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THE STORY OF COLLAPSING STARS
 THE STORY
OF COLLAPSING
STARS
Black Holes, Naked Singularities,
and the Cosmic Play of Quantum Gravity

Pankaj S. Joshi

3
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Pankaj S. Joshi 2015
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2015
Impression: 2
Reprinted with corrections 2015
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014948114
ISBN 978–0–19–968676–6
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
 To:
That Indomitable Spirit within,
That inspires Our Search without,
Of the Universe,
and of the Self within. . .
 Preface

The basic aim of fundamental physics and cosmology is to understand

the nature and structure of the Universe and to decipher and com-
prehend the underlying laws that govern the Cosmos. This justifies
current efforts to find a theory that will unify the forces of nature
known today, namely the weak and strong nuclear forces, electromag-
netism, and gravity. Although we seem to have at present a good theory
that combines the first three forces, to unite it with gravity to generate a
quantum gravity theory has been an unfulfilled dream and elusive goal
for a long time now.
How are we to achieve this? As efforts are made to obtain evidence of
quantum gravity, as has been done for the past several decades without
success, my own feeling is that it may be worth considering phenom-
ena in the Cosmos where these key forces come together to generate
possibly observable effects. What we need are detectable and observable
signatures of possible quantum gravity phenomena. These could give
us the real clues leading to such a unified theory.
From such a perspective, we undertake here a journey into one of the
most fascinating intellectual adventures of past decades, namely un-
derstanding the final fate of massive collapsing stars in the Universe,
or in general the gravitational collapse of massive matter clouds on a
larger scale. This is of great interest in fundamental physics and cosmol-
ogy, for gravitation theory and modern astrophysical observations. This
phenomenon could be intimately connected to our search for a unified
understanding of basic forces of nature, namely gravity, which governs
the cosmological universe, and the microscopic forces, which include
the quantum phenomena.
Using Einstein’s theory of gravity this investigation takes us to the
world of black holes, spacetime singularities, and other intriguing pos-
sibilities. Today, this continues to be a crucially important, unresolved
area in astrophysics and cosmology forming the foundation of modern
black hole physics and its current applications. The issue is also relevant
to mysterious, very high energy astrophysical phenomena observed in
the Cosmos which defy any consistent theoretical understanding. They
include, for example, cosmic gamma ray bursts, active galactic nuclei,
quasars, and powerful jets from galaxies.
viii Preface

According to the general theory of relativity, a massive star that col-

lapses catastrophically under its own gravity when it runs out of its
internal nuclear fuel must give rise to a spacetime singularity. Such sin-
gularities are the regions in the Universe where physical quantities take
extreme values and become arbitrarily large. The singularity might be
hidden within a black hole or visible to faraway observers. Thus, general
relativity predicts that a massive star’s final fate of collapse is either as
a black hole or as a visible naked singularity. In the latter case, ultra-
high density and curvature regions formed during the gravitational
collapse are visible from far away, and there can be rather intriguing
observational consequences.
Within such a context, we discuss here recent results and develop-
ments on the gravitational collapse of massive stars and matter clouds.
We suggest that a deeper understanding of catastrophic gravitational
collapse, where energy scales grow extraordinarily high, can be a test-
ing ground for examining, developing, and refining our efforts toward
a unified quantum gravity theory. We indicate the exciting possibility
that collapsing massive stars and the resulting spacetime singularities
may provide a laboratory where one can test the unification possibilities
for basic forces of nature.
In this way, the phenomenon of collapsing massive stars becomes all
the more interesting and intriguing. Also, the possible connection to
the very high energy cosmic phenomena mentioned earlier is worth
exploring, and we consider possible observational and astrophysical
implications when naked singularities form in the Universe.
The story that develops has amazing curves and ups and downs. In
fact, black hole physics has undergone key changes in recent times.
What began with the remarkable discovery by Chandrasekhar in the
1930s on white dwarf mass limits continued with detailed insights on
neutron stars and pulsars, further moving onto dizzy domains of black
holes and singularities. While this is all supposed to be scientific inves-
tigation and hard core fundamental physics, the emotional debates and
controversies that have flared up from time to time during past decades
have been no less spectacular.
While several interesting conclusions have emerged from these inves-
tigations in recent years, as we discuss here, the debate is far from over
and this continues to be an area of great scientific excitement. Perhaps
this proves again the vitality, importance, and key nature of the issues
and themes involved.
 Preface ix

