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Oral Anatomy Histology and Embryology 4th
International edition Edition Barry K. B. Berkovitz
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Barry K. B. Berkovitz, G. R. Holland, Bernard J. Moxham
ISBN(s): 9780723435518, 0723435510
Edition: 4th International edition
File Details: PDF, 69.89 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
Oral Anatomy,
Histology and
Embryology
Commissioning Editor: Alison Taylor
Development Editor: Lulu Stader
Project Manager: Jane Dingwall
Designers: Sarah Russell/Kirsteen Wright
Illustrator: Marion Tasker (new figures)
Illustration Manager: Merlyn Harvey
 Fourth Edition

Oral Anatomy,
Histology and
Embryology
B. K. B. Berkovitz BDS, MSc, PhD, FDS (Eng)
Emeritus Reader, Anatomy and Human Sciences, Biomedical and Health Sciences, King’s College, London, UK

G. R. Holland BSc, BDS, PhD, CERT ENDO

Professor, Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences and Endodontics, School of Dentistry and Department of
Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA

B. J. Moxham BSc, BDS, PhD

Professor of Anatomy, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK

EDINBURGH LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PHILADELPHIA ST LOUIS SYDNEY TORONTO 2009
 Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgements viii
1. In vivo appearance of the oral cavity 1
2. Dento-osseous structures 8
3. Regional topography of the mouth and related areas 62
4. Vasculature and innervation of the mouth 81
5. Sectional anatomy of the oral cavity and related areas 92
6. Functional anatomy 95
7. Enamel 105
8. Investing organic layers on enamel surfaces 123
9. Dentine 129
10. Dental pulp 152
11. Cementum 169
12. Periodontal ligament 179
13. Alveolar bone 205
14. Oral mucosa 223
15. Temporomandibular joint 253
16. Salivary glands 260
17. Development of the face 278
18. Development of the palate 283
19. Development of the jaws 293
20. Development of the tongue and salivary glands 297
21. Early tooth development 299
22. Amelogenesis 314
23. Dentinogenesis 329
24. Development of the dental pulp 339
25. Development of the root and periodontal ligament 342
26. Development of the dentitions 358
27. Ageing and archaeological and dental anthropological applications
of tooth structure 378
Further reading 383
Index 390

v
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

This, the fourth edition of our book, follows the form and principles we established in the earlier third edition.
Thus, although in that third edition we changed the format of the book from a textbook and atlas to a textbook,
we retained the considerable number of illustrations, believing strongly that anatomical and histological text-
books must present information in a visual format. This fourth edition maintains this principle and we have
expanded the book considerably to incorporate nearly 1100 illustrations (over twenty percent of the illustra-
tions being new). This time, the expansion of the book has been accomplished without removing any of the
topics covered in the previous edition. On the contrary, we have added a chapter on ageing of orodental tissues,
because of the increased longevity of humans and the consequences of this to the types of patient seeking
dental treatment. This chapter also includes some information concerning forensic dentistry and dental archae-
ological material. As for the earlier editions of our book, we have preferred, wherever possible, to use photo-
graphs and photomicrographs for our illustrations rather than diagrams or drawings, however expertly and
artistically presented, as we wish to encourage students to look at ‘real’ material, warts and all!
As for the previous edition, we are adamant that dental students should not just learn basic (‘core’) material
for oral anatomy, histology and embryology. These are important subjects that provide essential scientific
material that should be appreciated by all dental surgeons who wish to consider themselves professionals (in
all senses of the term). Indeed, it seems to us that a book such as this that attempts to be encyclopaedic in
scope is increasingly necessary where there is a shortage of experienced teachers for the subjects covered!
Furthermore, because of the increasing shortage of teachers with clinical backgrounds in dentistry, we have
expanded the ‘clinical considerations’ section in most chapters of our book.
It is, unfortunately, increasingly difficult to obtain funding for basic dental research that involves significant
amounts of morphological investigation. And yet, such research does continue and considerable advances in
our knowledge of the microscopic anatomy and development of orodental tissues have occurred in recent
times. All chapters have been reviewed. In some (e.g. enamel integuments), only minor changes were deemed
necessary whereas in others (e.g. alveolar bone and the salivary glands) we have made significant additions.
We have also taken the opportunity to improve some of the illustrations where no changes in the text were
required. For example, all of the photographs relating to tooth morphology are new. Finally, we are, as ever,
grateful to those readers who have provided comments and criticisms. We do not pretend to be infallible and
would ask for indulgence if we have strayed from scientific rectitude!

