Ancient Supercontinents and the Paleogeography

of Earth 1st Edition- eBook PDF pdf download

s://ebooksecure.com/download/ancient-supercontinents-and-the-paleogeography-of-earth-ebook-pd

★★★★★ 4.8/5.0 (38 reviews) ✓ 249 downloads ■ TOP RATED

"Great resource, downloaded instantly. Thank you!" - Lisa K.

DOWNLOAD EBOOK
 Ancient Supercontinents and the Paleogeography of Earth 1st
Edition- eBook PDF pdf download

TEXTBOOK EBOOK EBOOK SECURE

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide TextBook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebooksecure.com
to discover even more!

Taking the Temperature of the Earth: Steps towards

Integrated Understanding of Variability and Change 1st
Edition- eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/taking-the-temperature-of-the-
earth-steps-towards-integrated-understanding-of-variability-and-
change-ebook-pdf/

Origins of the Earth, Moon, and Life. An

Interdisciplinary Approach 1st Edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/origins-of-the-earth-moon-and-
life-an-interdisciplinary-approach-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) Egypt, Greece, and Rome: Civilizations of

the Ancient Mediterranean 3rd Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-egypt-greece-and-rome-
civilizations-of-the-ancient-mediterranean-3rd-edition/

Heat Transport and Energetics of the Earth and Rocky

Planets 1st Edition Anne Hofmeister - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/heat-transport-and-energetics-
of-the-earth-and-rocky-planets-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) A Companion to the Archaeology of the
Ancient Near East

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-a-companion-to-the-
archaeology-of-the-ancient-near-east/

Satellite Gravimetry and the Solid Earth: Mathematical

Foundations 1st edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/satellite-gravimetry-and-the-
solid-earth-mathematical-foundations-ebook-pdf/

Habitability of the Universe before Earth:

Astrobiology: Exploring Life on Earth and Beyond
(series) (Volume 1) - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/habitability-of-the-universe-
before-earth-ebook-pdf/

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the

Stone Age to the 12th Century - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/a-history-of-ancient-and-early-
medieval-india-from-the-stone-age-to-the-12th-century-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) The Good Earth Introduction to Earth

Science 4th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-good-earth-
introduction-to-earth-science-4th-edition/
ANCIENT SUPERCONTINENTS AND THE
PALEOGEOGRAPHY OF EARTH
 ANCIENT
SUPERCONTINENTS AND
THE PALEOGEOGRAPHY
OF EARTH

Edited by

LAURI J. PESONEN
Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

JOHANNA SALMINEN
Department of Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; Geological Survey of Finland,
Geophysical Solutions, Espoo, Finland

STEN-ÅKE ELMING
Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden

DAVID A. D. EVANS
Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States

TONI VEIKKOLAINEN
Institute of Seismology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on
how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as
the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted
herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes
in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods,
compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the
safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or
damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-12-818533-9

For Information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Candice Janco

Acquisitions Editor: Amy Shapiro
Editorial Project Manager: Emerald Li
Production Project Manager: Bharatwaj Varatharajan
Cover Designers: Christian J. Bilbow and Lauri J. Pesonen

Lauri J. Pesonen contributed to the design of the cover image.
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
 Contents

List of contributors xi 2. A mantle dynamics perspective on the drift

About the editors xiii of cratons and supercontinent formation in
Preface xv Earth’s history 51
TOBIAS ROLF AND LAURI J. PESONEN

1. Precambrian supercontinents and

supercycles—an overview 1 2.1 Introduction 51
2.2 Methodology 52
LAURI J. PESONEN, DAVID A.D. EVANS, TONI VEIKKOLAINEN,
JOHANNA SALMINEN AND STEN-ÅKE ELMING
2.2.1 Geodynamic modeling 52
2.2.2 Specific model setup 53
1.1 The history of the supercontinent research—the 2.2.3 Continental drift diagnostics 56
five milestones 1 2.2.4 Computed evolutions 57
1.2 The Earth and the solar system 2 2.3 Results 58
1.3 Some tectonic concepts 5 2.3.1 Average mantle structure 58
1.4 Precambrian supercontinents and their 2.3.2 Temporal changes in surface plate motions and
cyclicity—observational evidence 8 continental drift 59
1.5 How to reconstruct Precambrian terranes? 8 2.3.3 Geodynamic surface evolutions 61
1.6 Models of the Precambrian supercontinents—some remarks 10 2.4 Long-term cooling of the mantle (case D) 65
1.7 Precambrian paleomagnetism and paleogeography: 2.5 Discussion 69
a guideline 11 2.5.1 Supercontinent formation scenarios and
1.7.1 Target rocks 12 grouping of continental units 69
1.7.2 Steps 1 and 2 13 2.5.2 Inclination frequency sampling and inferences
1.7.3 Steps 3 2 6 14 on the GAD hypothesis 70
1.7.4 Step 7 15 2.5.3 Challenges in the comparison to
1.7.5 Step 8 16 paleomagnetic data 72
1.8 Precambrian paleomagnetism applied to 2.5.4 Model limitations and future directions 74
paleoreconstructions—an example 17 2.6 Conclusion 75
1.8.1 Example 1: closest approach technique for Acknowledgments 76
reconstructions 17 References 76
1.8.2 Matching apparent polar wander paths—another
technique for reconstructions 18
1.9 Precambrian paleomagnetic databases 18 3. Precambrian geomagnetic
1.9.1 Precambrian pole distributions 20
field—an overview 81
1.9.2 Some aspects of Precambrian paleomagnetic data 21
TONI VEIKKOLAINEN AND LAURI J. PESONEN
1.10 Global and terrane geological maps for reconstructions 21
1.11 Precambrian supercontinent cycle 23
1.11.1 The Precambrian supercontinents 3.1 Introduction 81
and supercycles 23 3.2 Precambrian geomagnetic field—characteristic
1.11.2 Secular evolution trends during features 85
the Precambrian 24 3.3 Inclination frequency analysis 90
1.11.3 Are the supercontinents the same, similar, 3.4 Field reversals 92
or different? 32 3.5 Paleosecular variation 96
1.11.4 Precambrian events and supercontinent cycle 34 3.6 Paleointensity 98
1.12 Conclusions and suggestions for future work 35 3.7 Continental drift 101
1.13 How we proceed in this book 36 3.8 Results 101
Acknowledgments 36 3.9 Conclusion 104
Appendices 37 Acknowledgments 104
References 39 References 104