It is my hope to show at the end of the discussion here that the

emerging story is no less exciting and thought-provoking than Einstein
gravity itself, from which it has developed. If the following narrative
creates a few moments of happy and insightful thought, the effort here
will have succeeded.
Pankaj S. Joshi
Mumbai, 2014
 Acknowledgments

My thoughts on these cosmic themes evolved and developed over

many years and I owe much to many colleagues who offered animated
and extensive discussions on the issues covered here. While the opin-
ions did not always converge and kept evolving, there was never a lack
of interest and excitement due to the very basic nature of the inquiry
at hand. In particular, I thank Indresh Dwivedi, Rituparno Goswami,
Daniele Malafarina, Ken-ichi Nakao, and all my collaborators for exten-
sive discussions and debates. Their thought-provoking questions and
comments have been invaluable.
Conversations with Stephen Hawking, Roger Penrose, and Rob-
ert Geroch made me think deeply and intensely on these problems,
and those with Peter Biermann, Ramesh Narayan and Kip Thorne
motivated me to probe the possible observational consequences of grav-
itational collapse scenarios. With much fondness I also mention here
my few interactions with S. Chandrasekhar, who showed keen interest
in these problems, and offered his critical comments. His penetrat-
ing insight inspired me to tackle the complex problem of gravitational
collapse in Einstein’s theory of gravity.
I express my sincere gratitude to Jayant Narlikar, P. C. Vaidya, and A.
K. Raychaudhuri, who always took a keen interest in the progress of our
work over many years, and offered many useful comments. The very
kind support to our work from M. G. K. Menon and B. V. Sreekantan
has been invaluable, and I thank them warmly.
My detailed discussions with George Musser, Vithal Nadkarni, and
Bharat Kapadia on black holes and cosmology brought out the rich tap-
estry of interwoven ideas and different aspects of the problem, and I
extend many thanks to them. The discussions with Adlung Sonke at
OUP led to the idea of this book, and I am very grateful to him for
his careful attention throughout. Jessica White, Ania Wronski, Charles
Lauder, Ralph Footring, and Gandhimathi Ganesan have taken much
care to see this work comes out well, and I am very thankful to them.
 Contents

1. Our Universe 1
Microcosm, Macrocosm, and Forces of Nature 2
The Role of Gravity 5
Dynamical Evolution in the Universe 8
Black Holes, Singularities, and Quantum Gravity 10
Our Trajectory 15

2. The Fabric of Spacetime 18

The Force of Gravity 19
Spacetime Continuum 21
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity 24
Physical Implications 30
Local and Global Aspects 35
Spacetime Foam 38

3. Black Holes 41
Life of a Star 42
Collapse of Massive Stars 45
A Black Hole is Born 47
Gravitational Collapse 49
The Debate on Horizon and Singularity 51
Black Hole Physics 52

4. Singularities 61
The Existence 62
Can We Avoid Singularities? 65
Causality Violations 67
Energy Conditions and Trapped Surfaces 69
Fundamental Challenges 71

5. Cosmic Censorship 74
What is a Naked Singularity? 75
Censoring the Cosmos 80
Inhomogeneous Dust Collapse 86
The Genericity Aspects 95
xii Contents

6. Naked Singularities 99
Collapsing a Massive Star 100
Gravitational Collapse Studies 102
Non-spherical Collapse 109
Numerical Simulations 113
Event-like and Object-like Singularities 117
Collapse Scenarios 119
Why a Naked Singularity Forms 123
Observational Aspects and Quantum Gravity 126

