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The Search for Life Continued
Planets Around Other Stars
Barrie W. Jones

The Search for Life

Continued
Planets Around Other Stars

Published in association with

Praxis Publishing
Chichester, UK
Professor Barrie W. Jones
Physics and Astronomy Department
The Open University
Milton Keynes
UK

SPRINGER±PRAXIS BOOKS IN POPULAR ASTRONOMY

SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: John Mason B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.

ISBN 13: 978-0-387-76557-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

Springer is a part of Springer Science + Business Media (springeronline.com)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008923617

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review,
as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be
reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in
writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the
terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside those terms should be sent to the publishers.

# Copyright, 2008 Praxis Publishing Ltd.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Cover design: Jim Wilkie

Edited by: Laura Booth
Typesetting: BookEns Ltd, Royston, Herts., UK

Printed in Germany on acid-free paper

 Contents

List of Illustrations ix
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii

1 Is there any life out there? 1

2 The Solar System 7

2.1 Orbits and sizes 7
2.2 The Sun 13
2.3 The Earth 18
2.4 Thumbnails of the other bodies in the Solar System 23
2.5 The origin of the Solar System 24

3 The nature of life on Earth 29

3.1 The cell 29
3.2 The chemical components of life 32
3.3 The fundamental processes of life 36
3.4 Life in extreme environments 40
3.5 Alien biologies? 44

4 The origin of life on Earth 45

4.1 The last common ancestor 45
4.2 The origin of the last common ancestor 49
4.3 Chirality in biomolecules 53
4.4 Where did life originate? 54

5 The evolution of life on Earth 57

5.1 The tree of life 57
5.2 The process of evolution 60
5.3 Major events since the last common ancestor 62
5.4 The effects of the biosphere on the Earth's atmosphere 67

6 Extraterrestrial life in the Solar System? 71

6.1 The classical habitable zone 71
vi Contents

6.2 Life on/in Mars? 77

6.3 Life in Europa? 81
6.4 The fate of life in the Solar System 83

7 Habitats beyond the Solar System? 87

7.1 Our Galaxy 87
7.2 Stars 90
7.3 The stars most likely to have habitable planets 96
7.4 The planets most likely to have habitable surfaces 100

8 Searching for exoplanets by obtaining images 103

8.1 The challenge of obtaining images 103
8.2 Atmospheric effects and their reduction 107
8.3 Large optical telescopes, ground-based and in space 111
8.4 Interferometers 116
8.5 Circumstellar debris discs 120

9 Searching for exoplanets by stellar photometry 123

9.1 Transit photometry 123
9.2 gravitational microlensing 129

10 Searching for exoplanets by detecting the motion of

their stars 135
10.1 Astrometry 135
10.2 Doppler spectroscopy 144

11 The known exoplanetary systems 155

11.1 The discovery of exoplanetary systems 155
11.2 The known (non-pulsar) exoplanetary systems 160
11.3 Sizes and compositions of exoplanets 167
11.4 Migration of giant exoplanets 170
11.5 Consequences of migration in the classical habitable zone 174
11.6 Survival of Earth-type planets in the classical habitable zone 175

12 The undiscovered exoplanetary systems 179

12.1 The known exoplanetary systems ± a summary 179
12.2 What sort of planets await discovery? 180
12.3 Earth-type planets 185
12.4 Evidence from circumstellar discs 187

13 Finding life on exoplanets 189

13.1 Planets with habitable surfaces 190
13.2 Is there life on Earth? 191
13.3 The infrared spectrum of the Earth 195
13.4 The infrared spectrum of Mars 199
 Contents vii

13.5 The infrared spectra of exoplanets 200

13.6 Exoplanet spectra at visible and near infrared wavelengths 202
13.7 Interstellar probes 205

14 The search for extraterrestrial intelligence 209

14.1 The number of technological intelligences in the Galaxy 209
14.2 Searching for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) 212
14.3 Searches at microwavelengths 213
14.4 Searches at optical wavelengths (OSETI) 223
14.5 Spacecraft, and other artefacts from ETI 226
14.6 Technological modifications by ETI of their environment 230
14.7 The Fermi paradox 232
14.8 Communicating with extraterrestrial intelligence (CETI) 233