2008
B. K. B. Berkovitz
G. R. Holland
B. J. Moxham

vii
 Acknowledgements

We are most grateful to the numerous colleagues who generously provided photographic material for our book
and these have been acknowledged in the text. In addition, we owe a debt of thanks to the following research-
ers for their constructive criticisms of draft chapters: Dr T. Arnett, Dr A. E. Barrett, Dr J. H. Bennett, Dr S. R.
Berkovitz, Dr R. Brooks, Dr M. Cobourne, Dr R. J. Cook, Professor M. C. Dean, Dr A. Grigoriadis, Dr J. D.
Harrison, Dr M. Ide, Professor R. W. A. Linden, Dr H. Liversidge, Professor F. McDonald, Dr T. A. Mitsiadis,
Professor P. R. Morgan, Dr I. Needleman, Professor R. G. Oliver, Dr C. Orr, Professor R. M. Palmer, Professor
T. Pitt-Ford, Dr G. D. Procter, Professor P. T. Sharpe, Dr A. Thexton, Professor T. J. Watson.
We are grateful to Ms K. Kirwan for much photographic help and for producing a number of the new line
diagrams. We also acknowledge photographic help from Mr G. Fox.

viii
 In vivo appearance of the oral cavity 1

B
E

CF A F

Fig. 1.2 The lips. A = tubercle; B = nasolabial groove; C = labiomarginal sulci;

D = labiomental groove; E = philtrum; F = labial commissure.

Fig. 1.1 The oral cavity.

The oral cavity (Fig. 1.1) extends from the lips and cheeks externally to Incompetent lips (Fig. 1.3) describe a situation where, at rest and with
the pillars of the fauces internally, where it continues into the oropharynx. the facial muscles relaxed, a lip seal is not produced. It is of some impor-
It is subdivided into the vestibule external to the teeth and the oral cavity tance that this is distinguished from conditions where the lips are merely
proper internal to the teeth. The palate forms the roof of the mouth and held apart habitually (as often occurs with ‘mouth breathers’). The lip
separates the oral and nasal cavities. The floor of the oral cavity consists posture illustrated in Figure 1.3 can be described as being ‘potentially
of mucous membrane covering the mylohyoid muscle and is occupied competent’, as the lips would be capable of producing a seal at rest if there
mainly by the tongue. The lateral walls of the oral cavity are defined by were no interference caused by the protruding incisors. Where the lips are
the cheeks and retromolar regions. The primary functions of the mouth are incompetent, the pattern of swallowing is often modified to produce an
concerned with the ingestion (and selection) of food, and with mastication
and swallowing. Secondary functions include speech and ventilation
(breathing).

LIPS

The lips (Fig. 1.2) are composed of a muscular skeleton (the orbicularis
oris muscle) and connective tissue, and are covered externally by skin and
internally by mucous membrane. The red portion of the lip (the vermilion)
is a feature characteristic of humans. The sharp junction of the vermilion
and the skin is termed the vermilion border. In the upper lip the vermilion
protrudes in the midline to form the tubercle. The lower lip shows a slight
depression in the midline corresponding to the tubercle. From the midline
to the corners of the mouth the lips widen and then narrow. Laterally, the
upper lip is separated from the cheeks by nasolabial grooves. Similar
grooves appear with age at the corners of the mouth to delineate the lower
lip from the cheeks (the labiomarginal sulci). The labiomental groove
separates the lower lip from the chin. In the midline of the upper lip runs
the philtrum. The corners of the lips (the labial commissures) are usually
located adjacent to the maxillary canine and mandibular first premolar
teeth. The lips exhibit sexual dimorphism; as a general rule, the skin of
the male is thicker, firmer, less mobile and hirsute. The lips illustrated are
lightly closed at rest and are described as being ‘competent’. Fig. 1.3 Incompetent lips.

1
 2 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

a b

Fig. 1.6 Midline diastema between upper central incisor teeth, produced by an
enlarged labial frenum.

Fig. 1.4 (a) Competent lips maintaining normal inclination of the incisors.
(b) Incompetent lips resulting in proclination of the upper incisors. teeth. When the teeth occlude, the vestibule is a closed space that com-
municates with the oral cavity proper only behind the last molars (the
retromolar regions). This provides a pathway for the administration of
anterior oral seal. Accordingly, an oral seal may be formed by contact nutrients in a patient whose jaws have been wired together following a
between the lower lip (or the tongue) and the palatal mucosa, and there fracture.
may even be a forcible tongue thrust. It has been estimated that in the UK The mucosa covering the alveolus is reflected on to the lips and cheeks,
and the USA about 50% of children at the age of 11 years have some forming a trough or sulcus called the vestibular fornix. In some regions of
degree of lip incompetence. the sulcus, the mucosa may show distinct sickle-shaped folds running from
The position and activity of the lips are important in controlling the the cheeks and lips to the alveolus. The upper and lower labial frena or
degree of protrusion of the incisors. With competent lips (Fig. 1.4a) the frenula are such folds in the midline. Other folds of variable dimensions
tips of the maxillary incisors lie below the upper border of the lower lip, may traverse the sulcus in the region of the canines or premolars. Such
this arrangement helping to maintain the ‘normal’ inclination of the inci- frena are said to be more pronounced in the lower sulcus. All folds contain
sors. With incompetent lips (Fig. 1.4b) the maxillary incisors may not be loose connective tissue and are neither muscle attachments nor sites of
so controlled and the lower lip may even lie behind them, thus producing large blood vessels.
an exaggerated proclination of these teeth. If there is tongue thrusting to The upper labial frenum should be attached well below the alveolar
provide an anterior oral seal, further forces that tend to protrude the inci- crest. A large frenum with an attachment near this crest may be associated
sors are generated. A tight, or overactive, lip musculature may be associ- with a midline diastema between the maxillary first incisors (Fig. 1.6).
ated with retroclined incisors. Prominent frena may also influence the stability of dentures.

