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The Interpersonal Dynamics of Emotion

Emotions are an elemental part of life – they imbue our existence with meaning and
purpose, and influence how we engage with the world around us. But we do not
just feel our own emotions; we typically express them in the presence of other
people. How do our emotional expressions affect others? Moving beyond the
traditional intrapersonal perspective, this is the first book dedicated to exploring
the pervasive interpersonal dynamics of emotions. Integrating existing theory and
research, Van Kleef develops the Emotions as Social Information (EASI) theory, a
ground-breaking comprehensive framework that explains how emotional expres-
sions influence observers across all domains of life, from close relationships to
group settings, conflict and negotiation, customer service, and leader-follower
relations. His deeply social perspective sheds new light on the fundamental ques-
tion of why we have emotions in the first place – the social influence emotions
engender may very well constitute their raison d’être.
gerben a. van kleef is Professor of Social Psychology at the University of
Amsterdam. He obtained his PhD from the University of Amsterdam in 2004 and
has held visiting appointments at UC Berkeley and Columbia University. He
received numerous awards for his scholarship, including the best dissertation
award of the International Association for Conflict Management, the early career
award of the European Association of Social Psychology, and the most influential
paper award of the Academy of Management. He is currently Chair of the Social
Psychology department of the University of Amsterdam and Associate Editor of
Social Psychological and Personality Science.
STUDIES IN EMOTION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION
Second Series

Series Editors

Keith Oatley
University of Toronto
Antony S. R. Manstead
Cardiff University

Titles Published in the Second Series

The Psychology of Facial Expression, edited by James A. Russell
and José Miguel Fernández-Dols
Emotions, the Social Bond, and Human Reality: Part/Whole Analysis,
by Thomas J. Scheff
Intersubjective Communication and Emotion in Early Ontogeny,
edited by Stein Bråten
The Social Context of Nonverbal Behavior, edited by Pierre Philippot,
Robert S. Feldman, and Erik J. Coats
Communicating Emotion: Social, Moral, and Cultural Processes,
by Sally Planalp
Emotions across Languages and Cultures: Diversity and Universals,
by Anna Wierzbicka
Feeling and Thinking: The Role of Affect in Social Cognition, edited by
Joseph P. Forgas
Metaphor and Emotion: Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling,
by Zoltán Kövecses
Gender and Emotion: Social Psychological Perspectives, edited by
Agneta H. Fischer
Causes and Consequences of Feelings, by Leonard Berkowitz
Emotions and Beliefs: How Feelings Influence Thoughts, edited by
Nico H. Frijda, Antony S. R. Manstead, and Sacha Bem
Identity and Emotion: Development through Self-Organization,
edited by Harke A. Bosma and E. Saskia Kunnen
(Continued after Index)
The Interpersonal Dynamics
of Emotion

Toward an Integrative Theory of Emotions

as Social Information

Gerben A. van Kleef

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107048249
© Gerben A. van Kleef 2016
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2016
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Kleef, Gerben A. van, author.
The interpersonal dynamics of emotion : toward an integrative theory
of emotions as social information / Gerben A. van Kleef.
Cambridge, United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press, 2016. |
Studies in emotion and social interaction
LCCN 2015048602 | ISBN 9781107048249 (hardback)
LCSH: Emotions – Social aspects. | Emotions – Sociological aspects. |
Interpersonal relations.
LCC BF531 .K54 2016 | DDC 152.4–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015048602
ISBN 978-1-107-04824-9 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To my parents, with love and gratitude
 Contents

List of figures page x

List of tables xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv

1 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective 1

Definitional issues 3
An interpersonal approach to emotion 5
Goals and overview of the book 6
PART I Emotions as Social Information Theory 11
2 Emotions as social information 13
Emotional expressions as evolutionary adaptations 14
What do emotional expressions signal? 21
Emotional expressions as communicative tools 23
Emotional expressions as cues to social predispositions 27
When emotional signaling fails 30
Conclusion 35
3 Mechanisms involved in the social effects of emotions 37
Emotional expressions trigger affective reactions
in observers 38
Emotional expressions elicit inferential processes in
observers 45
The relationship between affective reactions and inferential
processes 52
Conclusion 55
4 Contingencies of the social effects of emotions 56
General prerequisites for the social effects of emotions 56
Factors shaping the impact of inferential processes and
affective reactions 60
Conclusion 77

