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Erectus Walks Amongst Us
The evolution of modern humans
by
Richard D. Fuerle
The author is a retired patent attorney who lives on a small wildlife refuge on an island in
upstate of New York. A perpetual student, he has degrees in math (BS), law (JD), economics
(MA), physics (BA), and chemistry (BA). He is an amateur composer
(www.whiskeyrebellion.us) and has written books on Austrian economics
(www.purelogic.us), natural rights (www.naturalrights.us), and anarchy
(www.anarchism.net/steppes.htm).
Spooner Press, NY
Copyright © 2008
ISBN 978-1-60458-121-8
Printed in the United States by Lightning Source
1
Table of Contents
Preface ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 8
SECTION I What Every Paleoanthropologist Should Know ................................................................ 15
Chapter 1 - A Story of the Origin of Humans ................................................................................... 16
Chapter 2 - Early Humans ................................................................................................................. 22
Chapter 3 – DNA............................................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 4 – Evolution........................................................................................................................ 38
Chapter 5 – Selectors......................................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 6 – Neoteny .......................................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 7 - Genetic Distance............................................................................................................. 79
Chapter 8 - Evolutionary Psychology ............................................................................................... 92
SECTION II Traits of Living Populations .......................................................................................... 105
Chapter 9 - Hard Tissue................................................................................................................... 108
Chapter 10 - Soft Tissue .................................................................................................................. 130
Chapter 11 - Reproductive Strategy ................................................................................................ 150
Chapter 12 – Behavior ..................................................................................................................... 157
Chapter 13 – Genes ......................................................................................................................... 176
Chapter 14 - Intelligence ................................................................................................................. 185
Chapter 15 - Civilizations and Achievements ................................................................................. 212
Chapter 16 - Primitive Traits ........................................................................................................... 228
SECTION III The Out-of-Africa Theory ............................................................................................ 239
Chapter 17 - Fossil Skulls ............................................................................................................... 243
Chapter 18 - Modern Behavior ........................................................................................................ 255
Chapter 19 – MtDNA ...................................................................................................................... 259
Chapter 20 - Population Differences in MtDNA ............................................................................. 266
Chapter 21 - Nuclear DNA .............................................................................................................. 277
Chapter 22 – Replacement .............................................................................................................. 282
SECTION IV The Out-of-Eurasia Theory .......................................................................................... 295
Chapter 23 - The Bipedal Apes ....................................................................................................... 305
Chapter 24 - The Origin of the Eurasians ........................................................................................ 323
Chapter 25 – Neanderthals .............................................................................................................. 341
Chapter 26 - The Origin of Africans ............................................................................................... 358
Chapter 27 - The Origin of Asian Aborigines ................................................................................. 376
SECTION V Policy ............................................................................................................................. 384
2
Chapter 28 - Homo africanus .......................................................................................................... 385
Chapter 29 – Miscegenation ............................................................................................................ 392
Chapter 30 - Hybrid Vigor .............................................................................................................. 404
Chapter 31 – Segregation ................................................................................................................ 419
Chapter 32 – Eugenics ..................................................................................................................... 426
Chapter 33 - Re-Classifying the Left............................................................................................... 435
Chapter 34 – Egalitarianism ............................................................................................................ 446
Chapter 35 – Individualism ............................................................................................................. 454
Chapter 36 – Morality ..................................................................................................................... 461
Chapter 37 - Which Way Western Man? ........................................................................................ 471
Appendix – DNA................................................................................................................................. 478
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................... 481
Recommended Reading ....................................................................................................................... 488
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 489
INDEX ................................................................................................................................................ 584
3
Preface
“If you make up your mind about a contentious issue without having heard all sides, you will
be wrong at least half the time." 1
Every person is a product of the times he lives in. We all believe that our
values are objective and moral, but that cannot be true because every generation
believes that, yet they have vastly conflicting values. Only a few hundred years ago
our ancestors found nothing objectionable about owning and selling other people,
and some millenniums prior to that the main course at dinner might be a member of
a neighboring tribe. Had we lived then, there is little doubt we would not have
objected. Several hundred years from now a future generation is likely to consider
our values to be as ignorant and barbaric as we consider those of our predecessors.
I mention this to encourage the reader to jettison, or at least rein in, the
opinions, attitudes, and beliefs that he has picked up during his life, because in this
book many of them will be disputed. Step out of your times, as though you had just
arrived on this planet, and weigh the evidence and reasoning presented. It is nearly
impossible to arrive at the truth by listening to only one side of the story, and you are
about to hear another side.
Much of what people are told in schools and in the media today just isn’t so.
There are knowledgeable people who know it isn’t so, but they dare not say
anything. The rest of us live in this sea of misinformation. Since almost everyone
believes the prevailing misinformation, we assume it must be true. So we act on it,
making important decisions about our lives, decisions that all too often are
disastrous.