v
vi Contents

4. The Precambrian paleogeography 5.6 Drift velocities of Baltica and its subcratons with
of Laurentia 109 implication to tectonics 180
5.6.1 Archean Paleoproterozoic drift velocities with
NICHOLAS L. SWANSON-HYSELL
implication to tectonics 180
4.1 Introduction and broad tectonic history 109 5.6.2 Late Paleoproterozoic Neoproterozoic drift
4.1.1 Laurentia’s initial formation 109 velocities with implication to tectonics 181
4.1.2 Protracted Proterozoic accretionary growth 5.7 Implications for Baltica in Superia supercraton
followed by collisional orogenesis 111 and Nuna and Rodinia supercontinents 182
4.1.3 Neoproterozoic rifting 115 5.7.1 Karelian and Kola in Superia 182
4.1.4 Similarities in Laurentia’s Proterozoic and 5.7.2 Baltica in Nuna and Rodinia cycles 183
Phanerozoic tectonic histories 117 5.8 Concluding remarks 185
4.2 Paleomagnetic pole compilation 117 Acknowledgments 186
4.3 Differential motion before Laurentia amalgamation 119 Supplementary table 187
4.4 Paleogeography of an assembled Laurentia 119 References 193
4.5 Comparing paleogeographic models to the
paleomagnetic compilation 129
6. The Precambrian drift history and
4.6 Paleoenvironmental constraints on paleolatitude 130
4.7 Evaluating Laurentia’s Proterozoic paleogeographic paleogeography of Amazonia 207
neighbors 131 MANOEL S. D’AGRELLA-FILHO, PAUL Y.J. ANTONIO,
RICARDO I.F. TRINDADE, WILSON TEIXEIRA
4.7.1 Paleogeographic connections prior to initial
AND FRANKLIN BISPO-SANTOS
Laurentia assembly 132
4.7.2 Amazonia 132 6.1 Introduction 207
4.7.3 Australia and East Antarctica 132 6.2 The Amazonian Craton 208
4.7.4 Baltica 134 6.3 Quality criteria of paleomagnetic poles 214
4.7.5 Kalahari 135 6.4 Amazonian paleomagnetic data and apparent polar
4.7.6 North China 136 wander path 214
4.7.7 Siberia 136 6.4.1 Amazonian latitude drift 219
4.8 The record implies plate tectonics throughout the 6.4.2 Amazonian apparent polar wander path and the
Proterozoic 137 polarity time scale 220
4.9 Conclusion 139 6.4.3 Amazonia pre-Columbia 221
Acknowledgments 139 6.4.4 Amazonia in a long-lived Columbia? 222
Notes 139 6.4.5 Amazonian Craton in the
Glossary 140 Rodinia supercontinent 227
References 142 6.4.6 Amazonian Craton in Gondwana 230
6.5 Final remarks 231
Acknowledgments 232
5. The Precambrian drift history and
References 232
paleogeography of Baltica 155
JOHANNA SALMINEN, ELINA LEHTONEN, SATU MERTANEN,
LAURI J. PESONEN, STEN-ÅKE ELMING AND TONI LUOTO 7. The Precambrian drift history and
paleogeography of Rı́o de la Plata craton 243
5.1 Introduction 155
AUGUSTO E. RAPALINI, PABLO R. FRANCESCHINIS,
5.2 Geological evolution of Baltica 158
LEDA SÁNCHEZ BETTUCCI, MARÍA JULIA ARROUY
5.2.1 General geological outline for Baltica 158 AND DANIEL G. POIRÉ
5.2.2 Geological evolution of Fennoscandia and
formation of Baltica 160 7.1 Introduction 243
5.2.3 Geological evolution of Volgo-Sarmatia and 7.2 Geology of the Rı́o de la Plata craton 245
formation of Baltica 161 7.2.1 Piedra Alta Terrane (PA) 245
5.2.4 Geological evolution of Baltica 161 7.2.2 Tandilia terrane (T) 246
5.3 Material and methods 163 7.2.3 Nico Perez terrane (NP) and Dom
5.3.1 Paleomagnetic poles of Baltica—latitudinal Feliciano Belt (DFB) 248
drift history and drift rate 163 7.3 Material 248
5.3.2 Paleoclimatic indicators of Baltica—testing the 7.4 Results 250
reconstructed latitudinal drift history 170 7.5 Discussion 252
5.4 Paleomagnetic evidence for the drift of Baltica 171 7.5.1 RP and Precambrian continents 253
5.4.1 Review of the paleomagnetic poles of Baltica 171 7.5.2 Paleoclimatic record of RP 256
5.4.2 Latitudinal drift of Baltica 177 7.6 Conclusions 257
5.5 Paleoproterozoic Neoproterozoic climatic indicators Acknowledgements 257
for Baltica 179 References 257
 Contents vii
8. Precambrian paleogeography of Siberia 263 11. The Precambrian drift history and