7. Cosmic Conundrums 128

Can We Reformulate the Censorship? 128
Are Naked Singularities Stable and Generic? 132
Structure of Naked Singularities 141
Questions on Collapse and Singularities 150

8. Is Our Universe Predictable? 168

Predictability Defined 170
Is Relativity a Predictable Theory? 172
Singularities and Predictability 174
Rabbits Popping out of a Hat? 176
Restoring the Predictability 177

9. A Lab for Quantum Gravity 180

The Quest for Quantum Gravity 181
Need for Observational Data 187
Singularity Resolution in Quantum Gravity 189
Naked Singularity and Quantum Gravity 191
Quantum Stars? 194

10. The Frontiers 197

Observational Frontiers 197
Testing Censorship using Astronomical Observations 198
Super-Kerr Geometries 199
Observable Signatures of Naked Singularities 201
Distinguishing Black Holes and Naked Singularities 204
Shockwaves near a Singularity? 207
 Contents xiii

Black Hole Paradoxes 208

Infall into a Black Hole versus Naked Singularity 214
Emerging Perspective 216

Bibliographic Notes 219

Index 221
 N1O
Our Universe

Man’s journey in search of the fundamental laws that govern the Uni-
verse has led us to some of the most fascinating insights on the nature
and structure of the Cosmos. Even the smallest child begins observ-
ing the Universe as soon as she arrives on Earth, and such observation
sparks curiosity and leads to questions about the Universe. The inquiry
gradually matures to intuitive, logical, and mathematical thinking and
analysis of the Cosmos’ basic nature and structure. This is the start of
our understanding of the Universe, leading to a wide variety of new
discoveries and inventions.
Early astronomers were amazed to learn that the Universe and phe-
nomena such as the occurrence of day and night, eclipses, ocean tides,
and the motions of planets, stars, and other heavenly bodies were not
arbitrary or random but followed specific patterns and fundamental
rules. Such an appreciation prompted an inquiry into the basic laws
governing these phenomena and a search for more of an understanding
of the world around us.
In due course, this led us to the body of knowledge that we today
call science. The quest has resulted in an impressive understanding of
the Universe and its basic happenings. This includes Einstein’s theory of
relativity, and quantum theory, which governs the tiny constituents of
matter. Today we have very large telescopes on Earth and in the skies
which probe the deepest recesses of the Cosmos. At the same time we
build mammoth accelerator machines that collide the tiniest of par-
ticles of matter at the fastest velocities possible. While the frontiers
of knowledge keep expanding, superb applications have frequently re-
sulted from the basic laws of nature that we have discovered, which
have made human life smoother and healthier.
2 Our Universe

Microcosm, Macrocosm, and Forces of Nature

We observe the Universe today in its smallest dimensions of atoms and
hadrons constituting the same in large particle colliders, while at the
largest cosmic scales we can see galaxies and their clusters millions of
kilometers away amidst a vast expanse. On the one hand, tiny suba-
tomic particles travel close to the speed of light and collide to create
a plethora of new basic particles. On the other hand, faraway galax-
ies collide and merge to give rise to new cosmic entities, while cosmic
structures constantly form and disperse. Our knowledge and concep-
tion of the Cosmos evolve as our search progresses (see Fig. 1.1 for a
historical perspective on the Universe around us).
Such observations of the Universe and the mathematical calculations
have shown that all these phenomena are governed by certain basic
laws and forces in nature. While day-to-day happenings in nature at
our own scales seem to be governed mainly by electric and magnetic
forces, at the scale of the atoms and elementary particles so-called weak
and strong nuclear forces govern key outcomes. When we move onto
the larger cosmic scales, it is fairly clear that more than any other force,
it is the force of gravity that counts and decides the natural phenomena,
such as the formation of galaxies and stars and the clustering of matter
on very large scales.
While different forces seem to rule different arenas and scales in the
Universe, man, however, has a passion to search for a certain unity
amidst all the diverse phenomena that surround us. We would like to
obtain a single logical structure that describes and explains nature in
its entirety. If possible we would also like to predict the Cosmos and its
happenings using such a framework.
In fact the word ‘physics’ comes from the Greek root ‘physis’, which
means the basic element or key principle of nature. For example, while
electricity and magnetism were observed as a collection of different and
diverse natural phenomena, it was James Clerk Maxwell’s theory from
the nineteenth century that gave a unified description of these phe-
nomena in a single logical framework with a system of mathematical
equations. Similarly, while the happenings within the atom and its nu-
cleus are now known to be governed by weak and strong nuclear forces,
contemporary, grand unified theories combine these forces with the
electromagnetic phenomena and again provide a unified description
of these happenings. On the other hand, when we move to the larger
 Microcosm and Macrocosm 3