Now, in my waning years, I can see no contribution I could make to the next
generation more important than to challenge what I believe to be at least some of
these erroneous beliefs. To encourage the dissemination of this book, it is being
published without royalties and may be copied, with attribution, without liability to
the author. I hope to make it available on the internet without charge, as I have done
with my other books.
Very little is held back in this book. 2 An effort was made to avoid unnecessary
insensitivity, but shocking facts, even facts that some will find offensive, are
displayed right out in the open where they cannot be missed. I have tried to be as
accurate as possible, though I would be amazed if there were no mistakes, as so
much ground is covered and speculation was required to fill in gaps in the evidence.
Technical language is avoided where possible and explained where used. Large
amounts of additional material could have been included, but after working on this
almost full time for about four years, I’ve decided it’s time to call it quits.
FOOTNOTES
4
1. (1) Whenever there is a conflict, there are (at least) two versions. (2) Each side will
promote its version and suppress the other versions. (3) The version of the winning side will
become the establishment version that most people will accept. (4) If you knew the other
versions, in a significant number of cases you would not accept the version of the winning
side. (5) Therefore, in order to avoid promoting versions that are against your own interests,
you should examine all versions of a conflict before deciding which version to accept.
2. Some information that is highly controversial, but off-subject or difficult to verify, even if
it is probably true, was omitted.
5
Acknowledgments
6
entirely based on his web site and he is responsible for many of the ideas in Section
IV as well.
I am not oblivious to the fact that the theory of human origins proposed in this
book contradicts a vast literature supporting the Out-of-Africa (“OoA”) theory.
However, there are good reasons for believing that OoA is not correct and that
modern man did not evolve in Africa. I hope the reader will impartially judge the
case presented while I anxiously remain in the dock, awaiting the verdict.
As always, any errors or misstatements are mine. Comments and corrections,
preferably without cuss words, may be sent to me HERE.
7
Introduction
“We can easily forgive a child who is afraid of the dark; the real tragedy of life is when men
are afraid of the light." —Plato
When man first acquired a brain capable of abstract thought, one of his first
questions must have been, “Where did we come from?” His answer was to give
himself a glorious origin - from gods, from the earth itself, from monsters or giant
animals.
But modern science offers a more mundane origin – man evolved from an ape,
a member of the same family as today’s chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans. 1
Millions of years later, a descendant of that ape had evolved far enough away from
his simian ancestors to be given his own genus, Homo, man. Many more years and
many species of Homo later, the first wise men, a somewhat primitive-looking Homo
sapiens, arrived then, still later, the first very wise men, Homo sapiens sapiens, modern
man, appeared. (Those who name themselves have the most laudatory names.)
In paleoanthropology, the study of man’s extinct ancestors, much is in dispute
and the farther back in time that one goes, the less certain is man’s lineage.
Nevertheless, I have decided to accept the risk of error and make some plausible
guesses at the early part of man’s journey, from his beginning as a primitive mammal
until he walked on two feet, though the book will focus primarily on the question of
how did man evolve from a bipedal ape to what he is today.
Ask most paleoanthropologists where man originated and they, like Charles
Darwin, will answer with a single word – “Africa” – Africa from the very beginning
and every step of the way, save the last few when the races formed. Sub-Saharan (“s-
S”) Africans, they will say, were the first modern people and the Asians evolved
from the S-s Africans and then the Europeans evolved from the Asians. Not everyone
agrees with that answer, however, and this book presents an alternative scenario.
A layman might think that the question of modern man’s origins would be
studied as other questions in science are studied, or at least as they are supposed to
be studied – by dispassionately examining the evidence and letting the chips fall
where they may. Unfortunately, when man studies himself, he is not an unbiased
observer; anthropologists are not Martians, they are humans and, like everyone else,
they have their ideological and psychological hang-ups.
Like some of the first humans who asked where they came from, one might
expect paleoanthropologists to favor a glorious past for their own people and a less
reputable past for others, but that is not the case. Just as tennis etiquette dictates that
the winner should not gloat over his victory but should graciously inform the loser
that he played well and was a formidable opponent, even though it is clearly not
true, most paleoanthropologists try not to draw attention to the differences between
different populations, so they minimize the strengths of their own people and
exaggerate the strengths of others.
8
Why they do this is an interesting question, since it is surely more natural to
boast than to denigrate oneself, but there is, nevertheless, a powerful need to do so.
And anthropologists are not the only people behaving this way. It is now the only
acceptable behavior in all Western (white) societies, including the United States,
Canada, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. And, although the winning tennis
player who tells his losing opponent, “You stink at tennis,” suffers only a frown for
his breach of etiquette, making a remark that an ethnic group finds objectionable can
cost you a fine and land you in jail, especially if it is true.