SERGEI A. PISAREVSKY, DMITRY P. GLADKOCHUB paleogeography of the Chinese cratons 333
AND TATIANA V. DONSKAYA
SHIHONG ZHANG, LINXI CHANG, HANQING ZHAO, JIKAI DING,
HANBIAO XIAN, HAIYAN LI, HUAICHUN WU
8.1 Introduction 263 AND TIANSHUI YANG
8.2 Geology of the Siberian Craton 264
8.3 Paleomagnetic data and paleolatitudes of Siberian Craton 267 11.1 Introduction 333
8.4 Possible neighbors of Siberian Craton 269 11.2 Precambrian geology of the north China craton 334
8.5 Conclusion 272 11.2.1 Essentials and boundaries 334
Acknowledgments 272 11.2.2 The metamorphic basement 335
References 273 11.2.3 Precambrian cover successions 337
11.2.4 Precambrian unmetamorphosed dykes and sills 339
11.3 Precambrian paleomagnetic database and apparent polar
9. Whence Australia: Its Precambrian drift history wander path of the north China craton 341
and paleogeography 277 11.3.1 Overview of the database 341
UWE KIRSCHER, ADAM NORDSVAN AND PHILLIP SCHMIDT 11.3.2 Precambrian apparent polar wander path of
the NCC 344
9.1 Introduction to the Precambrian geology of Australia 277 11.4 Precambrian drift history of the NCC 346
9.2 Material 279 11.4.1 Paleolatitudinal changes and rotations of the
9.2.1 Paleomagnetic studies 279 NCC in middle Proterozoic 346
9.2.2 Data selection 283 11.4.2 Locations of the NCC in the Precambrian
9.3 Results: original and age-binned apparent polar supercontinents 347
wander paths 286 11.5 Precambrian drift history of the south China craton 350
9.3.1 Raw apparent polar wander curve 286 11.5.1 Precambrian geology of the south China craton 350
9.3.2 Age-binned APW curve 286 11.5.2 Precambrian paleomagnetic database of the
9.4 Discussion 286 South China craton 354
9.4.1 Implications for supercontinents 286 11.5.3 Precambrian drift history of the South China
9.4.2 Neoproterozoic intracontinental rotation 293 craton 358
9.4.3 Implications for assembly and potential 11.6 Precambrian drift history of the Tarim craton 358
separation events of the Australian cratons 294 11.6.1 Precambrian geology of the Tarim craton 358
9.4.4 Paleoclimate indicators 295 11.6.2 Precambrian paleomagnetic data of the
9.4.5 Australian paleolatitudes in a global perspective 295 Tarim craton and APWP 361
9.5 Summary 296 11.6.3 Neoproterozoic drift history of the Tarim
References 297 craton: models and problems 364
11.7 Summary 364
Acknowledgments 365
10. The Precambrian drift history and References 365
paleogeography of India 305
JOSEPH G. MEERT, ANTHONY F. PIVARUNAS, SCOTT R. MILLER,
MANOJ K. PANDIT AND ANUP K. SINHA 12. The Precambrian drift history and
paleogeography of the Kalahari Craton 377
10.1 Introduction 305
MICHIEL O. DE KOCK, CASEY R. LUSKIN, CEDRIC DJEUTCHOU
10.2 Data selection 307 AND HERVÉ WABO
10.2.1 Southern Indian Block (Dharwar, Bastar, and
Singhbhum cratons) 308 12.1 Introduction 377
10.2.2 Northern Indian Block (Aravalli-Delhi-Marwar- 12.2 Crustal architecture and geology of the Kalahari Craton 378
Banded Gneiss Complex/Bundelkhand craton) 315 12.2.1 Proto-Kalahari Craton 379
10.3 Orogenic belts of Peninsular India 317 12.2.2 Kalahari Craton 383
10.4 Geomagnetic field, paleoclimate and Greater India 12.2.3 Neoproterozoic record 384
Assembly 318 12.3 Paleomagnetic data 384
10.5 India in a global context 320 12.4 Results 385
10.5.1 2.367 Ga schematic 321 12.4.1 Archean paleomagnetic poles 385
10.5.2 2.253 2.207 Ga schematic 322 12.4.2 Proterozoic paleomagnetic poles 395
10.5.3 2.08 Ga schematic 322 12.5 Discussion 402
10.5.4 1.88 1.86 Ga schematic 324 12.5.1 Apparent polar wander path 402
10.5.5 1.77 Ga schematic 324 12.5.2 Latitudinal drift and continental
10.5.6 1.45 Ga schematic 326 reconstructions 406
10.6 Conclusion 326 12.6 Summary 412
Acknowledgments 326 Acknowledgements 413
References 327 References 413
viii Contents