vii
viii Contents
PART II Social effects of emotions: the empirical record 79
5 Social effects of emotions in close relationships 81
The functionality of emotions in close relationships 81
Emotional convergence in interpersonal relationships 84
Social consequences of emotional expressions for
relationships 86
Conclusion 98
6 Social effects of emotions in groups 101
The functionality of emotions in group life 102
Affective reactions, affective composition, and group
functioning 104
Emotional expressions and inferential processes in groups 112
Contingencies of the social effects of emotional expressions
in groups 115
Conclusion 119
7 Social effects of emotions in conflict and negotiation 123
Affective reactions and their behavioral consequences 125
Inferential processes and their behavioral consequences 128
Affective reactions versus inferential processes 134
Emotional intelligence in conflict and negotiation 142
Conclusion 143
8 Social effects of emotions on consumer behavior and
customer service 146
Effects of service providers’ emotions on customers 148
Effects of customers’ emotions on service providers 155
How third parties’ emotional expressions shape consu-
mers’ attitudes 160
Interpersonal emotion regulation 162
Emotional intelligence in the service industry 165
Conclusion 167
9 Social effects of emotions in leadership 170
Leaders’ emotional displays and perceptions of leadership
quality 172
Leaders’ emotional displays and followers’
performance 177
Leadership and emotional intelligence 190
Conclusion 192
 Contents ix
PART III Conclusions, implications, and new directions 195
10 Critical evaluation, theoretical integration, and
implications 197
Summary of EASI theory 198
A critical evaluation of the empirical support for EASI
theory 201
How does EASI theory relate to other approaches?
Differences, commonalities, and integration 206
Implications for theory and research 212
Conclusion 221
11 Caveats and future directions 223
The elusive nature of evolutionary arguments 223
Measurement and separability of affective versus
inferential processes 225
Expanding the repertoire of emotional expressions 228
Temporal issues regarding the social effects of emotions 234
Broadening the outlook on the social context 239
Coda 243

References 244
Author Index 292
Subject Index 295
 Figures

3.1 Affective reactions as a mediating mechanism between

one person’s emotional expression and another person’s
response. page 38
3.2 Inferential processes as a mediating mechanism between
one person’s emotional expression and another person’s
response. 47
5.1 Effects of emotional expression versus suppression in
face-to-face interaction on conversation partners’ self-
reported experience of rapport and willingness to affiliate
(on a scale of 0–10). 83
5.2 Women’s smiles in college yearbook photographs
taken around the age of 20 positively predict observers’
approach and acceptance tendencies, marital status at
age 27, and personal well-being and marital satisfaction
at age 52. 89
5.3 Intended donations (in euros) to a charity collector as a
function of the collector’s emotional expression. 91
6.1 Effects of a confederate’s positive emotional displays on
the positive affective state of the group and downstream
consequences for cooperation and conflict. 107
6.2 Frequency of facial behavior in FACS action units AU4
(associated with anger) and AU5 (associated with fear)
in response to anger and fear displays as a function of
the expresser’s ingroup versus outgroup membership. 110
6.3 Observers’ ratings of group members’ common fate and
cohesiveness (on a scale of 1–9) as a function of the group
members’ constellation of facial emotional expressions. 113
6.4 Percentage of participants conforming to the majority’s
position as a function of the majority’s expressions of happi-
ness versus anger and the participant’s prototypical versus
peripheral position in the group. 119
7.1 Magnitude of concessions (in points) made over the course
of a negotiation as a function of the counterpart’s expressions