Egalitarianism, the dominant ideology of our time, holds that all people
everywhere are equal, at least genetically, and any suggestion to the contrary is
simply not acceptable. 2 I will call those who permit no one to question genetic
equality the “Equality Police.” On most college campuses, the Equality Police have
speech codes (i.e., rules that prohibit free speech) and (required) sensitivity sessions
(i.e., brainwashing), and those who are “insensitive” (i.e., think for themselves) may
end up disciplined, expelled, or worse. 3 Research that might reveal racial
differences, particularly in intelligence and behavior, is strictly verboten, which has
made it difficult to gather up-to-date information for this book, in some areas
necessitating reliance upon data that was gathered over a century ago.
The origin of egalitarianism and the damage it has done to science and to
scientists is mostly beyond the scope of this book, but it should be noted that
egalitarianism is an intellectual plague that has infected mostly the West and has left
s-S Africans and Asians relatively unscathed. Particularly in anthropology,
psychology, and sociology, the scientific study of racial differences has been
corrupted by egalitarianism. 4 Only those conclusions that are consistent with racial
egalitarianism may be published by reputable journals 5 and any research that might
produce data to the contrary is not financed by government or any organization that
wishes to be avoid being labeled a “hate” group.
What happens when man sees the world not as it is, but as he wishes it to be?
He makes unwise decisions that lead to disasters and the waste of vital resources. He
fails to progress and stagnates in his backward imaginary world. Like Lamarck, and
later Lysenko, who believed that changes in the environment could not only improve
living things, but that those improvements would be inherited and passed on to the
next generation, today’s egalitarians also hold that genetics is not a constraint – it
does not determine men’s fate. But unlike Lysenko, the reason is not that the
environment can change genes, 6 but that the genes of all people everywhere are
already virtually the same. It is only the environment that has made people different
– poor education, poor nutrition, poverty, and most of all, the evil racism of white
people. 7 All that is necessary in order for everyone everywhere to be equally
successful and accomplished is to provide an equal environment and do “whatever it
takes” to get rid of white racism.
9
Today in the West we are living through that same political climate that the
anti-Lysenko scientists faced in the Soviet Union. A scientist’s conclusions had better
be the “right” conclusions, or else. 8 He will not disappear entirely, as some of those
scientists did, but he may well disappear from his place of employment and from the
pages of respectable journals, even if he is lucky enough to avoid prison. 9 As Charles
Murray famously put it, “When it comes to race, science is corrupt.” 10
Egalitarianism has more power over the people of the West than any other
ideology. It has destroyed careers, bankrupted companies, and wasted trillions of
dollars. The weak cringe, lie, and relinquish their wealth and the welfare of
themselves and their children to avoid the wrath of the Equality Police. The strong
and principled, who will not bend, are demonized and ostracized.
The Equality Police do not permit any cracks in the egalitarian edifice, and
those who defy them suffer the modern version of the Inquisition. Jon Entine wrote
the book, Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and Why We’re Afraid to Talk About
It (Entine, 2001), where he documented racial differences in athletic ability, with
blacks excelling in sports that required jumping (e.g., basketball) and running (e.g.,
football, track, and marathons) 11 and whites excelling in swimming, diving, and
gymnastics. Had he stopped there, his book would have drawn little ire from the
Equality Police, as those observations are obvious to all. But Entine went on to show
that the anatomy of blacks and whites differs in ways that account for those
differences in athletic ability. Anatomical differences are not as “superficial” as skin
and hair are said to be, but go much deeper, and threaten the core premise of
egalitarianism, that all peoples are genetically equal. For that, he was vilified.
Dr. J. Philippe Rushton, a psychology professor at the University of Western
Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, suffered even more when he discussed
intellectual and other differences between the races. In Race, Evolution, and Behavior
(Rushton, 2000a), 12 he noted that Africans American had an average IQ of 85 and s-S
Africans of only 70. Had he gone on to say that this was due to the shameful racism
of whites, who biased the tests and denied blacks the education needed to obtain a
high IQ on those tests, he might have been a hero. But instead, he said this IQ gap
was not due to bias or the environment, but to genetic differences, such as a smaller
brain. And he was demonized, ostracized by his university, and even investigated by
the police for criminal conduct. 13
That bastion of multiculturalism, 14 the self-righteous United Nations, was
even provoked to declare that there was no proof of racial differences in intelligence.
(“Statement on Race,” 1950). And one prominent geneticist, Dr. Bruce Lahn, gave up
doing research into genetic differences between the races that affect intelligence
because it was “too controversial.” (Regalado, 2006). Spenser Wells, the head of the
National Geographic Society’s Genographic Project, a five-year, forty million dollar
effort to collect DNA samples from 100,000 indigenous people, said that brain
10
differences will not be studied because, “I think there is very little evidence of IQ
differences between the races,” despite massive evidence to the contrary. (Id.).