ORAL VESTIBULE GINGIVA

The oral vestibule (Fig. 1.5) is a slit-like space between the lips and cheeks, The gums or gingivae, the oral mucosa covering the alveolar bone
and the teeth and alveolus. At rest, or with the mouth open, (which supports the roots of the teeth) and the necks (cervical region) of
the vestibule and oral cavity proper directly communicate between the the teeth, are divided into two main components (Fig. 1.7). The portion
lining the lower part of the alveolus is loosely attached to the periosteum
via a diffuse submucosa and is termed the alveolar mucosa. It is delineated
from the gingiva (which covers the upper part of the alveolar bone and
the necks of the teeth) by a well defined junction, the mucogingival
C
junction. The alveolar mucosa appears red, the gingiva pale pink. These
C B
colour differences relate to differences in the type of keratinization and
the proximity to the surface of underlying blood vessels. Indeed, small
blood vessels may readily be seen coursing beneath the alveolar mucosa
(Fig. 1.7b). The gingiva may be further subdivided into the attached
gingiva and the free gingiva. The attached gingiva is firmly bound to the
periosteum of the alveolus and to the teeth, and the free gingiva lies un-
A
attached around the cervical region of the tooth. A groove (the free gingival
groove) may be seen between the free and attached gingiva. This groove
corresponds roughly to the floor of the gingival sulcus that separates the
inner surface of the attached gingiva from the enamel itself (see Fig.
14.36). The interdental papilla is that part of the gingiva that fills the space
between adjacent teeth. A feature of the attached gingiva is its surface
stippling. The degree of stippling varies from individual to individual and
Fig. 1.5 The oral vestibule. A = vestibular fornix; B = upper labial frenum; according to age, sex and the health of the gingiva. Unlike the attached
C = frenum in the region of the upper premolar teeth. gingiva, the free gingiva is not stippled. On the lingual surface of the lower
 IN VIVO APPEARANCE OF THE ORAL CAVITY 3

Fig. 1.7 Upper (a) and lower (b) gingivae.

G A C A = alveolar mucosa; B = gingiva; C = mucogin-
F gival junction, D = attached gingiva; E = free
D E gingiva; F = interdental papilla; G = labial
B B frenum.
D

E C
A G
G
F

a b

jaw the attached gingiva is sharply differentiated from the alveolar mucosa occurring singly or in clusters on the margin of the lips or the mucosa of
towards the floor of the mouth by a mucogingival line. On the palate, the cheeks (and other sites such as genital skin). They can be seen in the
however, there is no obvious division between the attached gingiva and majority of patients and are said to increase with age.
the rest of the palatal mucosa as this whole surface is keratinized mastica- Few structural landmarks are visible in the cheeks. The parotid duct
tory mucosa. drains into the cheek opposite the maxillary second molar tooth and its
opening may be covered by a small fold of mucosa termed the parotid
papilla (see Fig. 1.25). In the retromolar region, in front of the pillars of
CHEEKS the fauces, a fold of mucosa containing the pterygomandibular raphe
extends from the upper to the lower alveolus (Fig. 1.9). The pterygoman-
The cheeks extend intra-orally from the labial commissures anteriorly to dibular space, in which the lingual and inferior alveolar nerves run, lies
the ridge of mucosa overlying the ascending ramus of the mandible pos- lateral to this fold and medial to a ridge produced by the mandibular ramus.
teriorly. They are bounded superiorly and inferiorly by the upper and lower The groove lying between the ridges produced by the raphe and the ramus
vestibular fornices (Fig. 1.5). The mucosa is non-keratinized and, being of the mandible is an important landmark for insertion of a needle for local
tightly adherent to the buccinator muscle, is stretched when the mouth is anaesthesia of the lingual and inferior alveolar nerves (see page 88).
opened and wrinkled when closed. Ectopic sebaceous glands without any
associated hair follicles may be evident in the mucosa and are called
Fordyce spots (Fig. 1.8). They are seen as small, yellowish-white spots, PALATE