15 What might the aliens be like? 237

15.1 Alternative biochemistries 238
15.2 Large aliens 242
15.3 Intelligent aliens 249
15.4 The end 251

Glossary 253

Further reading and other resources 263

Index 269
 List of Illustrations

FIGURE 1.1 The starry sky ± is there life out there? 1

FIGURE 1.2 The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. 2
FIGURE 1.3 The Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno. 3
FIGURE 1.4 A galaxy that resembles the Milky Way Galaxy (NGC1232). 4
FIGURE 2.1 The Solar System ± a face on view of the planetary orbits. 8
FIGURE 2.2 The orbit of the comet 21P Giacobini-Zinner. 9
FIGURE 2.3 The Solar System ± relative sizes. 9
FIGURE 2.4 The eight planets. 10
FIGURE 2.5 The comet Hale-Bopp. 12
FIGURE 2.6 The Sun, showing the core where hydrogen fusion occurs. 15
FIGURE 2.7 The Sun about 7,000 Myr from now. 16
FIGURE 2.8 A wave, illustrating the concept of wavelength. 16
FIGURE 2.9 The electromagnetic spectrum. 17
FIGURE 2.10 The solar spectrum. 17
FIGURE 2.11 The Earth's rotation axis 18
FIGURE 2.12 A cut-away of the Earth, showing the major components. 19
FIGURE 2.13 A section through the Earth's crust and upper mantle. 21
FIGURE 2.14 The Earth from space. 22
FIGURE 2.15 The disc from which the Sun and the planets formed. 25
FIGURE 3.1 A typical scene of life on Earth. 30
FIGURE 3.2 The essential components of the prokaryotic cell and the
eukaryotic cell. 31
FIGURE 3.3 The structure of a molecule of water ± simplified. 33
FIGURE 3.4 Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. 34
FIGURE 3.5 A segment of an RNA molecule. 35
FIGURE 3.6 A typical segment of a DNA molecule and DNA double helix. 35
FIGURE 3.7 Types of organism. 38
FIGURE 3.8 A hydrothermal vent. 42
FIGURE 3.9 The aliens have landed! 44
FIGURE 4.1 The timeline of Earth history, focusing on the origin of life. 46
FIGURE 4.2 The heavy bombardment of the Earth. 48
FIGURE 4.3 A present day stromatolite and a fossil stromatolite. 49
FIGURE 4.4 Clays with intricate structures of biological significance. 52
FIGURE 4.5 The amino acid alanine in L and D forms. 53
x List of Illustrations

FIGURE 5.1 The tree of life. 57

FIGURE 5.2 The timeline of Earth history. 63
FIGURE 5.3 A fossil trilobite, Ogygiocarella. 64
FIGURE 5.4 Farewell, dinosaurs! 66
FIGURE 5.5 The build-up of atmospheric O2 on Earth. 68
FIGURE 5.6 The rise in atmospheric CO2 since 1700. 69
FIGURE 6.1 Goldilocks and the three bowls of porridge. 72
FIGURE 6.2 The classical habitable zone in the Solar System today. 73
FIGURE 6.3 Cloud shrouded Venus. 74
FIGURE 6.4 Mars, a view from the Hubble Space Telescope. 75
FIGURE 6.5 The increase in luminosity and effective temperature of
the Sun. 76
FIGURE 6.6 The ``canals'' of Mars. 78
FIGURE 6.7 A gulley on Mars. 79
FIGURE 6.8 The outflow channel at the head of Simud Vallis, the
fretted channel Nirgal Vallis, and a valley network. 80
FIGURE 6.9 Jupiter, with Europa's shadow in front of it. 81
FIGURE 6.10 Europa. 82
FIGURE 6.11 An ``aquabot'' on Europa. 83
FIGURE 6.12 The HZ moves outwards during the Sun's main sequence
lifetime. 84
FIGURE 6.13 The Sun as a red giant. 85
FIGURE 7.1 A face-on view of a galaxy that resembles our own, M74. 88
FIGURE 7.2 Looking towards the center of our Galaxy. 89
FIGURE 7.3 A star field where the tints of stars are apparent. 93
FIGURE 7.4 The distances to the Sun's 12 nearest neighboring stars. 94
FIGURE 7.5 The globular cluster M80 containing hundreds of thousands
of stars. 95
FIGURE 7.6 The HZ of an M dwarf and the HZ of the Sun. 98
FIGURE 8.1 The 4.2 meter William Herschel Telescope on La Palma. 104
FIGURE 8.2 A reflecting telescope and the image of a distant star 106
FIGURE 8.3 The wavelength regions of Earth's atmospheric absorption. 108
FIGURE 8.4 A typical adaptive optics system and the outcome of
adaptive optics applied to a particular star field. 110
FIGURE 8.5 European Southern Observatory's VLT group of telescopes. 112
FIGURE 8.6 The young star GQ Lupi and its hot planetary companion. 113
FIGURE 8.7 The European Southern Observatory proposal for an E-ELT. 114
FIGURE 8.8 NASA's Hubble Space Telescope. 115
FIGURE 8.9 An interferometer consisting of two telescopes. 117
FIGURE 8.10 A possible design of ESA's proposed interferometer, Darwin. 118
FIGURE 8.11 A simulated image from a five telescope version of Darwin. 120
FIGURE 8.12 Debris disc encircling the young M dwarf AB Microscopii. 121
FIGURE 9.1 A planetary transit, and the associated light curve. 124
FIGURE 9.2 The first detection of an exoplanet by transit photometry. 127
FIGURE 9.3 SuperWASP in South Africa. 128
 List of Illustrations xi