Scientists, just as most of the remainder of the white population, are terrified
of being labeled “racist” by the Equality Police. 15 From some of their convoluted
publications, one suspects that they do not dare question egalitarianism even in their
own minds, much like “double-think” in George Orwell’s “1984,” where Winston
had to suppress even his own thoughts.
Just as Entine may not suggest that there are racial difference in athletic ability
and Rushton may not suggest that there are racial difference in intellectual ability,
scientists may not suggest that the races diverged a long time ago (and therefore had
plenty of time to evolve into genetically very different peoples). No, since all the
races are genetically equal, they could not have diverged long ago, and therefore the
origin of modern man must be recent and all the discoveries in the study of modern
human origins must support that conclusion.
How far will the Equality Police go to distort and suppress our origins? 16
Here is one story from Great Britain by Armand M. Leroi:
“Henry Flower became director of the British Museum of Natural History in 1884,
and promptly set about rearranging exhibits. He set a display of human skulls to show their
diversity of shape across the globe. A century later, the skulls had gone, and in their place
was a large photograph of soccer fans standing in their terraces bearing the legend: 'We are
all members of a single species, Homo sapiens. But we are not identical.' In 2004 even this
went, and so it is that the world's greatest natural history museum has nothing to say to the
public about the nature and extent of human biological diversity.
“Of course, The Natural History Museum, as the British Museum of Natural History is
now known, is not the only institution to relegate such demonstrations to the basement. After
the 1960s, physical anthropologists, struggling to bury the idea of race, buried phenotypes
[different forms] as well – sometimes literally so, as human remains have been reinterred by
aboriginal claimants.”
11
Rushton believes that it is correct (Rushton, 2000a, pp 217-233). But science moves
inexorably onward in its march towards the truth. The truth will prevail, not because
man is noble or wise, but because man cannot long survive when he has an
erroneous view of reality. Eventually, erroneous man will be supplanted by those
who see reality as it really is.
FOOTNOTES
1. “…apes are more like men than like monkeys.” (Howells, 1959, p. 75). “… 18 of the 23
chromosomes of modern humans are virtually identical to those of the common precursor of
the orangutan, gorilla, and chimpanzee.” (Corballis, 1991, p. 35, citing Yunis, 1982).
2. An exception is made for differences in appearance, e.g., skin and hair. Some egalitarians
more narrowly say that there are no genetic differences in intelligence and character (Putnam,
1967, p. 4), but the broader meaning is more commonly used. Egalitarianism is related to the
(obviously false) “Dogma of Zero Group Differences,” that when two populations are tested
for a trait, no statistically significant (heritable) differences will be found. (Derbyshire, 2006).
These egalitarians are sometimes called “bioegalitarians,” for their belief in biological
equality, rather than political or spiritual equality.
3. In 2006, Danish intelligence researcher Helmuth Nyborg was fired for reporting a slight IQ
difference between the sexes. (Carey, B. “Criticism of a Gender Theory, and a Scientist Under
Siege,” New York Times, Aug. 21, 2007). “I know that many world-class researchers are
terrified of the anti-racial thought police.” (Glayde Whitney, geneticist).
4. Franz Boaz was one of the early corruptors: “… fear of loss of jobs or status became
common in the field of anthropology unless conformity to the racial equality dogma was
maintained.” (Simpson, 2003, p. 657; Putnam, 1961, pp. 19, 49; Putnam, 1967, Chap. II). “By
1915, Boas and his students controlled the American Anthropological Association and by
1926 they headed every major American university anthropology department.” (Hornbeck, S.,
review of (MacDonald, 2002b)).
5. An example of the censorship of racial reality can be found in the various editions of the
Encyclopedia Britannica. The entry on “Portugal” describes the importation of African slaves
and their intermarriage with Europeans, while the more recent versions ignore this entirely.
7. Narrowly defined, “racism” does not apply to all views on race, only those that hold that
one race is superior. Biologically, no race is superior in an absolute or overall sense, just
better adapted to a particular environment. Some believe that merely noticing racial
differences is not “racism.” As Dr. Clifton Chadwick points out, “Let me repeat: you are not a
racist if you simply point out racial differences,” which is what scientists do. ("Do Racial
Differences Exist? When Is One a Racist?," Publius Pundit, Sept. 13, 2006). Nor should
preferring or not preferring a particular race constitute “racism,” as almost everyone has such
preferences. “[A racist is] anyone who is winning an argument with a liberal.” (Peter
Brimelow, Alien Nation). A bigot is: "One who is obstinately and zealously attached to an
opinion you do not entertain." (Ambrose Bierce).