x
 List of figures xi
of anger versus happiness and time pressure. The total
amount of points to be divided was 760. 136
7.2 Magnitude of participants’ final offers in a negotiation
as a function of the opponent’s emotional expression
and participants’ cultural background. The total amount
of points to be divided was 760. 140
7.3 Concessions (in dollars) in a negotiation about a
second-hand car as a function of the counterpart’s
emotional displays. There was a discrepancy of $1,100
between the seller’s initial asking price and the buyer’s
initial offer. 141
8.1 The effects of positive “affective delivery” of salespeople
on customers’ favorable intentions vis-à-vis the store are
mediated by customers’ positive affect. 149
8.2 Customer satisfaction as a function of a service provider’s
authentic versus inauthentic positive emotional displays
and the quality of the service provider’s performance. 151
8.3 Attitude favorability (on a scale of 0–100) as a function
of the emotional display of the source of a persuasive
communication and the perceiver’s cognitive load. 163
9.1 Positivity of followers’ moods (on a scale of 1–7) and
perceptions of leader effectiveness (on a scale of 1–5)
as a function of the leader’s emotional expressions. 173
9.2 Effects of a leader’s positive versus negative mood on
followers’ ratings of the leader’s charisma and followers’
task performance are mediated by followers’ affective state. 179
9.3 Effects of a leader’s positive versus negative mood on
observer-rated group coordination and effort on a scale
of 1–5. 181
9.4 Team performance as a function of a leader’s displays of
anger versus happiness and team members’ information-
processing motivation. Team performance scores were
automatically calculated by the computer software through
which the task was administered, and they ranged from
11,796 to 40,586 points. 183
9.5 Likelihood of followers’ compliance with a leader (in per-
centages) as a function of the leader’s emotional displays and
followers’ trait positive affectivity. 187
10.1 A schematic representation of the main variables and rela-
tionships specified in EASI theory. 200
 Tables

3.1 Processes involved in producing the social effects

of emotions. page 54
4.1 Moderators of the social effects of emotions. 78
5.1 Emotional similarity at Time 1 (in correlations) of
couples who were still together at Time 2 (six months
later) and those who had broken up. 85

xii
 Preface

The social nature of emotions has interested me ever since I took a

course on emotions by Nico Frijda at the University of Amsterdam, in
1997. In the years to come, my fascination with this topic would be
nurtured by close collaborations with fellow emotion researchers such
as Tony Manstead, Dacher Keltner, Agneta Fischer, and Stéphane Côté,
as well as by the writings of numerous other inspiring scholars whose
work is featured in the pages of this book.
At the time when I took Frijda’s classes, scholarly awareness of the
social effects of emotions was clearly on the rise, but empirical research
was scarce. Now, almost two decades later, there is a burgeoning
literature on the social functions and consequences of emotional dis-
plays. Researchers have begun to examine how emotional expressions
shape close relationships, influence group processes, regulate the nego-
tiation of social conflict, affect consumer behavior and customer service
encounters, and contribute to (or undermine) effective leadership.
Although research is quickly accumulating, the literature is scattered,
and no single volume exists that brings together the important theore-
tical and empirical advances that have been made over the past years.
Now that a substantial body of research on the social effects of
emotions has been amassed, the time seems right for a comprehensive
review and theoretical integration of this literature. What have we
learned from more than twenty years of research? Do we see recurring
patterns in the social effects of emotions across social, clinical, develop-
mental, and organizational domains of inquiry? Where are the incon-
sistencies in the empirical record? Can we start building an integrative
theory of the social effects of emotions? Which important questions
remain unaddressed? And where should we go from here?
This book presents my attempt at addressing these questions. Being
the first volume dedicated specifically to the relatively young research
field of the social effects of emotions, it should be seen as a beginning
rather than an end point. My intention is to provide a theoretical frame-
work that can be used to interpret and integrate previous findings and
to guide future research. I hope this book will be instrumental in

xiii
xiv Preface
spurring new research that will bring us closer to a full understanding
of the social nature of emotions.
In addition, it is my hope that this book will prove useful as a teaching
resource. During ten years of lecturing on the social effects of emotions,
I have been frequently alerted by both undergraduate and graduate
students that there is a need for a book that offers a comprehensive
treatment of this rapidly growing field of research. I have therefore tried
to make this text accessible to students as well. If this book turned out to
be half as stimulating to a new generation of emotion researchers as my
personal heroes have been to me, I would be very satisfied indeed.