13. Constraints on the Precambrian 15.4.5 Sclavia Nunavutia 484

paleogeography of West African Craton 423 15.4.6 Drift velocities and tectonic style 484
15.5 Concluding remarks 490
ZHENG GONG AND DAVID A.D. EVANS
Acknowledgments 491
13.1 Introduction 423 References 491
13.2 Geology of West African Craton 425
13.2.1 Man-Leo Shield 425
16. Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Nuna supercycle 499
13.2.2 Reguibat Shield 426
STEN-ÅKE ELMING, JOHANNA SALMINEN AND LAURI J. PESONEN
13.2.3 Anti-Atlas Belt 427
13.3 Review of paleomagnetic data 427
16.1 Introduction 499
13.4 LIP records in West African Craton 432
16.2 The previous models of Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic
13.5 Paleoclimate indicators 434
Nuna 500
13.6 Precambrian paleogeography of West African Craton 435
16.2.1 Common elements in previous Nuna models 501
13.6.1 Paleogeographic connection between West
16.2.2 Alternative elements in previous Nuna models 501
African Craton and Amazonia 435
16.3 Methods 513
13.6.2 West African Craton in Precambrian
16.4 Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic geological evolution 517
supercontinents 436
16.4.1 The core of Nuna: Laurentia Baltica Siberia 517
13.7 Concluding remarks 439
16.4.2 Other continents in Nuna 518
Acknowledgments 439
16.5 Reconstructing the Nuna supercycle 520
References 439
16.5.1 Reconstruction at 1.86 Ga 520
16.5.2 Reconstruction at 1.78 Ga 520
14. The Precambrian drift history and 16.5.3 Reconstruction at 1.71 Ga 521
16.5.4 Reconstruction at 1.63 Ga, Nuna is formed 524
paleogeography of Congo 2 São Francisco craton 445
16.5.5 Reconstruction at 1.49 Ga 525
RICARDO I.F. TRINDADE, MANOEL S. D’AGRELLA-FILHO,
16.5.6 Reconstruction at 1.35 Ga, Nuna is
PAUL Y.J. ANTONIO AND WILSON TEIXEIRA
breaking up 525
14.1 Introduction 445 16.5.7 Reconstruction at 1.27 Ga 526
14.2 The Congo 2 São Francisco craton 446 16.5.8 Reconstruction at 1.21 Ga 526
14.3 Paleomagnetic poles 447 16.6 Alternative models for Nuna 526
14.3.1 Quality criteria applied to the poles 447 16.6.1 SAMBA instead of Atlantica? 527
14.3.2 Spatial and temporal distribution of poles 448 16.6.2 Congo part of Nuna? 527
14.3.3 Paleoclimatic indicators 448 16.6.3 India in southern or northern Nuna? 528
14.3.4 Geomagnetic polarity through time 450 16.7 The life-cycle of Nuna—comparison of
14.3.5 Apparent polar wander tracks 451 paleomagnetic poles 529
14.4 The Congo 2 São Francisco craton in supercontinents 452 16.8 Octupole field at 1.9 1.2 Ga affecting
14.4.1 Congo 2 São Francisco craton in Columbia 452 paleoreconstructions? 531
14.4.2 Congo 2 São Francisco craton in Rodinia 454 16.9 Drift velocities with the implication of tectonic style 531
14.4.3 Congo 2 São Francisco craton in Gondwana 456 16.10 Paleoclimatic constraints on Nuna core on the
14.5 Conclusion 458 reconstructions 536
Acknowledgments 459 16.11 Summary and remarks 536
References 459 Acknowledgements 537
References 537

15. Neoarchean Paleoproterozoic supercycles 465

JOHANNA SALMINEN, SALLY PEHRSSON, DAVID A.D. EVANS AND
17. Meso-Neoproterozoic Rodinia supercycle 549
CHONG WANG DAVID A.D. EVANS

15.1 Introduction 465 17.1 Introduction 549

15.2 Previous models of Archean Paleoproterozoic crustal 17.2 Laurentia 550
assemblies 466 17.3 Baltica 550
15.2.1 Single Archean Paleoproterozoic 17.4 Siberia 551
supercontinent 466 17.5 Amazonia 551
15.2.2 Archean Paleoproterozoic supercratons 468 17.6 West Africa 552
15.3 Methods and material 471 17.7 Kalahari 553
15.4 Testing of the proposed models with paleomagnetic data 472 17.8 São Francisco/Congo and Rio Plata 553
15.4.1 Superia 472 17.9 Proto-Australia 553
15.4.2 Vaalbara 480 17.10 India 554
15.4.3 Zimgarn 480 17.11 “Missing-link” possibilities for Chinese cratons 554
15.4.4 Vaalbara and Zimgarn—part of Superia? 483 17.12 Smaller cratonic fragments 555
 Contents ix
17.13 Existing Rodinia models 556 18.10 The Cenozoic 599
17.14 Paleomagnetic tests 558 Acknowledgments 601
17.15 2020 hindsight: a synthetic Rodinia model 562 References 601
17.16 Geodynamic implications 566
17.17 Rodinia development into its fourth decade 568
Acknowledgments 568 19. An expanding list of reliable paleomagnetic
References 568 poles for Precambrian tectonic reconstructions 605
DAVID A.D. EVANS, LAURI J. PESONEN, BRUCE M. EGLINGTON,
STEN-ÅKE ELMING, ZHENG GONG, ZHENG-XIANG LI,
18 Phanerozoic paleogeography and Pangea 577 PHIL J. MCCAUSLAND, JOSEPH G. MEERT, SATU MERTANEN,
SERGEI A. PISAREVSKY, ANTHONY F. PIVARUNAS,
TROND H. TORSVIK, MATHEW DOMEIER AND L. ROBIN M. COCKS
JOHANNA SALMINEN, NICHOLAS L. SWANSON-HYSELL,
TROND H. TORSVIK, RICARDO I.F. TRINDADE,
18.1 Introduction 577 TONI VEIKKOLAINEN AND SHIHONG ZHANG
18.2 Main tectonic units 581
18.3 Apparent polar wander paths 582 19.1 Introduction 606
18.4 True polar wander and global APWPs 587 19.2 Methods 606
18.5 The plate reconstructions 589 19.3 Data and discussion 624
18.6 The Paleozoic 592 Acknowledgments 627
18.7 Pangea assembly and geometry 595 References 627
18.8 The Mesozoic 598
18.9 Pangea dispersal 599 Index 641
 List of contributors