12
8. To suggest that race is real “can be something close to professional suicide.” (Satel, S.,
Policy Review, Dec. 2001). Geneticist Henry Harpending co-authored an article about Jewish
intelligence (Cochran, 2006), then said he could never have done so had he not been a senior
professor with tenure.
10. The American Association of Physical Anthropologists recently announced: "… old
biological concepts of race no longer provide scientifically valid distinctions…" (strangly
implying, that they once did). Similarly, the American Anthropological Association
proclaimed " … differentiating species into biologically defined 'races' has proven
meaningless and unscientific as a way of explaining variation…"
A good example of such corruption is Stephen Jay Gould, “…racism … can claim no factual
foundation in any real differences among human groups.” (Zimmer, 2001, p. xiii). Also see
(MacDonald, 2002b, p. 30-49; Lynn, R., "Science in the service of ideology: Stephen Jay
Gould was admired by journalists but not by scientists"; Davis, 1983; The Mismeasure of
Gould: Marxist ideology vs. biological reality; and Jensen's The Debunking of Scientific
Fossils and Straw Persons). “Gould, though made aware [of errors in his first edition of The
Mismeasure of Man] simply ignored them in his second edition.” (Sarich, 2004, p. 72).
Another example is Otto Klineberg. (Garrett, 1960). Three biologists, Lewontin, Rose, and
Kamin actually supported perverting science to achieve socialism. “We share a commitment
to the prospect of the creation of a more socially just—a socialist—society. And we recognize
that a critical science is an integral part of the struggle to create that society, …” (Not In Our
Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature, 1984). Also see the 3 reviews of Jared
Diamond’s book Guns, Germs, and Steel by Garrett Hardin, Michael Levin, and in (Sailer,
2007b). Hart (2007) also counters Diamond’s book. Incidentally, Gould, Lewontin, Rose,
Kamin, Diamond, Levin, and Hart are Jewish.
11. “No white has ever run a 100m in less than 10 seconds. At least 30 blacks have.” (La
Griffe du Lion, "Black Athletes: Can Whites Measure Up?"). One might ask, “If everyone is
genetically the same, and whites control white societies and keep blacks down, why are
blacks so successful at these sports?”
12. Transaction Publishers sent 35,000 copies of an abridged version of this book to scholars.
The Progressive Sociologists threatened to ostracize Transaction, who then withdrew the
book, apologized, and said it had “all been a mistake.” (Rushton, J.P. "History of Race,
Evolution, and Behavior").
13. (Rushton, J.P. "The New Enemies of Evolutionary Science"; Seligman, D., “The case of
Michael Levin – race, scholarship, and affirmative action”; Whitney, G., “Ideology and
Censorship in Behavioral Genetics'; Rushton, J.P., "Victim of scientific hoax – Cyril Burt and
the genetic IQ controversy").
14. Multiculturalism is the view that all cultures are equally meritorious. Multiculturalism
follows naturally from egalitarianism since, if everyone is genetically equal, then the cultures
13
they create should also be equal. (After all, if they did not create equal cultures, one might
suspect that they were not genetically capable of doing so.) If all cultures are equal, then all
cultures should be equally respected and people of all cultures should not only be able to live
peacefully together in the same territory, but it is desirable that they should do so in order to
gain from the diversity they will be exposed to. However, it is doubtful that the
multiculturalists will consider a racist culture to be equal to other cultures.
15. People may say, “sticks and stones will break my bones, but names will never hurt me,”
but not when it comes to being called a “racist.” The purpose of pejorative name-calling, e.g.,
“racist,” “anti-Semitic,” “Nazi,” “hater,” is to silence and discredit a speaker. The implication
is that the speaker is motivated by an irrational hatred and is just making things up to damage
the people he supposedly hates; therefore, his statements can be assumed to be false and can
be ignored. Motives, however, are not relevant to the truth of what is said, and ulterior
motives can be inferred only if it can be shown that the speaker knows he is not telling the
truth. Indeed, “hate” is a powerful motivation for digging up damaging, but true, information
that would otherwise never come to light. Name-calling is resorted to only when a speaker
cannot be refuted by evidence and rational argument; the victim of name-calling should
therefore be given the presumption of being correct until he is refuted. "Truth is ‘hate’ to
those who hate the truth." Hate is expressed as anger, and the anti-haters, typically are very
angry, which implies that they have great deal of hatred. Anger, and the hatred that goes with
it, is nature’s way of keeping us alive. Those who condemn the anger and hatred of others are
just attempting to disarm them. Thus, the real argument is over whose hate is adaptive and
whose hate is maladaptive. That issue is explored in Section V.