Gerben van Kleef

 Acknowledgments

The ideas and research presented in this book reflect the collective efforts
of a large group of scholars. Several of them have contributed directly to
my own work through various collaborations. I thank Hajo Adam, Adi
Amit, Bruce Barry, Bianca Beersma, Arik Cheshin, Stéphane Côté,
Frederic Damen, Carsten de Dreu, Xia Fang, Agneta Fischer, Allison
Gabriel, Adam Galinsky, Fieke Harinck, Skyler Hawk, Marc Heerdink,
Ivona Hideg, Astrid Homan, Dacher Keltner, Lukas Koning, Gert-Jan
Lelieveld, Tony Manstead, Christina Moran, Liat Netzer, Bernard
Nijstad, Chris Oveis, Lisanne Pauw, Katerina Petkanopoulou, Davide
Pietroni, Jeffrey Sanchez-Burks, Disa Sauter, Marwan Sinaceur, Eftychia
Stamkou, Wolfgang Steinel, Maya Tamir, Ilja van Beest, Helma van den
Berg, Ilmo van der Löwe, Joop van der Pligt, Eric van Dijk, Evert-Jan van
Doorn, Daan van Knippenberg, Paul van Lange, Victoria Visser, Lu
Wang, and Barbara Wisse for the pleasant collaborations and inspiring
discussions. In addition, I am indebted to the countless scholars with
whom I have had the pleasure of interacting during conferences and
other meetings. Their work, much of which is covered in this book, has
greatly influenced my thinking.
At this point I would also like to acknowledge the financial support I
have been offered by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific
Research. The various research grants I have been privileged to receive
have catalyzed my research on the interpersonal dynamics of emotion
and have allowed me to create favorable conditions for writing this
volume.
I am grateful to my colleagues at the University of Amsterdam for
contributing to a stimulating intellectual environment, and to Columbia
University for hosting me during part of the time when I was working on
this book.
Finally, I would like to extend a warm thank-you to Tony Manstead for
the honorable invitation to contribute a volume to this series, which is so
close to my heart, and for providing valuable comments on a previous
draft of the manuscript.

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Emotion
An interpersonal perspective

Emotion accomplishes very little in the social world unless it is

communicated.
Planalp (1999, p. 138)

Emotions are a defining feature of the human condition – they shape our
social relationships and imbue our lives with meaning and purpose. Few
would disagree that our emotions influence how we perceive the world,
how we think about it, and how we engage with it. What may be less
obvious, however, is that our emotions can have far-reaching effects on
the thinking and actions of others, and, logically, that the emotions of
others influence our own cognition and behavior. This book is about these
social effects of emotions.
Questions about the nature and meaning of emotions date back to at
least the old Greek philosophers (e.g., Plato, Aristotle), and these very
questions later propelled the conception of psychology as a scientific field
of inquiry (see James, 1884). What are emotions? Why did they evolve?
Are emotions functional or dysfunctional? Do our emotions cloud our
rationality and misguide our behavior, as suggested by philosophers like
Descartes and Kant, or are they the fuel that gets us going and steers us
toward great achievement, as proposed by thinkers such as Hume and
Nietzsche? Do emotions disrupt evenhanded social interactions or are
they the cornerstone of well-adjusted relationships?
Inspired by Darwin’s (1872) seminal book The expression of the emotions
in man and animals, scholars have increasingly embraced the notion that
emotions are functional in that they help the individual to adapt to an
ever-changing environment. Classic theorizing and research have
emphasized the individual-level functionality of emotions (Frijda, 1986;
Lazarus, 1991; Oatley & Jenkins, 1992). Emotions are believed to regulate
bodily adaptations to environmental changes (Farb, Chapman, &
Anderson, 2013). This involves regulation of the autonomic nervous
system, endocrine system, and immune system. It has been demon-
strated, for example, that anger leads to enhanced distribution of blood
to the hands, whereas fear involves reduced blood flow to the periphery
(Levenson, 1992). These patterns can be interpreted as adaptive responses