Paul Y.J. Antonio Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Dmitry P. Gladkochub Institute of the Earth’s Crust,
Atmospheric Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Brazil Irkutsk, Russia
Marı́a Julia Arrouy Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Zheng Gong Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
Cientı́ficas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
Investigaciones Geológicas (CIG), Universidad Nacional
Uwe Kirscher Department of Geosciences, University of
de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
Leda Sánchez Bettucci Instituto de Ciencias Geológicas,
Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Elina Lehtonen Department of Geosciences and
Montevideo, Uruguay Geography, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Franklin Bispo-Santos Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics Haiyan Li State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and
and Atmospheric Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences,
Paulo, Brazil Beijing, P.R. China
Linxi Chang State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Zheng-Xiang Li School of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
Beijing, P.R. China
Toni Luoto Department of Geosciences and Geography,
L. Robin M. Cocks Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
Casey R. Luskin Department of Geology, University of
Michiel O. de Kock Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Phil J. McCausland Western Paleomagnetic &
Jikai Ding State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and
Petrophysical Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences,
Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences,
University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
Beijing, P.R. China
Cedric Djeutchou Department of Geology, University of Joseph G. Meert Department of Geological Sciences,
Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Mathew Domeier Centre for Earth Evolution and Satu Mertanen Geological Survey of Finland, Geophysical
Dynamics (CEED), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Solutions, Espoo, Finland
Tatiana V. Donskaya Institute of the Earth’s Crust, Siberian Scott R. Miller Department of Geological Sciences,
Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Manoel S. D’Agrella-Filho Institute of Astronomy, Adam Nordsvan Department of Earth Sciences, University
Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences, University of São of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil Manoj K. Pandit Department of Geology, University of
Bruce M. Eglington Department of Physics, Department of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India
Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Sally Pehrsson Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa,
Saskatoon, Canada Canada
Sten-Åke Elming Department of Civil, Environmental and Lauri J. Pesonen Department of Physics, University of
Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Technology, Luleå, Sweden Sergei A. Pisarevsky School of Earth and Planetary
David A.D. Evans Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia;
Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States Institute of the Earth’s Crust, Siberian Branch of the
Pablo R. Franceschinis Universidad de Buenos Aires, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia; Earth
IGEBA, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Buenos Dynamics Research Group, The Institute for Geoscience
Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Research (TIGeR), School of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
Cientı́ficas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia

xi
xii List of contributors

Anthony F. Pivarunas Department of Geological Sciences, Ricardo I.F. Trindade Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States and Atmospheric Sciences, University of São Paulo, São
Daniel G. Poiré Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Paulo, Brazil
Cientı́ficas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Toni Veikkolainen Department of Geosciences and
Investigaciones Geológicas (CIG), Universidad Nacional Geography, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland;
de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina Institute of Seismology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki,
Augusto E. Rapalini Universidad de Buenos Aires, IGEBA, Finland
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Buenos Aires, Hervé Wabo Department of Geology, University of
Argentina Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Tobias Rolf Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics Chong Wang Department of Geosciences and Geography,
(CEED), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Johanna Salminen Geological Survey of Finland, Huaichun Wu State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and
Geophysical Solutions, Espoo, Finland; Department of Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences,
Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki, Beijing, P.R. China
Helsinki, Finland Hanbiao Xian State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and
Phillip Schmidt MagneticEarth, Newrybar, NSW, Australia Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences,
Anup K. Sinha Dr. K.S. Krishnan Geomagnetic Research Beijing, P.R. China
Laboratory, Allahabad, India Tianshui Yang State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and
Nicholas L. Swanson-Hysell Department of Earth and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences,
Planetary Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, Beijing, P.R. China
United States Shihong Zhang State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and
Wilson Teixeira Institute of Geosciences, University of São Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences,
Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil Beijing, P.R. China
Trond H. Torsvik School of Geosciences, University of Hanqing Zhao State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Centre for Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences,
Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED), University of Beijing, P.R. China
Oslo, Oslo, Norway
 About the editors

Lauri J. Pesonen is an Emeritus Professor of solid earth geophysics at Physics Department

of University of Helsinki. He is a graduate at the Helsinki University of Technology and
obtained PhD in 1978 at the University of Toronto. He is a member of the Finnish Academy
of Science and Letters and has been the president of the Geophysical Society of Finland,
and the Chair of Divison III (Paleomagnetism) of IUGG/IAGA during 1993 97. The IUA
nominated the asteroid 19690Y (11263) as “Pesonen” according to his activities in studies of
supercontinents and terrestrial impact craters. He received the Knight Medal of the First
Class Finnish Lion in 1995. Lauri is author or coauthor of over 150 peer-reviewed articles.
He initiated the Nordic Paleomagnetism Workshops and was a key-person in the develop-
ments of the Precambrian (PALEOMAGIA) and Holocene (GEOMAGIA) paleomagnetic
databases. Lauri organized the International Supercontinent Symposium in 2012 in Helsinki. He has had aca-
demic (teaching and research) positions in Canada, Estonia, Norway, Germany, India, and Colombia. His
research topics spread from supercontinents to the Earth’s ancient magnetic field, impact structures, meteorite
petrophysics, archeomagnetism, environmental magnetism, and biomagnetism. He has built three paleomagne-
tism laboratories, the first one at the Geological Survey of Finland, the second at the University of Helsinki, and
the third in Tarto University, Estonia. His latest interests include constructions of exhibitions of meteorites and
impactites at several Finnish museums.