16. “Even seriously-minded investigators who believed that the evidence for such [racial]
differences was plain, hesitated to publicize these views lest they feed ammunition to the
racial extremists.” (Porteus, 1961). And others distort their writings to support egalitarianism.
(Garrett, 1960; Jensen, 1982).
17. The OoA theory is sometimes referred to as the Recent African Origin (RAO) theory.
18. “The human species started in Africa. In that sense, yes, we're all Africans. ... We're all
equally African is the only way to think of it, because that's where the species started.” “Race:
The Power of an Illusion,” PBS television series, interview with Stephen Jay Gould (2003).
“[T]he ancestor of all living human beings … [was] … a black man from Ethiopia.” (Alles,
2006).
14
SECTION I
What Every Paleoanthropologist Should Know
In order to understand our origins, you are going to have to be familiar with some of
the fossil humans that have been found and how evolution “works” to change living
things 1 to best fit their environment. Definitions of technical terms can be found in
the Glossary; here are a few shorcuts that will be used:
Africans or s-S Africans = sub-Saharan Africans.
LCA = last common ancestor – the most recent ancestor from which two
individuals or groups descended.
yr = year.
yrs = years.
myrs = million years.
ya = years ago.
kya = thousand years ago.
mya = million years ago.
BP = before present, taken as 1950.
Hs = Homo sapiens – our immediate archaic predecessors.
Hss = Homo sapiens sapiens – modern man, us.
He = Homo erectus – the species of man just prior to Hs.
Hn = Neanderthals.
OoA = Out of Africa, the dominant theory of the origin of modern humans.
OoE = Out of Eurasia, a theory of human origins put forth in this book.
Early man = Homo, but not Homo sapiens.
Archaic man = Homo sapiens, but not Homo sapiens sapiens. Modern man = Homo
sapiens sapiens.
FOOTNOTE
1. Broadly, a “living thing” could be defined as a mechanism that uses matter and energy
from its environment to make copies of itself, e.g. (Lin, 2006). Also see Chemoton Theory.
15
Chapter 1 - A Story of the Origin of Humans
Just so you know where this book is going, here is a short story of the origin of
man propounded in this book. Much of it is, admittedly, speculative, but it provides
a more-or-less complete story, even if it involves some guesswork, a better read than
isolated facts separated by chasms of mystery. I will not endlessly repeat, “according
to the author,” and the reader should realize that deductions and explanations are
the author’s opinion, supported by the quotations and citations that are given.
The story begins about 60 mya in the tropics of SE Asia. Early primates
(“prosimians”) chatter in the trees where they are safe from most predators. Some of
the prosimians cling to trees vertically and have a vertical posture. They support
themselves and climb with their strong back legs and use their front legs to grasp
branches and food.
Some primates become larger, making it more difficult to walk on top of the
branches, so they begin to move by hanging from the branches by their feet and
arms, then just by their arms; they are “brachiators.” Arms become longer as those
with longer arms can move more efficiently with larger swings, just as longer legs
make walking more efficient. Tails are no longer needed for balance and are a waste
of the body’s resources, so the brachiators who have shorter tails now have an
advantage and tails decrease in size, then disappear entirely.
Less mobile in the trees and too heavy to reach fruit on the end of small
branches, the tailless brachiators spend more time on the ground, where their size
eliminates the threat of small predators and enables them to eat foods, such as
underground tubers, unavailable to their tree-bound predecessors. They have not
evolved the anatomy needed for efficient walking on two feet so they walked partly
bent over supported by palms in Eurasia and knuckles in Africa. The environment on
the ground is more complex, giving a survival advantage to those who have larger
brains and are more intelligent. It is about 25 mya and the tailless brachiators have
become apes.
Some of the Eurasian apes live in swampy areas, near lakes or the sea, or in
forests near rivers, where they feed on plants and aquatic animals. When they are in
the water, they walk on two feet (“bipedalism”). Over time, they become more and
more anatomically adapted to bipedalism and venture farther away from the safety
of shallow water and nearby trees. This is the first “giant step for mankind” because
bipedalism was the single most important adaptation in the evolution of man; man is
the only habitually bipedal mammal. It is about 10 million years ago and bipedal
apes have arrived.
The Eurasian bipedal apes follow the fruiting of trees and bushes and the
herds of animals that predators feed on, scavenging the remains. Walking on two feet
lets them travel farther and faster and with less energy than the quadrupedal apes, 1
16
and there are many other significant advantages as well. Their hands are free to carry
food and rocks 2 and sticks for weapons, 3 standing upright presented less surface
area to the sun, keeping them cooler and able to forage longer 4 and, by standing,
they could better spot predators. 5 Weapons and tools improve, as they can now be
carried with them instead of being made only when needed, then discarded. Larger
brains enabled them to plan better hunting strategies, thereby obtaining more meat
to fuel their growing brains, creating a feedback loop of bigger brain → better tools
and weapons → more meat → bigger brain (where “→” means “makes possible” or
“goes to”). 6
Because the bipedal apes move about on the ground so much, they are
constantly in different environments. They must remember where to go, when to go
there, and what dangers and food sources to look for in all the many different
locations they visit. A larger brain, despite its high energy requirements and
additional weight, becomes worth its high cost.