The palate forms the roof of the mouth and separates the oral and nasal
cavities. It is divided into the immovable hard palate anteriorly and the
movable soft palate posteriorly. As their names imply, the skeleton of the
hard palate is bony while that of the soft palate is fibrous.
The hard palate is covered by a masticatory, keratinized mucosa that is
firmly bound down to underlying bone and also contains some taste buds.
It shows a distinct prominence immediately behind the maxillary central
incisors, the incisive papilla (Fig. 1.10). This papilla overlies the incisive
fossa through which the nasopalatine nerves enter on to the palate. Extend-
ing posteriorly in the midline from the papilla runs a ridge termed the
palatine raphe. Here, the oral mucosa is attached directly to bone without
the presence of a submucous layer of tissue. Palatine rugae are elevated
ridges in the anterior part of the hard palate that radiate somewhat trans-
versely from the incisive papilla and the anterior part of the palatine raphe.
Fig. 1.8 Inner surface of the cheek, showing Fordyce spots as yellowish patches. Their pattern is unique to the individual and, like fingerprints, can be used
for forensic purposes to help identify individuals. At the junction of the

A
C
A

B
D
Fig. 1.9 Retromolar region. A = inner surface of cheek; B = ridge overlying ramus
of mandible; C = ridge overlying the pterygomandibular raphe. The arrow indicates
a landmark for the insertion of needle for local anaesthesia of the lingual and Fig. 1.10 The hard palate. A = incisive papilla; B = palatine raphe; C = palatine
inferior alveolar nerves. rugae; D = alveolus.
 4 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

C A C

A D B
B
C

Fig. 1.13 Floor of the mouth. A = lingual frenum; B = sublingual papilla;

C = sublingual folds.
Fig. 1.11 The soft palate and oropharyngeal isthmus. A = palatoglossal fold;
B = palatopharyngeal fold; C = palatine tonsil; D = uvula.
FLOOR OF THE MOUTH

palate and the alveolus lies a mass of soft tissue (submucosa) in which run The moveable floor of the mouth is a small, horseshoe-shaped region
the greater palatine nerves and vessels. The shape and size of the dome of above the mylohyoid muscle and beneath the movable part of the tongue
the palate varies considerably, being relatively shallow in some cases and (Fig. 1.13). It is covered by a lining of non-keratinized mucosa. In the
having considerable depth in others. midline, near the base of the tongue, a fold of tissue called the lingual
The boundary between the soft palate and the hard palate is readily frenum extends on to the inferior surface of the tongue. The sublingual
palpable and may be distinguished by a change in colour, the soft palate papilla, on to which the submandibular salivary ducts open into the mouth,
having a yellowish tint. Extending laterally from the free border of the soft is a large centrally positioned protuberance at the base of the tongue. On
palate on each side are the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal folds (pillars either side of this papilla are the sublingual folds, beneath which lie the
of the fauces), the palatoglossal fold being more anterior (Fig. 1.11). These submandibular ducts and sublingual salivary glands.
folds cover the palatoglossus and palatopharyngeus muscles and between
them lies the tonsillar fossa that, in children, houses the palatine tonsil.
The palatine tonsil is a collection of lymphoid material of variable size TONGUE
that is likely to atrophy in the adult. It exhibits several slit-like invagina-
tions (the tonsillar crypts), one of which is particularly deep and named The tongue is a muscular organ with its base attached to the floor of the
the intratonsillar cleft. The free edge of the soft palate in the midline is mouth. It is attached to the inner surface of the mandible near the midline
termed the palatal uvula. The oropharyngeal isthmus is where the oral and gains support below from the hyoid bone. It functions in mastication,
cavity and the oropharynx meet. It is delineated by the palatoglossal swallowing and speech and carries out important sensory functions, par-
folds. ticularly those of taste. The lymphoid material contained in its posterior
Knowledge of the anatomy of the palate has clinical relevance when third has a protective role.
siting the posterior border (postdam) of an upper denture. The denture The inferior (ventral) surface of the tongue, related to the floor of the
needs to bed into the tissues at the anterior border of the soft palate (at a mouth, is covered by a thin lining of non-keratinized mucosa that is tightly
location sometimes referred to as the ‘vibrating line’ because the soft bound down to the underlying muscles. In the midline, extending on to
palate can be seen to move here on asking a patient to say ‘ah’). In most the floor of the mouth, lies the lingual frenum (Fig. 1.14). Rarely, this
individuals two small pits, the fovea palatini, may be seen (Fig. 1.12) on extends across the floor of the mouth to be attached to the mandibular
either side of the midline; these represent the orifices of ducts from some alveolus. Such an overdeveloped lingual frenum (ankyloglossia) may
of the minor mucous glands of the palate. The fovea palatini can also be restrict movements of the tongue. Lateral to the frenum lie irregular,
seen on impressions of the palate and a postdam may usually be safely fringed folds: the fimbriated folds. Also visible through the mucosa are the
placed a couple of millimetres behind the pits. deep lingual veins.
The upper (dorsal) surface of the tongue may be subdivided into an
anterior two-thirds (palatal part) and a posterior one-third (pharyngeal
part). The junction of the palatal and pharyngeal parts is marked by a

C
B

Fig. 1.14 Inferior surface of the tongue. A = lingual frenum; B = fimbriated fold;
Fig. 1.12 Oral surface of the soft palate showing the fovea palatini (arrows). C = deep lingual vein.
 IN VIVO APPEARANCE OF THE ORAL CAVITY 5