Figure 1.1 An ancient view of the Universe. While mankind is located at the
center of the Universe, with the celestial sphere and the dome of sky up above,
outside that lie various unknown forces and powerful entities, probably those
of air and water and fire and others.

scales of space and time, namely planets, the solar system, and beyond
to the expanse of stars and galaxies, it has been known for a long time
that it is the force of gravity that governs the dynamics of these objects.
Explaining and predicting planetary motion due to the law of grav-
ity has been the greatest success of Newtonian mechanics. However,
4 Our Universe

Newtonian gravity requires an infinite speed for the propagation of the

force of gravity. This is not consistent with the special theory of rela-
tivity as derived by Albert Einstein in 1905, where no speed greater than
that of light is possible. A new theory of gravity was therefore inevitable,
which came in the form of the general theory of relativity formulated
in 1915. General relativity, or the Einstein gravity, has been the most
successful theory of gravity, having passed several experimental and ob-
servational tests and providing many new exciting predictions about the
Universe.
Despite these successes, it must be admitted that a vast ocean of ig-
norance lies before us. Current cosmology tries to understand how
the Universe came into being, how galaxy formation was triggered,
and how the intricate cosmic web of galaxy clusters observable to-
day through gigantic telescopes came into being. Among others, the
formidable problems of the missing or dark matter and the unseen or
dark energy that drives the accelerated expansion recently observed in
the Universe are far from being well understood. At the microscopic
level, as we continue in our quest for the basic building blocks of mat-
ter, and for the key forces that govern them, newer and finer layers of
reality emerge and open up before us.
Nevertheless, such an entirety of unfolding phenomena has not
discouraged us from our search. In fact, to meet such a daunting chal-
lenge, mankind has embarked on even bigger and ever more ambitious
missions to probe and understand the Cosmos, in both its microcos-
mic and macrocosmic realms. This is what has led to space telescopes
that see the farthest reaches of the Universe, and to the most pow-
erful of particle accelerators that probe the deep secrets of the tiniest
constituents of matter.
Thus, while we have been sharpening our technical instruments for
observing the Universe, we also have come to realize that intuition and
the mind, which are our very basic tools for understanding the Uni-
verse, need to be refined and sharpened and understood better. An
opinion has emerged that without understanding the nature of the
mind, a better understanding of the Universe may not be possible (see
Fig. 1.2).
Needless to say, such a journey into the Cosmos has led us to some
fascinating landscapes that we had never imagined possible. Many of
the phenomena in nature certainly defy our basic and gut feelings
about the Universe and always surprise us. As we journey through
 The Role of Gravity 5

Figure 1.2 The modern approach to the Cosmos sometimes prefers to see
man and the Universe as an integrated whole. While we would like to under-
stand our relation to the Universe in its entirety, the big mystery is: Can the
human mind really grasp the Universe? Whether it is conceptual frameworks
and theory or mathematical calculations and series of experiments, in the end
it is the human mind that must make sense of all that experience in the form
of coherent laws of nature. These laws may explain existing phenomena, and
also make new predictions about nature.

the frontier of knowledge, new domains of the unknown keep opening,

and perhaps such a scenario is always bound to arise.

The Role of Gravity

Gravity is the force that man has experienced and tried to understand
for ages. Clearly, it governs the Universe on the large scale that we see,
perceive, and experience. In the past, we observed planetary motion,
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