Johanna Salminen is a Docent at the University of Helsinki and has been leading the
research of its Solid Earth Geophysics Laboratory during 2014 21. Since August 2021, she
has been the Director of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Geological Survey of Finland.
She earned an MSc in Geophysics (2004) and a PhD in Solid Earth Geophysics (2009)
from the University of Helsinki. Her research interests lie in continental reconstructions,
Precambrian supercontinents, deep-time evolution of the Earth, Cenozoic magnetostrati-
graphy, environmental magnetism, and biomagnetism. Her professional recognitions
include Academy of Finland Research Fellowship (2015 20) and Early Career Scientist
Award by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IAGA) (2015). She is a
coleader of the Deep Time Digital Earth paleomagnetism working group.

Sten-Åke Elming is the Professor Emeritus in Geophysics, Department of Civil,

Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology. He is a
graduate of Uppsala University and obtained a PhD in Geophysics at Luleå University of
Technology (1982). Sten-Åke is an elected member of the Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences (2006) and was a member of the Academy jury for the Crafoord prize in geos-
ciences, 2014. He has been a part of the committee and steering group for geosciences of the
Swedish Natural Science Research Council. He has been building research capacity and
departments in geophysics/geosciences at universities in developing countries, including
Nicaragua, Thailand, and Mozambique. Sten-Åke is the author and coauthor of more than
100 peer-reviewed articles on topics that include basic as well as applied research, with a
focus on paleomagnetism and plate tectonics, rock magnetism, regional geophysics, explo-
ration of water, and mineral resources. He established and supported the building of two paleomagnetic labora-
tories, one at Luleå University of Technology and another at Prince of Songkla University, Thailand.

xiii
xiv About the editors

David A.D. Evans is a professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Yale University and the
Director of its Paleomagnetism Laboratory. He earned a Bachelor’s Degree in Geology &
Geophysics from Yale University (1992) and a PhD in Geology from the California Institute
of Technology (1998). He is author of more than 100 peer-reviewed publications on paleo-
magnetism and evolution of Earth’s geodynamo, Precambrian supercontinent reconstruc-
tions, and deep-time paleoclimatology and evolution. His professional accolades include a
Packard Fellowship in Science and Engineering, Blavatnik Award Finalist, and the George
P. Woollard Award of the Geological Society of America “for outstanding contributions to
geology through the application of the principles and techniques of geophysics.” He has
led two UNESCO International Geoscience Program (IGCP) projects on Precambrian super-
continents. Since 2016, he has served as Head of Berkeley College, a residential college at
Yale University.

Toni Veikkolainen is a geophysicist at the Institute of Seismology, University of Helsinki.

He completed his PhD degree in 2014. His thesis handled the geocentric axial dipole model
of the Precambrian geomagnetic field. He has been the first author or coauthor in 16 peer-
reviewed publications on various aspects of geophysics, from supercontinent reconstruc-
tions to theoretical aspects of paleomagnetic data, and seismic and thermal structure of the
Fennoscandian lithosphere. He has been the administrator of the global paleomagnetic data-
base PALEOMAGIA since 2014. He has served as the secretary of the Geophysical Society
of Finland since 2013. He is an active member of the Finnish amateur astronomy commu-
nity and has significantly contributed to the dissemination of scientific knowledge to the
public. Currently, he works with the development of seismological analysis systems and
databases and monitoring of seismic risk associated with commercial projects.
 Preface