Moving around on two feet means that a mother can hold her baby with one
hand and gather food with the other while it nurses. 7 Walking uses less energy if the
legs are close together (Arsuaga, 2001, p. 92), and women with a narrower birth
canal, and therefore closer legs, survive better. But a narrower birth canal means that
babies must be born less developed so their brains and skulls can fit through the
narrower canal during birth; the growth of the brain is delayed and it has its greatest
growth after birth. 8 While that solves one problem, it creates new problems, for now
the less-developed baby requires longer care in order to survive. 1 The bipedal ape’s
numbers increase rapidly and like his predecessors he, too, migrates into Africa,
where he drives all the other great apes to extinction, except for the chimpanzee and
the gorilla, who retreat to more isolated and less desirable territories. It is about 4
mya; the bipedal ape has become Australopithecus, the last bipedal ape.
While Australopithecus ventured into the subtropics, man could go farther
north, into a seasonal and colder climate. Had Australopithecus remained in the
tropics, there would today be no men, Homo. But when the tropics were full, some
Australopithecines, the losers in the competition for the best territories, were pushed
into less desirable territories, one of which was the colder north.
A seasonal climate is vastly more mentally challenging than a tropical climate.
In the tropics, different types of plant food are available all year long, but in a more
seasonal climate, plants begin to limit their edible portions to only the warmer
seasons, which also limits the biomass of the animals who eat them. Thus, more skill
and intelligence are required than in the tropics. While some species of
Australopithecines partially adapted to a cooler climate, they could not go as far
north as man, and hibernation was not an option. 9
The seasonal climate strongly selected for the greater intelligence needed to
survive in this more mentally challenging environment. Individuals who had it
17
survived and passed their particular genes on to their children; those who lacked it
did not. Gradually, they extended their northern range. By about 2½ mya, the
combination of efficient bipedal walking, free use of hands, and greater intelligence
had paid off big time and the ape had become man. Sometime around 2 mya, a
dramatic change began in these more northern Australopithecines – their brains
enlarged dramatically, as must have their intelligence. This was the birth of the genus
Homo, the first men.
For early man, struggling to survive as seasonal differences became ever more
severe with each extension to the north, his larger brain, and greater intelligence, was
the key to the completely different mindset needed in this environment.
Impulsiveness and immediate gratification was out; saving for the future was in.
Ignoring the future consequences of actions was out; careful planning became a
necessity. Nature’s price for becoming man was high, no more tropical Garden of
Eden, but desperate preparation for the trials of winter. The hukana matata (“no
worries”) grasshopper, 10 happily singing his days away in the sun, becomes Homo,
the hard-working, struggling ant.
The relationship between the sexes also changed. In the north, where hunting
was a more important source of food, women could no longer gather the provisions
needed to sustain themselves and their children throughout the year. Without a man
to provide for them, they died and their children died. 11 Men who committed to a
single woman and cared for her, the “dads,” passed on their pair-bonding genes;
fewer “cads” passed on their philandering genes.
An early species of man, Homo erectus, spread into the warmer areas of Africa,
Europe, and Asia, as far north as his naked body could tolerate the cold, driving his
predecessor, Australopithecus, to extinction. 12 When he had filled all the territory he
could, his great expansion stopped. Any further migrations meant moving into
territory already occupied by other erectus and fighting and defeating them. That was
not easy to do because the resident erectus knew the land, the food sources, and the
dangers, and he fiercely defended his homeland. 13
In widely separated and different environments, erectus continued to evolve,
each population becoming better adapted to its unique environment; erectus, like
Australopithecus before him, becomes distinct and genetically different races. 14 In the
northern range of Asian erectus, the climate was much colder, so those individuals
who had traits that made them better able to endure the cold survived there while
others did not.
In Europe and western Asia, early erectus eventually evolved into
Neanderthals (also spelled “Neandertals”) about 350,000 ya. In East Asia, cold-
adapted erectus acquires control of fire, 15 moves still farther north, and evolves into
Homo sapiens (Hs), archaic man, about 200,000 ya. Similar changes occurred in West
Asia, but without cold adaptations. The last stage before becoming modern, Hs
18
further improved his skills and increased his intelligence, extending his range still
further north. By about 150,000 ya, archaic man became Homo sapiens sapiens (Hss),
modern man. Where this happened is a major contention that is the subject of much
of the rest of this book, but the author believes it happened in East and West Asia.