1
2 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective
to challenges involved in fighting an enemy versus escaping one with
minimal loss of blood (Keltner, Haidt, & Shiota, 2006).
I do not dispute this individual-level functionality of emotions. At the
same time, however, it is clear that the individual perspective alone
cannot account for the full breadth of emotional phenomena. After all, if
emotions were only functional at the individual level, why would they
show on our faces? Why would they become audible in our voices and
visible in our bodily postures? And why would so many people feel the
urge to communicate their emotional experiences to others (Rimé,
Philippot, Boca, & Mesquita, 1992)? As a result of these various expres-
sive tendencies, our emotions often do not remain confined to our indi-
vidual minds and bodies.
Whoever first coined the term “emotion” was surely aware of this.
Before the term was introduced, thinkers commonly used the word
“passions” to refer to emotional phenomena. The word “passion” is
derived from the Greek πάσχω, which means “to suffer” and thus empha-
sizes individual experience. The word “emotion” is derived from the
Latin emovere, which means “to move out.” The very meaning of the
term suggests that emotions are about bringing out, and making known
to observers, the internal state of the individual, thus emphasizing the
social nature of the phenomenon. As we will see, there is considerable
debate in the literature as to whether emotional expressions reflect inter-
nal feeling states and/or (deliberate) communications (see, e.g.,
Parkinson, 2005). This controversy notwithstanding, the active moving
that is implied in the word “emotion” better captures the essence of the
phenomenon than the passive undergoing that is implied in the archaic
“passions.” Emotions actively set things in motion. They move ourselves
and they move others.
Although emotions can of course be privately experienced, more often
than not they are expressed in one way or another – whether verbally or
nonverbally, mildly or intensely, knowingly or unknowingly, deliber-
ately or inadvertently (Ekman & O’Sullivan, 1991; Manstead, Wagner,
& MacDonald, 1984; Scherer, Feldstein, Bond, & Rosenthal, 1985). The
very fact that emotions tend to be expressed means that they will often be
observed by others, who may in turn respond to the expressions. Put
differently, our hardwired tendency to express our emotions implies that
emotions may have social functions and consequences in addition to their
more commonly studied and widely accepted intrapersonal effects.
Indeed, emotional expressions have been proposed to contribute to the
effective regulation of social interaction. According to this perspective,
emotions may have evolved in part because they help us address social-
relational concerns (Fischer & Manstead, in press; Oatley & Johnson-
Laird, 1987). Some have argued, for instance, that emotions help to
 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective 3
solve problems of commitment and cooperation, which are central to
human ultrasociality (Frank, 1988; Keltner et al., 2006). Emotional expres-
sions carry information about one’s (desired) relationship with another
person. For example, love and compassion signal psychological attach-
ment and commitment to a relationship (Ellis & Malamuth, 2004;
Gonzaga, Keltner, Londahl, & Smith, 2001; Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
Embarrassment and shame appease dominant individuals and signal
submissiveness (Keltner & Buswell, 1997; Semin & Manstead, 1982).
Pride protects the social status of accomplished individuals (Tiedens,
Ellsworth, & Mesquita, 2000). Anger motivates punishment of indivi-
duals who violate norms of reciprocity and cooperation (Lerner,
Goldberg, & Tetlock, 1998), and its expression helps to identify and rectify
social problems (Averill, 1982; Fischer & Roseman, 2007). Guilt motivates
reparation after wrongdoing (Trivers, 1971) and signals interpersonal
concern (Baumeister, Stillwell, & Heatherton, 1994). In other words,
emotions may be thought of as modes of engagement with the social
environment (Parkinson, Fischer, & Manstead, 2005). This view high-
lights the potential social functionality of emotions as instruments that
help individuals find adaptive ways of relating to one another.
Scholarly attention to the interpersonal consequences and possible
social functionality of emotional expressions has increased steeply over
the past two decades (see, e.g., Côté & Hideg, 2011; Elfenbein, 2007;
Fischer & Manstead, in press; Frijda & Mesquita, 1994; Hareli & Rafaeli,
2008; Keltner & Haidt, 1999; Niedenthal & Brauer, 2012; Parkinson, 1996;
Parrott, 2001; Tiedens & Leach, 2004; Van Kleef, 2009). Despite this
growing interest, however, a comprehensive theory of the social effects
of emotions is lacking. Moreover, at present no single source exists that
brings together the recent empirical efforts and advances in the study of
the social effects of emotions. With this book I aim to change this state of
affairs by outlining a broad theoretical framework for understanding the
social effects of emotions and guiding future research in this area and by
reviewing and integrating the important discoveries that have been made
over the past years. Before moving on, however, it is important to briefly
consider some definitional issues.