Fig. 1.15 Dorsum of the

tongue.
F A = sulcus terminalis
D B = foramen caecum
C = circumvallate papillae
E D = lingual follicles
B E = palatoglossal arches
F = palatine tonsil.
A
Pharyngeal part
Palatal part
C

a b

B
B

A
A

Fig. 1.16 Dorsum of the tongue, showing filiform Fig. 1.17 Dorsum of the tongue, showing circumval-
and fungiform (arrows) papillae. late papillae (A). B = lingual follicles.
Fig. 1.18 Side of the tongue, showing slit-like
appearance of foliate papillae.

shallow V-shaped groove, the sulcus terminalis (Fig. 1.15). The angle (or arches) extend from the soft palate to the sides of the tongue near the
‘V’) of the sulcus terminalis is directed posteriorly. In the midline, near circumvallate papillae.
the angle, may be seen a small pit called the foramen caecum. This is the
primordial site of development of the thyroid gland.
The mucosa of the palatal part of the dorsum of the tongue is mainly CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS
keratinized and is characterized by an abundance of projections (papillae).
The most numerous are the filiform papillae appearing as whitish, conical There are a number of conditions in the mouth that can be inspected in
elevations (Fig. 1.16). Interspersed between the filiform papillae and the non-clinical environment. They provide examples of 1) normal varia-
readily seen at the tip of the tongue are isolated reddish prominences, the tion, 2) common benign disorders and 3) disorders that may highlight
fungiform papillae. The largest papillae on the palatal surface of the tongue normal features, which may be otherwise inconspicuous.
are the circumvallate papillae, which lie immediately in front of the sulcus As examples of normal variation, we can consider pigmentation, Fordyce
terminalis. There are about 10–15 circumvallate papillae (Fig. 1.17). They spots and black hairy tongue. In dark-skinned patients, patches of melanin
do not project beyond the surface of the tongue and are surrounded by a pigment may be seen in the mouth, particularly in the gingiva (Fig. 1.19).
circular ‘trench’. Foliate papillae (Fig. 1.18) appear as a series of parallel, This pigmentation is due to the extra melanosome granules present within
slit-like folds of mucosa on each lateral border of the tongue, near the the oral epithelium (see Fig. 14.22). Such pigmentation needs to be dis-
attachment of the palatoglossal fold. The foliate papillae are of variable tinguished from other forms of mucosal pigmentation and from increased
length in humans and are the vestige of large papillae found in many other melanin pigmentation associated with a range of inflammatory conditions,
mammals. Apart from the filiform papillae, the papillae are the site of taste such as lichen planus where melanin pigment is held within macrophages
buds. in the lamina propria (Figs 1.20, 1.21). Fordyce spots are seen in varying
The pharyngeal surface of the dorsum of the tongue is non-keratinized degrees as small, yellowish-white spots, occurring singly or in clusters on
and is covered with large rounded nodules termed the lingual follicles. the margin of the lips (Fig. 1.22) or in the mucosa of the cheeks (Fig. 1.8)
These follicles are composed of lymphatic tissue, collectively forming the (and other sites such as genital skin). They can be seen in the majority of
lingual tonsil. The posterior part of the tongue slopes towards the epiglot- patients and are said to increase with age. They represent collections of
tis, where three folds of mucous membrane are seen: the median and lateral sebaceous glands (Fig. 1.23) without any associated hair follicles. The
glossoepiglottic folds. The anterior pillars of the fauces (the palatoglossal range of variation in the filiform papillae on the dorsum of the tongue is
 6 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 1.19 Patches of dark melanin pigment appearing Fig. 1.20 Area of increased pigmentation (arrowed)
in the region of the attached gingiva. Courtesy of associated with whitish patches due to lichen planus.
Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan. Fig. 1.21 Micrograph of biopsy taken from pig-
Professor P.R. Morgan.
mented area seen in Fig. 1.20, showing melanin
pigment within macrophages (arrows) lying within the
lamina propria. The epithelium is parakeratinized,
giving the whitish patches (H & E; ×100). Courtesy of
Professor P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.24 Black hairy tongue. Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.22 Fordyce spots appearing as yellow spots on the vermilion (red zone) of
the lip. The black spots below represent hair follicles on the surface of the adjacent
skin of the chin. Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.25 View of buccal mucosa showing a linea alba adjacent to the molar teeth
(A) at the level of the occlusal plane. In front of this line, the white patches on the
cheek represent more diverse cheek chewing. Arrow shows the parotid papilla.
Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

to accumulate and, together with retained pigments of dietary or microbial

origin, may colour the surface of the tongue black. The condition may be
associated with the administration of antibiotics or mouthwashes that may
Fig. 1.23 Micrograph of a Fordyce spot, showing it to be a sebaceous gland
alter the normal bacterial population. It has a frequency of about 5% of
(H & E;. ×50). Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.
the population.
Examples of common benign disorders are linea alba and tori. On the
well illustrated by black hairy tongue (lingua villosa nigra), a benign inside of the cheek and level with the occlusal plane, a linear, slightly
condition in which there is hypertrophy of these papillae (Fig. 1.24). raised whitish ridge may be seen, the linea alba (Fig. 1.25). It is commonly
Instead of being about 1 mm in length, the filiform papillae may reach up the result of low-grade, intermittent trauma due to folds of cheek mucosa
to 15 mm, giving the dorsum an appearance of being covered in fine hairs. being trapped between the teeth. More active trauma associated with cheek
This provides a suitable environment for bacteria (and sometimes fungi) chewing produces a much larger, irregular white patch (Fig. 1.25). The
 IN VIVO APPEARANCE OF THE ORAL CAVITY 7