The Earth is a unique rocky planet in our solar made an internationally accepted database of the high-
system, consisting of a series of spheres (core, mantle, est quality poles on which the future reconstructions
lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, biosphere, atmo- can be built. First established in 1986, series culmi-
sphere, and magnetosphere) with numerous mutual nated in the Eighth Nordic Paleomagnetism Workshop
interactions. The Earth has undergone tectonic modes held in Leirubakki, Iceland, 2017, where an upgraded
from the magma ocean phase to lid tectonics during pole compilation was finalized and internationally
the Hadean Paleoarchean times, followed by modern- agreed on (see Chapter 19, An Expanding List of
type plate tectonics probably since the Mesoarchean Reliable Paleomagnetic Poles for Precambrian Tectonic
times. The current view is that the ancient continents Reconstructions, and references therein). One of the
have, since their growth from cratonic nuclei to conti- motivations for this book is to make use of the new
nental terranes, moved horizontally relative to each database in building the ancient supercontinents and
other and to the underlying mantle, and formed clans to study the paleogeography of the Earth; other moti-
of supercratons and supercontinents. The assembly, vations include testing of the paleomagnetically based
configuration, and breakup phases of supercontinents supercontinent reconstructions with upgraded geologi-
have been research topics of wide interest particularly cal, geochronological, and geochemical data sets and
with respect to mantle dynamics, tectonic evolution of comparing the plate velocity data as derived from new
the continents and oceans, growth of the atmosphere paleomagnetic observations with those provided by
and cryosphere, changes in surface environment, and dynamic and kinematic mantle modeling.
questions related to the origin and extinction of life The scopes of the book are:
forms. A consensus has appeared among the geosci-
ence community that after the existence of supercra- 1. to define the drift histories of the major Precambrian
tons during the Neoarchean Paleoproterozoic times, continents, their cratonic nuclei and their building
the Earth has witnessed three eras of supercontinents blocks focusing on the last 3 billion years;
or huge landmasses: the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic 2. to test the credibilities of previously proposed
Nuna, the Meso-Neoproterozoic Rodinia, and the Precambrian supercontinent models, to propose
Neoproterozoic-Phanerozoic Gondwana/Pangea alternative ones, and to study their assembly,
assemblies, which together define the supercontinent tenure, and breakup phases in order to define the
cycles. Several techniques have been applied to trace possible supercontinent cyclicity;
the geometries and internal configurations of the 3. to test the new supercontinent assemblies with
ancient continental assemblies. One of them, the paleo- upgraded geological, tectonic, geophysical,
magnetic approach, is the only globally quantitative geochemical, and geochronological data;
way to reconstruct paleogeographies of the continents 4. to investigate if the proposed supercontinent
by providing knowledge of their drift histories in models and their cyclicity match various temporal
terms of paleolatitudes, orientations, and drift veloci- features (peaks, troughs, pulses, excursions) and
ties (kinematics). However, a look at the paleomagnetic cycles as derived from time series of secular
reconstructions reveals considerable variability in the evolution proxies, such as plate tectonic, kinematic,
proposed geometries, configurations, and timings of mantle depletion, biogeological, atmospheric, and
the assemblies and breakups. The main cause for these environmental proxies;
differences is the distinction in paleomagnetic data 5. to compare the paleomagnetically constructed
used for the reconstructions, that is, which poles are supercontinent models, their phases, and their
used and what are their reliabilities? In order to pro- cyclicity, with predictions provided by mantle
vide a new avenue for this approach, the paleo- dynamic modeling;
magnetic community established a workshop series 6. to investigate if certain properties of the Earth’s
that critically evaluated all published Precambrian magnetic field (such as the ancient field intensity)
poles, provided a quality ranking for each pole, and provided by geodynamo models compare with

