024
of fruits/vegetables. estimates that India wastes 55 kg of food per
capita annually at the household level.
5. Maternal y Lack of awareness about breastfeeding and y NFHS-5: Only 58% of infants exclusively
Knowledge Gaps nutrition. breastfed, per Ministry of Health.

5. Strategies to Eliminate Hunger

Strategy Description
1. Multisectoral y Integrate water, sanitation, education, and agriculture for holistic solutions, as per NITI Aayog’s
Approach New India @75 (2018) and Swaminathan Committee (2006) for nutrition-sensitive agriculture.
2. Dietary y Promote millets, leafy vegetables, and eggs under NFSA to reduce hidden hunger, with
Diversification Haryana’s Rs 7,000/acre incentive for pulses/oilseeds, aligned with the 2023 International
Year of Millets.
3. Climate-Smart y Adopt Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) and climate-resilient crops, supported by
Agriculture NMSA’s 230 million soil health cards (2024), per the Ministry of Agriculture.
4. Strengthen PDS y Reform supply chains, reduce leakages, and ensure quality grains via ‘One Nation One
Ration Card’, as recommended by the Justice Wadhwa Committee (2009).
5. Gender Justice y Empower women through education and resource access to break malnutrition cycles, per
GHI 2024’s theme and Article 15(3), with SHGs under NRLM as a model.
6. Monitoring and y Establish independent audits and real-time nutrition surveillance for NNM, as per NITI
Accountability Aayog (2018), with Poshan Tracker’s expansion to all Anganwadis by 2026.

India has made progress in reducing hunger, with undernourishment declining to 13.7%. Efforts to improve nutrition and food
security are showing results, but sustained action is needed to achieve Zero Hunger by 2030 and ensure a brighter future for all.

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