Definitional issues
When William James published his famous article titled “What Is an
Emotion?” in 1884, he implied that the answer is not obvious. Indeed, a
century later, Fehr and Russell (1984) observed that “everyone knows
what an emotion is, until asked to give a definition. Then, it seems, no one
knows” (p. 464). The question of what constitutes an emotion has occu-
pied philosophers, psychologists, and other social scientists for ages, and
4 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective
it continues to do so. Countless definitions of emotion have been
advanced, attesting to the difficulty of formulating one that is satisfactory
to all who are interested in the phenomenon. Nevertheless, there is
considerable consensus with regard to a number of key elements of
emotion.
Many theorists believe that emotions arise as a result of an individual’s
conscious or unconscious evaluation or appraisal of some event as posi-
tively or negatively relevant to a particular concern or goal (Frijda, 1986;
Lazarus, 1991; Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988), although the exact role of
appraisals in the emotion process remains a topic of considerable debate.
Furthermore, there is substantial agreement that emotions involve spe-
cific patterns of phenomenological experience (Scherer & Tannenbaum,
1986), physiological reactions (Levenson, Ekman, & Friesen, 1990), and
expressions (Ekman, 1993). Finally, emotions tend to be accompanied by
a sense of action readiness (Frijda, 1986), in that they prepare the body
and the mind for behavioral responses aimed at dealing with the circum-
stances that caused the emotion.
Various terms have been used to refer to emotional phenomena. The
most commonly used terms are “affect,” “mood,” and “emotion.” Affect
is the most general concept, referring to a subjective feeling state that can
range from diffuse moods such as cheerfulness or depression to specific
and acute emotions such as happiness or anger (Frijda, 1994). The word
“affect” is also used to refer to relatively stable individual dispositions
(i.e., trait positive and negative affectivity; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen,
1988). Emotions and moods are generally seen as subtypes of affect. They
are differentiated by the degree to which they are directed toward a
specific stimulus – be it a person, an object, or an event (Frijda, 1994).
As Parrott (2001) puts it, “emotions are about, or directed toward, some-
thing in the world . . . In contrast, moods lack this quality of object
directedness; a person in an irritable mood is not necessarily angry
about anything in particular – he or she is just generally grumpy” (p. 3).
Emotions are also typically more differentiated and of shorter duration,
whereas moods tend to be more enduring and pervasive, if generally of
lower intensity (Frijda, 1994). Finally, in contrast to diffuse moods, dis-
crete emotions are associated with distinct subjective experiences
(Scherer, Wallbott, & Summerfield, 1986), physiological reactions
(Levenson et al., 1990), expressions (Ekman, 1993), and action tendencies
(Roseman, Wiest, & Swartz, 1994).
In this book I will use these terms accordingly. I use the word “emo-
tion” to refer to valenced responses to relevant events that are accompa-
nied by specific patterns of experience, physiological changes,
expressions, and/or behavioral tendencies, and that are associated with
an identifiable cause or object. I reserve the term “mood” for more diffuse
 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective 5
and undifferentiated feeling states that are not connected to a particular
antecedent event or object. I use the word “affect” as an umbrella term to
denote both discrete emotions and diffuse mood states and valenced
evaluations of objects or people, such as likes and dislikes and related
sentiments (Frijda, 1994).