Fig. 1.26 Section of buccal mucosa showing the linea

alba to be parakeratinized compared with the normal
non-keratinized state of the buccal mucosa (H & E;
×50). Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.27 Upper jaw showing a relatively small torus

palatinus as an overgrowth of bone along the midline
of the palate. Courtesy of Dr C. Dunlap.

Fig. 1.28 Upper jaw showing a large torus palatinus Fig. 1.29 Isolated palate showing torus palatinus as Fig. 1.30 Unilateral torus mandibularis (arrow) on the
as an overgrowth of bone along the midline of the an overgrowth of bone along the midline. Courtesy of lingual surface of the mandible. Courtesy of Professor
palate. Courtesy of Dr C. Dunlap. the Royal College of Surgeons of England. P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.31 Bilateral torus mandibularis (arrows) on Fig. 1.32 Torus mandibularis on the buccal surface of Fig. 1.33 The palate of a heavy smoker presenting
the lingual surface of the mandible. Courtesy of the mandible. Courtesy of Dr C. Dunlap. with an overall whitish appearance to the mucosa that
Dr C. Dunlap. highlights the orifices of the mucous glands as red
spots. Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

constant irritation converts the surface epithelium from its normal non- with age. Tori may be related to functional adaptations, as there is
keratinized state into a parakeratinized layer (Fig. 1.26). some evidence that their incidence is decreased in association with fewer
Individual variation in the shape of the jaws is recognized by anato- teeth being present in the jaws. They require no treatment unless they
mists and pathologists. Such variations blend with benign conditions. As interfere with the construction of satisfactory removable dentures. Their
an example, tori are benign localized overgrowths of bone found in incidence varies from about 0.5% to over 65%, being less frequent in
both the upper (torus palatinus) and lower (torus mandibularis) jaws, Caucasians and more frequent in Eskimos, Mongoloids and other Asian
resulting in an increased radiopacity in the region. In the upper jaw, the groups.
enlargement is typically seen in the midline (Figs 1.27–1.29), while in As an example of a disorder that highlights normal features that may
the lower jaw it is usually on the lingual aspect in the canine/premolar be otherwise inconspicuous, one can inspect the palate of a patient who
region and may be unilateral (Fig. 1.30) or bilateral (Fig. 1.31). However, smokes heavily, revealing a whitish appearance that highlights numerous
a torus mandibularis may also affect the buccal surface of the mandible reddish spots (Fig. 1.33). The white appearance is the result of a pro-
(Fig. 1.32). Torus palatinus is more common in females, while torus nounced orthokeratinized layer being present due to chronic irritation and
mandibularis is slightly more common in males. Tori vary in size from this highlights the orifices of the ducts (as red spots) associated with the
small to very large and there is a tendency for them to increase in size numerous mucous salivary glands present.
 2 Dento-osseous structures

a b

Fig. 2.1 Front (a) and side (b) views of the skull, showing the relationship between the jaws and the remainder of the skull. The black line describes the boundaries of a
maxillary bone.

A
JAWS

The jaws are the tooth-bearing bones. They comprise three bones. The two
F
maxillary bones form the upper jaw. The lower jaw is a single bone, the
mandible (Fig. 2.1).
B
The skull is the most complex osseous structure in the body. It protects
the brain, the organs of special sense and the cranial parts of the respiratory
and digestive systems. The skull is divided into the neurocranium (which D
houses and protects the brain and the organs of special sense) and the G
viscerocranium (which surrounds the upper parts of the respiratory and E
digestive tracts). The jaws contribute the major part of the viscerocranium, C C
comprising about 25% of the skull. The jaws have evolved from the gill C
arch elements of early agnathan vertebrates. It is probable that one or two
anterior gill arches gradually disappeared with the expansion of the mouth
cavity, so that the gill arch that developed phylogenetically into the jaws
of ancestral gnathostomes was not the first of the series. Note that the upper Fig. 2.2 Lateral aspect of the maxilla. A = frontal process; B = zygomatic process;
jaw not only contains teeth but also contributes to the skeleton of the nose, C = alveolar process; D = site of anterior nasal spine; E = canine fossa; F = orbital
plate; G = jugal crest. The infra-orbital foramen is arrowed.
orbit, cheek and palate.