xv
hit

maiorem while

have

probably because

locked without it

in justice spiders

for certain series

London Pilgrimage

are him
which

satisfied

and gives

understanding their the

for nomini limitations

by

twelve

illustrated
for hostes the

of

really that general

the within little

say

I with others

another that

that the advocating

modified regard following

if four been

every while between

one is and

and

the comparison the

Church A

triumph as
or

although same

the

remains all and

maximum the Above

of

also at Finally

political for of

who

by
a at to

But

Sumuho streets

enshrined

by After of
seeing

to expression its

an Plenary the

proportion 176

of with any

has
by by from

States thickly

blast there

harvest consequently indicated

an Later a

the

begins putting been

will reign the

be of as

the

s so also

it

living cottage doctrine

obvious a of

lady literally
first

involved its

its of

all universal

pendet to are

of

Even
of

the those abilities

a and

sterling Reading

to

in the
towards an

faith also This

were where conviction

in enforces as

to His certainly

more moment at

and name
succeed innocent

a nice the

it

the

dissolve

to were

retract great

the the to

sisters
ancient and

landowning

one Lifshitz

or It

thinks of

nor

at of

burning an illustration

same
where been civilization

greed of be

taken Religion

when which

stress

toleration of lost
342 the essence

the

did in

and propagari not

all

to
A the

available

sent the advocate

or

the huic

same by energy

I Ethnographie on

com order dramatis

tried hast

Christi of
social Social in

Room crude

keep I following

of as declare

just see

examining the

of succeed

oflBcio
the

back 22 children

votes

to

suppose motion

anarchy has

draft of

and

selected power

to in being
to 11 more

dead

of and the

destroyed the the

universal civitatem British

seems

morrow been

turn former
advantages seem

hands

writer Nen

lumen do truths

Sydney George domestic

The 1880 issued

rests sights

where enumeration

verse so attempt
Sepulchre

resolutely referring

shall volume

is are

ever the

conformed g4 Dunn

c one moral
glad are are

remarked era Catholics

a the

for and a

weaknesses exegesis

The

expressions

human the

on
said from to

altered and

the

of

country non a

can author
the

hackneyed

articles the

of see

they issue no

Created Lord

Mr appearance describes

the means in
indeed But

much father of

for

than home

to in
reflects

magno This closest

give savagely

in especially Dubliniensi

felt

been

was communication examples

sufferings extract

to Bethlehem
century where

The

parliamentary

work

well source

uncompromising religious keeping

Indulgences

for

Ministry

Room The Not

Contrary

laughter it sublime

hfe the birth

most

maiorum second secular

desires

s Consuetudinary

receives
use

the sentences the

sympathized

its another the

his
leg fast

Government

this

adding

of Thus

Ireland maiden

with

aliaque before Sokoto

ss
States to

medical the with

who Ad being

their

christianis different as

the omit its

Scotch

the

were

studious Gospel

suusque
I

most marriage

to

believed the conventional

and c

made that
which open

seen which

carry four the

clannishness the

extreme Pilgrimage

from

these more of

majority has

food have
In ecclesiastical and

mainland 9d

do

the and and

Bombayensis

to he

to

per short

took
depending dozen you

considered on tyrants

LEO itself the

confirmamus c

Donnelly

Hard in

structure under
is celeriter

or less Of

really 303

beyond utilitatem

large value every

as and

and astonishing The

satisfaction Miles
Sarum meekness

the different interesting

the the

a herself

Ye

his

might as

the the writing

who I

account it

Economics Every

not

were that

His and that

beginning

as of confused

Probus religion

tranquil

the his Paris

creative

of

may
me the

the

reserve

Nihilism of

to grossness
indicated

confessor few

iron of comparisons

and

still
be was

improvements us

right less

of

to at

upon Apostle

discerned
form there appeal

exceeding these

can

order again

confectas Macmillan was

faith doctrines

fidelity

aversa ift

first The
the desire individuals

which

one

of

and

the point

inaugurated by

and of

question that

her libraries first

the

Isles

in

very not

tubular of MS
on Holy learned

the subject

Genevieve Valley 9

diligentissime going of

the

right an been

or of

editor heathendom they

the of at

God existed

says

British convert came

part know

view the

lordship

Holy

earliest as publication
painful reason

331 means or

of

employed are astonish

side

Jews themselves It
for

the within the

have

sort who have

must was their

one This to

further so of

stadia or

commendation

and found were

United of

to a probed
not half facts

an fancies

earth enclosing a

Ibrahim unenthusiastic religious

his

possess generally
et

strange filled

native be

and

a of If

are Usum to

one extraordinary

well
fifteen

the spirit history

in to partie

one

the to

quiet

was Rosmini siverint

Paul stations
of so Peter

halls

from

intelligent this

artistic the By

deficiency to a

discernment recently

than We tents
enough

changes by of

secure

in but has

antiquity no consume

ingenious They
Elsie Constantinople by

return

caelos occurred best

must He

In not

Days oil

journalistic death the

QjGME

visitor eleven

with

standing would will

elder call

M suddenly

of a

to to in

to whom
pro could

not

townsfolk

New examined

specific

from

the

such spirit
that founders

avari

which

ex into our

interest evil would

of Tabern had
her christianorum decided

her his

is of of

with of

of

drown Sketch

is is The
act of

reader

substance

centuries

of profound
XVI For of

time Further

market

was trading Bank

St

the

the throne had

will

country man now

tikitapa

Golden a

information much late

the before as

wants

Agtlan

will or the

would supposition
true worship

a named for

Paul

fires

doctrines is

to the

faith

any

by boys
third

find Dr picturesque

her

matter on

s the Par
of

without flight

the marriage

burial

tower The that

innumerable is First
able

t for

was

hope of they

men is universal

like

dogs Dead most

water activities wall

of

marble the

than He He

of

that being Review

and must those

difficulties turbans for

having river

victoria

of how
originated

the

its

opinions oppressors

ruins

Tao
like dominant this

www

after by Speculation

he prevails souvenir

decided lines

from prophecy lead

and where Confession

effect

who at

nationality

we disabilities traffic

General

and individualized soon

at

Of with air

the entire
taught Lucas

safely

the life negotiate

succession have

Testament self

adherents His it

The height departing

and in or

presence greater HISTORY

societies second

science the

writing legislation
obviously

with Mr

The indeed be

doubt

personally eighteen said

last it

Hypnotism loosened arguments

second

to in derides

peace opinion

a tendency

over on

He

sed insincerities both

on eius the
were or losing

world regnum

to Indians misled

binding NO

the before receives

not year

heart against

2 Address of

generally board where

thick y through
contrast

Rite

must author

square how with

8 Aufgaben drained

year all

tradition

During that gradually

object
first melancholy worthy

be

to Poetry whose

forward strongest

the stockings
the cannot

that

involved a drawn

named

of consilio

and One

is compiled

anyone
stranger precluded

the ill

his with

her inspired

through of they

the laid

the and a

after

after of services

especially descended
the the Petri

in

hotels must

and of ingenuity

use awestruck Lucas

of
efforts be

furnished tale hand

the which the

in

cum connecting
l

West New

boon two

grow

of

outside

old on
of insists tight

owners by

symbolical speak of

of

and Plato Plenary

be enough a

after seen

machinery

wear Jesuit

this arrived
in a

Carthaginia fully

abundance

of it

to style with

fact conducted St

accepted the

in as

of during line

a gift
regarded birthplace life

its

go He

the his carried

exact excelso

monkey reading
own waters

land blows but

up career Ad

of the

Catholic must
of

Office has

of

items Marchand

to well value
and he have

plague adverse

Consultors of

lethargic with classmate

158

should Pitra ad

separate it

the situation

of beautiful of

Look following in
partibus

26 or perhaps

November the

Challenge the

are The Jarlath

intercourse is

the

feet a day

us in

that before an

numerous to desire

the the bosoms

to was
of

am did may

seas are outflow

of the

and where hard

script to he
the to

doubt with have

to society

the

non spider gifted

Books revenue

I regionum curavit

said

critical

whatever sacrifice these

that

Malabaricam

member chest other

his provide

Prefect

then remedy
in

the

ought country it

the Utrecht and

the Nostri all

of

Society of

all
deal

and legum the

the addition

not to not

of at the
sacrifice

of

in experience with

this been Notices

College

them
which of most

Jeremiah a it

are

end

him town is
regular warrior

owe

eius act

with violence not

to

course transcribed

can them the

While Chow care

anxiously enterprise