FIGURE 9.4 Gravitational lensing with exact alignment and the image
of the background star ± an Einstein ring. 129
FIGURE 9.5 Gravitational lensing with inexact alignment 131
FIGURE 10.1 The Plough (The Big Dipper) today and 52,000 years ago. 137
FIGURE 10.2 A binary stellar system. 138
FIGURE 10.3 A star with a planet a tenth of its mass in a circular orbit. 138
FIGURE 10.4 The angular size of the Sun's orbital motion 139
FIGURE 10.5 Obtaining the actual size of an orbit from its angular size. 140
FIGURE 10.6 Gaia as it will appear in orbit and the optical heart of Gaia. 143
FIGURE 10.7 Waves from a moving source. 144
FIGURE 10.8 A single absorption line in a narrow range of wavelengths. 146
FIGURE 10.9 Absorption lines in part of the spectrum of a star. 146
FIGURE 10.10 A star in a circular orbit presented edge-on to us. 147
FIGURE 10.11 Measurements of the radial velocities of three stars. 149
FIGURE 10:12 A star in an orbit inclined at an angle with respect to the
plane of the sky. 150
FIGURE 10.13 A dispersing device separating three absorption lines. 151
FIGURE 10.14 A glass prism acting on a beam of white light. 152
FIGURE 11.1 Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz. 156
FIGURE 11.2 The variation in radial velocity of the star Tau1 Gruis. 158
FIGURE 11.3 The light curve of the 1.17 solar mass main sequence star
OGLE-TR-56. 159
FIGURE 11.4 The open cluster NGC6819 and globular cluster 47
Tucanae. 162
FIGURE 11.5 mmin versus orbital semimajor axis a for the known
exoplanets. 164
FIGURE 11.6 Eccentricities e versus semimajor axis a for the known
exoplanets. 166
FIGURE 11.7 A circumstellar disc with a spiral structure. 172
FIGURE 11.8 The kernel of a giant planet opens up a gap in its disc. 173
FIGURE 11.9 Survivable orbits for Earth-type planets. 176
FIGURE 11.10 The classical habitable zones of two main sequence stars. 177
FIGURE 12.1 A planet that is far too hot to be habitable. 181
FIGURE 12.2 The sort of planets likely to be discovered by five
techniques as they are improved. 184
FIGURE 12.3 An Earth-type planet in an exoplanetary system. 185
FIGURE 12.4 The dust disc around the star Beta Pictoris. 187
FIGURE 13.1 A habitable satellite of a giant planet in the classical
habitable zone. 191
FIGURE 13.2 The Galileo spacecraft, en route to Jupiter. 192
FIGURE 13.3 The Galileo and Terra spacecraft view the Earth. 194
FIGURE 13.4 Earth's infrared emission spectrum. 195
FIGURE 13.5 The variation of atmospheric temperature and pressure
with altitude above the Earth's surface. 197
FIGURE 13.6 The infrared emission spectrum of Mars. 200
xii List of Illustrations

FIGURE 13.7 The infrared emission spectrum that might be obtained

by a Darwin sized infrared space telescope. 201
FIGURE 13.8 The reflectance spectrum of a deciduous leaf. 203
FIGURE 13.9 Visible light images of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars,
and the Moon. 204
FIGURE 13.10 An interstellar probe powered by nuclear propulsion. 206
FIGURE 14.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 213
FIGURE 14.2 The microwave spectrum. 214
FIGURE 14.3 The Project Ozma team at a reunion some years ago. 215
FIGURE 14.4 The advantage of a narrow bandwidth transmission in
outshining the background. 216
FIGURE 14.5 The 305 meter dish of the Arecibo radiotelescope in
Puerto Rico. 218
FIGURE 14.6 The 76 meter Lovell Radiotelescope at Jodrell Bank, UK. 219
FIGURE 14.7 A rotating neutron star and the train of pulses observed
on Earth. 220
FIGURE 14.8 Microwaves coded in binary by frequency change. 221
FIGURE 14.9 The Allen Telescope Array, as it will look on completion. 222
FIGURE 14.10 A laser beam leaving a planet. 224
FIGURE 14.11 A possible form of information carried within the beam. 224
FIGURE 14.12 The Orion Nebula. 225
FIGURE 14.13 Solar sailing to the stars. 229
FIGURE 14.14 A Dyson sphere. 231
FIGURE 14.15 A way of signalling to ETI on the Moon. 234
FIGURE 14.16 The message plaque on board Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11. 234
FIGURE 14.17 The pictorial content of the message sent by the
Arecibo radiotelescope. 235
FIGURE 15.1 Martians. 237
FIGURE 15.2 Some cells and colonies of cells. 240
FIGURE 15.3 Silicon-based life. 243
FIGURE 15.4 A possible humanoid life form on a low gravity world. 245
FIGURE 15.5 A hummingbird-hawkmoth. 246
FIGURE 15.6 A camera eye. 247
FIGURE 15.7 The compound eye. 248
FIGURE 15.8 A New Caledonian Crow using a tool to obtain food. 250
FIGURE 15.9 A truly alien intelligence. 251
FIGURE 15.10 Technologically intelligent aliens. 252
To my wife Anne, to all others in my family
And in memory of my parents
 Preface