MAXILLA
meet at the intermaxillary suture whence they diverge laterally to form the
The maxilla consists of a body and four processes: the frontal, zygomatic, opening into the nasal fossae (the piriform aperture). At the lower border
alveolar and palatine processes. Only the palatine process cannot be seen of the piriform aperture, in the midline, lies the bony projection termed
from the lateral aspect of the maxilla (Fig. 2.2). The anterolateral surface the anterior nasal spine. The malar surface of the body of the maxilla is
of the maxilla (the malar surface) forms the skeleton of the anterior part concave, forming the canine fossa. Superiorly, the malar surface is con-
of the cheek. In the midline, the alveolar processes of the two maxillae tinuous with the orbital plate of the maxilla and forms the floor of the orbit.

8
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 9

A
B

Fig. 2.5 Lateral view of the maxilla, showing close relationship of roots of the
cheek teeth to the floor of the maxillary sinus (red outline).

Fig. 2.3 Medial aspect of the maxilla. A = lacrimal groove; B = palatine groove;
C = palatine process of maxilla. Note the large opening into the maxillary sinus.

vertical groove called the lacrimal groove. This groove meets the lower
edge of the lacrimal bone to form the nasolacrimal canal. Behind the
antrum lies the palatine groove, which is converted into a canal carrying
the greater palatine nerve and artery by the perpendicular plate of the
palatine bone. The maxillary palatine process extends horizontally from
the medial surface of the maxilla where the body meets the alveolar
2 process.
1 3 The lateral wall of the nasal fossa consists mainly of the medial surface
of the maxilla. This surface of the isolated bone is occupied mainly by the
large maxillary hiatus (Fig. 2.3). To reduce the size of this space in vivo,
6 4 the hiatus is overlapped by the lacrimal bone and the ethmoid bone above,
5 the palatine bone behind and the inferior concha below (Fig. 2.4).

Maxillary sinus
The maxillary sinus (antrum) is the largest of the paranasal sinuses and is
situated in the body of the maxilla. It is pyramidal in shape. The base
(medial wall) forms part of the lateral wall of the nose. The apex extends
Fig. 2.4 Osteology of the maxillary air sinus showing adjacent bones reducing the into the zygomatic process of the maxilla. The roof of the sinus is part of
size of the ostium. 1 = lacrimal groove of maxilla; 2 = lacrimal groove; 3 = lacrimal the floor of the orbit and the floor of the sinus is formed by the alveolar
bone; 4 = ethmoid bone; 5 = palatine bone; 6 = inferior nasal concha. Courtesy of
process and part of the palatine process of the maxilla. The anterior wall
Professor R.M.H. McMinn.
of the sinus is the facial surface of the maxilla and the posterior wall is
the infratemporal surface of the maxilla. Running in the roof of the sinus
is the infra-orbital nerve and vessels. The anterior superior alveolar nerve
and vessels run in the anterior wall of the sinus. The posterior superior
Anterior to the orbital plate, the frontal process extends above the piriform alveolar nerve and vessels pass through canals in the posterior surface of
aperture to meet the nasal and frontal bones. Below the infra-orbital rim the sinus. The medial wall of the maxillary sinus contains the opening
lies the infra-orbital foramen through which the infra-orbital branch of the (ostium) of the sinus that leads into the middle meatus of the nose. As this
maxillary nerve and the infra-orbital artery from the maxillary artery opening lies well above the floor of the sinus, its position is unfavourable
emerge on to the face. The posterolateral surface of the maxilla (the for drainage (see Fig. 5.4a). Infections of the maxillary sinus may therefore
infratemporal surface) forms the anterior wall of the infratemporal fossa. require surgical intervention, creating a more favourable drainage channel
The malar and infratemporal surfaces meet at a bony ridge extending from closer to the floor of the sinus.
the zygomatic process to the alveolus adjacent to the first molar tooth. This The roots of the cheek teeth are related to the floor of the maxillary
ridge is called the zygomatico-alveolar, or jugal, crest. The posterior con- sinus (Fig. 2.5). The most closely related are the roots of the second per-
vexity of the infratemporal surface is termed the maxillary tuberosity and manent maxillary molar, especially the apex of its palatal root; the roots
presents several small foramina associated with the posterior superior of the first and third molars and the second premolar are only slightly
alveolar nerves (which supply the posterior maxillary teeth). The zygo- further away. Sometimes, only mucosa separates the roots from the sinus.
matic process extends from both the malar and the infratemporal surfaces Care must be taken (particularly when extracting fractured roots in this
of the maxilla. From the entire lower surface of the body arises the alveo- region) to avoid creating an oro-antral fistula, when an epithelium-lined
lar process, which supports the maxillary teeth. channel exists between the oral cavity and maxillary sinus.
The medial aspect of the maxilla is illustrated in Figure 2.3. This part The maxillary air sinus is lined by respiratory epithelium (a ciliated
of the maxilla forms the lateral wall of the nose. In the specimen illustrated, columnar epithelium), with numerous goblet cells. The sinus is innervated
the central hollow of the body of the maxilla (the maxillary air sinus or by the infra-orbital nerve and superior alveolar branches of the maxillary
antrum) is divided by a bony septum. In front of the antrum lies a deep nerve.
 10 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.6 Oral surface of the hard palate.