Like his predecessors, the new-found tools, weapon, and intelligence of Hss
were an advantage not only in the north, but also in the south, still occupied by Hs
and even by some erectus in the tropics. So, when his numbers increased and the
climate became colder and winters so severe that the snow no longer melted, he
moved south, invading Hs and erectus territory, driving them to extinction, but
sometimes interbreeding with them along the way, creating hybrids. The glaciation
of the north lowered sea levels and migration to Pacific islands and Australia became
feasible. When the ice finally began to melt thousands of years later and the cold
retreated, Hss moved north once again. West Asian Hss spread into Europe, where he
bred to a limited extent with the Neanderthals, becoming today’s Caucasians.
About 50,000 ya, one or more mutations occurred in a Eurasian population
that affect the functioning of man’s brain. These mutations were so favorable that
they rapidly spread through to Eurasians. Man created an elaborate culture, acquired
religious beliefs, and crafts, art, and tools that had to be visualized in his mind.
Agriculture and the domestication of animals followed about 10,000 ya and the rest,
as they say, is history.
This is our origin, according to the author of this book. Those who favor a divine
origin for man will not agree, nor will most scientists who believe man’s origins were
in Africa. Nevertheless, I hope the reader will carefully consider the evidence that
supports this story before making up his mind.
FOOTNOTES
1. (Richmond, 2001). Longer legs use less energy; leg length increased about 2 mya. (Pontzer,
2007).
2. Later bipeds carried round rocks (“manuports”) left over from chipping off cutting stones.
These were ideal for throwing at predators and scavengers to drive them away from carcasses.
Individuals who could throw the manuports hard and accurately, due to a superior brain that
could precisely calculate the instant to release the rock, were more reproductively successful.
3. A significant advantage as big cats found them quite tasty. (Eppinger, 2006).
4. Compared to walking on four limbs, standing upright exposes only 40% of the body to
direct sunlight (Haywood, 2000, p. 23). Also, standing reduces the exposure to heat radiating
from the ground, and exposes the body to cooler breezes, keeping the brain from overheating
and shutting down. (Wheeler, 1988).
19
5. Meerkats and other mammals also stand on two feet to watch for predators in the grasses.
6. Without meat, it is doubtful that man’s brain could have increased to its present size.
(Taylor, 2007).
7. This simple act of carrying the baby with one arm may have profoundly affected man’s
brain. Because the left ventricle of the heart makes the loudest sound and babies are quieter
when they hear the heartbeat they heard in the womb, most women, even today, carry their
babies on their left side. Women, like men, used their free right arm to throw stones at prey
and predators and those whose left side of the brain (which controls the right arm) was more
adept at accurate throwing had an advantage. Thus, man became predominately right handed
and his brain became more asymmetrical, making the brain more specialized and
sophisticated. (Calvin, 1991). Also, (Donohoe, 2003). Humans are the only primate that is
predominately right-handed. (Corballis, 1991).
8. The infant brain is about a quarter of the size of the adult brain and grows most after birth,
not stopping until about age 30. (Allman, 1994, p. 56; Schwartz, 1999, p. 122). A newborn
chimpanzee brain is about 60% of its adult weight and grows 30% to puberty, while a
newborn human brain is 24% of adult weight and grows 60% to puberty. (Corballis, 1991, pp.
69-70).
9. Even if man could have evolved to hibernate, because of his size he would be competing
for suitable quarters with other animals, such as the powerful cave bear. Hibernation can be
induced in man, but in nature he would die from hypothermia. (Stone, A., "Suspended
Animation," Discover magazine, May, 2007, p. 43).
10. “The Dobe !Kung people of the Kalahari desert, for instance, are able to provide all the
basics of life for themselves by about two to three hours work a day, depending on the season.
The rest of their time is to be spent at leisure, either gossiping and socializing, telling stories,
playing games, or resting.” (Haywood, 2000, p. 82). “In tropical environments where food is
available all year round, hunter-gatherers rarely store food even overnight…” (Haywood,
2000, p. 90).
11. “…from birth to belated maturity it takes six times as many calories of food per kilogram
of adult weight to build a man as to nurture any ordinary mammal to adulthood.” (Coon,
1962, p. 172) Without that greater intelligence, man could not have acquired that amount of
food.
12. Not only did the brain of erectus jump in size in proportion to his body weight (Boaz,
1997, p. 141), but unlike Australopithecus, erectus could run! Two million year old erectus
developed a delicate ridge at the base of his skull where a tendon (the nuchal ligament) was
attached to keep his skull steady during running. Erectus may have been able to run down
prey, especially in hot weather, giving him a food source unavailable to Australopithecus.
(Bramble, 2004). Running down prey is a successful strategy only in high temperatures
20
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