One of the most important astronomical discoveries of the twentieth century

was of planets beyond our own Solar System. One of the most exciting prospects
for the twenty-first century is the discovery of extraterrestrial life on such
planets.
Like many other children, I was fascinated with astronomy. So much so, that
in the 1950s, when I was in my teens, I built my own telescopes and used them to
scrutinize the night sky. One object in particular grabbed my attention ± the
planet Mars. We need not look far for the reason ± at that time it was widely
thought that Mars could be inhabited, that some sort of life existed on its surface.
Moreover, every two years or so Mars comes relatively close to the Earth, when it
shines with a bright, steady light, red, like a drop of blood in the sky. At the time
of its particularly close approach in 1956, the planet was intensively studied by
the largest telescopes, as well as by me and many other amateur astronomers
with our back garden telescopes!
But in spite of the widespread belief that there was life on Mars, the great
majority of astronomers believed that this was probably no more than sparse
vegetation, holding on in the cold, dry Martian deserts. It was thought unlikely
that there were animals on Mars, and the possibility of intelligent Martians had
long been confined to works of fiction. We now know that there is not even
vegetation at the Martian surface. If there is life on Mars today, it is likely to be
beneath the surface, and in the form of microbes. Nevertheless, this would still
be a hugely exciting and important discovery, proving that the Earth is not a
lonely abode of life.
It was in the 1980s that an even more promising habitable planetary body was
identified in the Solar System. This is one of the satellites of the giant planet
Jupiter. There are four large jovian satellites, and one of these, Europa, just might
have living organisms in the oceans beneath its icy surface. One day, we will go
there and find out.
It was in October 1995 that the first planet beyond the Solar System, orbiting a
star rather like the Sun, was discovered. Other discoveries have followed, and
now over 250 planets have been discovered, orbiting over 200 stars. The
discovery of exoplanets, as they are called, soon prompted me to move much of
my research and teaching into this area, and in particular, into investigations of
whether there could be habitable planets in the known exoplanetary systems.
xvi Preface

This book is my attempt to tell you where we are in the search for life in
exoplanetary systems. I do hope that I will succeed in conveying to you the
excitement of this quest. I have aimed the book at a wide readership, indeed at
anyone who has an interest in answering the question, ``Are we alone?''
Therefore, I have assumed that you bring to this book no knowledge of
astronomy. Mathematics, beyond a bit of simple arithmetic, is almost entirely
absent. Embedded in the text are a few boxes. Some of these are asides, often
biographical. A few outline some basic science that supports the main story.
I do hope that you enjoy this book and that it prepares you for what, I'm sure,
will be stupendous discoveries in the not too distant future.
 Acknowledgments

Dr Nick Sleep has provided assistance in several ways, including reading and
commenting on a draft of the text.
Assistance with specific parts of the text have come from Professor Charles
Cockell, Professor Charles Lineweaver, Dr Irene Ridge, Dr Jean Schneider, Dr
Rachel Street, and Dr David Weldrake.
Illustrations have come from a variety of sources, nearly all of which are
acknowledged in the captions. In a small number of cases the source has not
been identified. We will be happy to make good in future editions any omissions
brought to our attention.
Without the invitation from Clive Horwood of Praxis to write this book, it
might never have been written.
 1
Is there any life out there?

When you look up on a clear moonless night, many stars can be seen with the
unaided eye, and many more are visible with binoculars or a telescope. Some of
these stars are known to have planets, and the number is growing month by
month. Do any of these planets harbor life?
This is a question of enormous public interest, one that I and my fellow
astronomers are frequently asked. Yes! It is my belief that the Earth is not the
only inhabited world in the cosmos, a belief based firmly on science. It is a belief

FIGURE 1.1 The starry sky ± is there life out there? (# ESO, PR Photo 15a/04)
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