A = palatine processes of maxillae
B = horizontal plates of the palatine bones
C = median palatine suture
D = incisive fossa
D E = transverse palatine suture
F = greater palatine foramina
G = lesser palatine foramen
A A H = posterior nasal spine.
C A

C B
E
D
B B F
F

H
Fig. 2.7 View of the maxilla following removal of
G teeth to show the disposition of the roots in the
alveolus.
A = buccal alveolar plate
B = palatal alveolar plate
C = interdental bony septa between the second
premolar and first permanent molar
D = interradicular septum between the buccal roots of
first permanent molar.

An inferior view of the maxillae shows their important contributions to

the hard palate (Fig. 2.6). The four major bones contributing to the hard G
palate are the palatine processes of the maxillae and the horizontal plates
of the palatine bones. The maxillary palatine processes arise as horizontal
plates at the junction of the bodies and alveolar processes of the maxillae. H
The boundary between the palatine and alveolar processes is well defined
in its posterior aspect only; anteriorly, the angle between the two is less B
well defined. The junction between the palatine processes in the midline
is termed the median palatine suture. Anteriorly, behind the central inci- C
F
sors, this junction is incomplete, thus forming the incisive fossa, through D
A
which pass the nasopalatine nerves. Unlike the nasal surface, the oral E
I
surface of the palatine process is rough and irregular. The posterior edges
of the palatine processes articulate with the horizontal plates of the two
palatine bones to form the transverse palatine suture. Laterally, this junc-
Fig. 2.8 Lateral aspect of the mandible. A = Body; B = ramus; C = incisive fossa;
tion is incomplete, forming the greater palatine foramina, through which D = mental foramen; E = angle; F = external oblique line; G = coronoid process;
pass the greater palatine nerves and vessels. Behind the greater palatine H = condyle; I = mental protuberance.
foramina lie the lesser palatine foramina, through which pass the lesser
palatine nerves and vessels. The junction of the two palatine bones in the
midline completes the median palatine suture. The posterior borders of the
horizontal palatine plates are concave and, in the midline, form a sharp The apical regions of the sockets of anterior teeth are closely related to
ridge of bone called the posterior nasal spine. To the posterior edge of the the nasal fossae, while those of posterior teeth are closely related to the
hard palate is attached the fibrous palatine aponeurosis of the soft palate, maxillary air sinuses. The positions of the sockets in relation to the buccal
which is formed by the tendons of the tensor veli palatini muscles. and palatal alveolar plates are shown in Figure 2.12.

MAXILLARY ALVEOLUS MANDIBLE

The maxillary alveolar processes extend inferiorly from the bodies of the The mandible consists of a horizontal, horseshoe-shaped component, the
maxillae and support the teeth within bony sockets (Fig. 2.7). Each maxilla body of the mandible, and two vertical components, the rami. The rami
can contain a full quadrant of eight permanent teeth or five deciduous teeth. join the body posteriorly at obtuse angles. The body of the mandible carries
The form of the alveolus is related to the functional demands put upon the the mandibular teeth and their associated alveolar processes. Before birth,
teeth. When the teeth are lost the alveolus resorbs. the body consists of two lateral halves that meet in the midline at a sym-
Essentially, the alveolar process consists of two parallel plates of corti- physis. As viewed laterally (Fig. 2.8), on either side of the midline, close
cal bone, the buccal and palatal alveolar plates, between which lie the to the inferior margin of the body lies a distinct prominence called the
sockets of individual teeth. Between each socket lie interalveolar or inter- mental tubercle. These tubercles constitute the mental protuberance or
dental septa. The floor of the socket has been termed the fundus, its rim chin. Above the mental protuberance lies a shallow depression termed the
the alveolar crest. The form and depth of each socket is defined by the incisive fossa. Behind this fossa, the canine eminence overlies the root of
form and length of the root it supports, and thus shows considerable vari- the mandibular canine. Midway in the height of the body of the mandible,
ation. In multirooted teeth, the sockets are divided by interradicular septa. related to the premolar teeth, is the mental foramen. The mental branches
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Oceanography - Lab Report
Spring 2024 - Research Center

Prepared by: Lecturer Williams

Date: August 12, 2025

Background 1: Case studies and real-world applications

Learning Objective 1: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 5: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 6: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 9: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Review 2: Critical analysis and evaluation
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 12: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 16: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 17: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 18: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 19: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 3: Best practices and recommendations
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 22: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 4: Key terms and definitions
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 31: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 33: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 35: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 5: Case studies and real-world applications
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 41: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 42: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 43: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 44: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 46: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Unit 6: Best practices and recommendations
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 52: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 53: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 54: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 57: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 7: Best practices and recommendations
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 64: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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