An interpersonal approach to emotion

Traditionally, theorizing and research on emotion have been concerned
first and foremost with the antecedents and individual-level conse-
quences of emotions. Consider the case of anger. In the past fifty years
or so, emotion scholars have made a lot of progress in mapping the types
of situations and events that may trigger anger. For instance, appraisal
theorists have argued and shown that anger may arise when a person
feels that his or her goals are being frustrated and someone else is to
blame (e.g., Frijda, 1986; Kuppens, Van Mechelen, Smits, & De Boeck,
2003; Roseman, 1984; Scherer, Schorr, & Johnstone, 2001; Smith, Haynes,
Lazarus, & Pope, 1993). Along similar lines, research in the area of
organizational behavior has revealed that perceptions of injustice are a
prominent precursor to anger in the workplace (Barclay, Skarlicki, &
Pugh, 2005).
In addition, a large body of research has been dedicated to investigat-
ing how an individual’s experience of anger shapes his or her own
cognition and behavior. Studies have shown, for instance, that feelings
of anger undermine trust (Dunn & Schweitzer, 2005) and interpersonal
concern (Allred, Mallozzi, Matsui, & Raia, 1997) and enhance the ten-
dency to blame others for negative events (Lerner & Tiedens, 2006;
Quigley & Tedeschi, 1996). Furthermore, anger has been associated
with feelings of hostility and a desire for revenge and retaliation
(Allred, 1999; Baron, Neuman, & Geddes, 1999; Skarlicki & Folger,
1997). Behavioral findings mirror these effects, with feelings of anger
undermining cooperation and increasing competition (Forgas, 1998;
Knapp & Clark, 1991; Pillutla & Murnighan, 1996) and sparking aggres-
sive behavior (Averill, 1982).
As is clear from the example of anger, the classic approach to emotion
has contributed greatly to scientific understanding of the antecedents and
individual-level consequences of emotions. More recently, this tradi-
tional focus has been complemented by theorizing and research on the
interpersonal effects of emotions – the topic of this book. Moving beyond
the question of where our emotions come from and how they influence
our own thinking and behavior, the interpersonal perspective raises the
complementary question of how one person’s emotional expressions
influence the feelings, thoughts, and actions of other individuals.
6 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective
This interpersonal perspective opens up a host of exciting new
research questions that have only recently begun to receive systematic
scholarly attention. For instance, when and how do individuals use
the emotional displays of others to make sense of the world around
them? Do people deliberately use their emotions to influence others,
and if so, which emotions are effective under which circumstances?
How do emotional expressions shape the quality of close relation-
ships? When and how do emotional displays contribute to the coordi-
nation of behavior in groups? How do emotional expressions
influence conflict resolution versus escalation? Does the impact of
persuasive messages depend on the emotional displays of the source?
What are the consequences of emotional communications for consu-
mer behavior and the quality of customer service? How does a lea-
der’s emotional style influence his or her effectiveness? And how do
teachers’ emotional expressions influence the performance of their
students? These and many other questions pertaining to the interper-
sonal dynamics of emotions are addressed in this book.

Goals and overview of the book

My goal with this book is threefold. First, I intend to develop an integra-
tive theoretical framework to enhance understanding of the mechanisms
and contingencies that govern the social effects of emotions. Second, I set
out to provide a comprehensive overview of extant research on the social
effects of emotions across domains of life. Third, I aim to identify gaps in
our knowledge and provide an agenda for future research.
These three objectives are addressed in the three parts of this book.
The first part of the book (Chapters 2–4) outlines a broad theoretical
framework that informs understanding of the social effects of emotions
and that may serve as a guide for future research: Emotions as Social
Information (EASI) theory. In Chapter 2 I develop the general idea that a
primary function of emotions is to disambiguate social situations by
providing relevant information to other individuals in the social envir-
onment. I will discuss theorizing on the evolution and social functions
of emotions, research on social referencing in humans and emotional
understanding in nonhuman primates, claims regarding the universal-
ity of emotional expressions, and evidence for the deliberate targeting of
emotional expressions to other individuals and for the modulation of
emotional expressivity by the presence of others. I then review illustra-
tive research on the role of emotional expressions as cues to social
predispositions. The chapter closes with a brief discussion of psycholo-
gical disorders and physical conditions that compromise social interac-
tion by disrupting the social-communicative functions of emotions.
 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective 7
Chapter 3 addresses the two processes of emotional influence that are
featured in EASI theory, namely affective reactions and inferential pro-
cesses. The section on affective reactions describes how the emotional
expressions of one person may elicit reciprocal or complementary emo-
tional reactions in one or more others and how emotional expressions
shape interpersonal liking. The section on inferential processes addresses
the ways in which individuals may extract relevant (social) information
from the emotional expressions of others. Downstream consequences of
both processes are also discussed.
In Chapter 4 I propose two classes of moderators that determine the
relative predictive strength of affective reactions and inferential processes
in shaping observers’ responses to others’ emotional expressions. The
first factor is the information-processing depth of the observer. Drawing
on classic dual-process models of information processing, I review per-
sonality characteristics and environmental influences that shape an indi-
vidual’s information-processing motivation and ability. The second
factor concerns social-contextual influences that shape the perceived
appropriateness of emotional expressions. This section addresses char-
acteristics of the situation, the emotional expression, the expresser, and
the observer that influence the perceived (in)appropriateness of emo-
tional expressions.
The second part of the book (Chapters 5–9) presents a comprehensive
review of empirical research on the social effects of emotions. This review
is organized according to the five broad domains of research in which the
social effects of emotions have so far been investigated most extensively,
namely close relationships, group life, conflict and negotiation, customer
service and consumer behavior, and leadership. In each of the chapters,
the empirical record will be discussed in relation to the theoretical ideas
outlined in the preceding chapters.
Chapter 5 is concerned with the interpersonal effects of emotions in
close relationships. The guiding question in this chapter is how the
emotional expressions of one person (e.g., a friend or relationship
partner) shape relationships by influencing the emotions, cognitions,
attitudes, and/or behavior of a social partner. The chapter begins
with a discussion of theoretical perspectives and empirical research
on the functionality of emotional expressivity in close relationships
and related work on the effects of emotional intelligence on relation-
ship success. I then move on to consider the role of emotional con-
vergence in interpersonal relationships, after which I summarize
research on the social consequences of four main classes of emotional
expressions that are associated with affiliation (e.g., happiness), sup-
plication (e.g., sadness), dominance (e.g., anger), and appeasement
(e.g., guilt).
8 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective
Chapter 6 addresses the social effects of emotions in groups. The
chapter starts with a brief discussion of theorizing on the social function-
ality of emotions in groups. Against that background, I will discuss
classic work on various types of affective processes in groups, including
emotional contagion, affective convergence, and affective divergence,
which will be followed by a review of research on the consequences of
group-level affective states such as group affective tone and affective
diversity for group functioning. I will then proceed to review more recent
work on inferential processes that may be triggered by emotional expres-
sions in groups and their downstream consequences for group processes
and outcomes. The chapter ends with some emerging conclusions regard-
ing the contingencies that govern the social effects of emotions in groups.
In Chapter 7 I review research on the interpersonal effects of emotions
in conflict and negotiation. The key question here is how emotional
expressions influence cooperation versus competition in situations of
mixed-motive interdependence. I review research on the influence of
emotional expressions in the context of a variety of conflict management
settings, such as negotiation, dispute resolution, and coalition formation.
These studies indicate that emotional expressions shape conflict behavior
and the resolution versus escalation of conflicts by instigating affective
reactions as well as inferential processes in observers, depending on
observers’ information-processing tendencies and on the perceived
appropriateness of the emotional expressions. I also discuss emerging
research on the role of emotional intelligence in conflict and negotiation.
Chapter 8 then reviews the literature on the social effects of emotions in
the context of customer service and consumer behavior. The first part of
the chapter reviews research on the effects of service providers’ emotional
displays on the emotions, product attitudes, purchase intentions, and
actual behavior of consumers. In this context I will also discuss work on
emotional labor and the perceived authenticity and appropriateness of
service providers’ emotional displays. Reversing the focus, the second
part of the chapter addresses research on the effects of customers’ emo-
tional expressions on service employees’ emotions, job satisfaction, well-
being, cognitions, and performance. In the third part of the chapter I then
move on to review studies on the effects of emotional expressions on the
effectiveness of persuasive communications. The fourth part is devoted to
emerging research on interpersonal emotion regulation in customer ser-
vice. The final part of the chapter addresses the role of emotional intelli-
gence in the service industry.
Chapter 9 is concerned with the role of emotions in leader–follower
relations. The central question in this chapter is how the emotional
expressions of a leader influence the emotions, cognitions, attitudes,
and behaviors of followers, and what the consequences are for leadership
 Emotion: an interpersonal perspective 9
effectiveness. Research in this area has documented that leaders’ emo-
tional expressions may influence follower behavior and leadership effec-
tiveness by triggering affective reactions (e.g., emotional contagion,
liking of the leader) as well as inferential processes (e.g., inferences
regarding performance quality) in followers. I will discuss studies on
the contingencies of these processes and their outcomes, many of which
relate to followers’ information processing or the perceived appropriate-
ness of the leaders’ emotional displays. In this area, too, emerging evi-
dence points to a critical role of emotional intelligence in determining the
social effects of emotions, and this research is also reviewed.
The third part of the book (Chapters 10 and 11) summarizes the current
state of the art, highlights implications for theory and research, and
discusses caveats and future directions. Chapter 10 offers a critical eva-
luation of the empirical support for EASI theory, discusses how EASI
theory compares to other theoretical perspectives, and highlights some of
the implications of the current analysis. Finally, Chapter 11 discusses
limits to our current understanding and provides an agenda for future
research.
PART I

Emotions as Social Information

Theory
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