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 DRUGS
The Straight Facts

Marijuana
DRUGS The Straight Facts

Alcohol
Cocaine
Hallucinogens
Heroin
Marijuana
Nicotine
 DRUGS
The Straight Facts

Marijuana

Randi Mehling

Consulting Editor
David J. Triggle
University Professor
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences
State University of New York at Buffalo
CHELSEA HOUSE PUBLISHERS
VP, NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT Sally Cheney
DIRECTOR OF PRODUCTION Kim Shinners
CREATIVE MANAGER Takeshi Takahashi
MANUFACTURING MANAGER Diann Grasse

Staff for MARIJUANA

ASSOCIATE EDITOR Bill Conn
PRODUCTION EDITOR Jamie Winkler
PICTURE RESEARCHER Sarah Bloom
SERIES & COVER DESIGNER Terry Mallon
LAYOUT 21st Century Publishing and Communications, Inc.

©2003 by Chelsea House Publishers,

a subsidiary of Haights Cross Communications.
All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America.

http://www.chelseahouse.com

First Printing

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mehling, Randi.
Marijuana / Randi Mehling.
p. cm.—(Drugs, the straight facts)
Includes index.
ISBN 0-7910-7263-0
1. Marijuana—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series.
HV5822.M3 M39 2002
613.8'35—dc21
2002153569
 Table of Contents
The Use and Abuse of Drugs
David J. Triggle 6

1. The History of Marijuana 8

2. The Properties and Effects of Marijuana 14

3. The Health Effects of Marijuana 34

4. Teenage Trends and Attitudes 42

5. Marijuana Dependency 60

6. Marijuana and the Law 80

Bibliography 96

Further Reading 99

Index 100
The Use and Abuse of Drugs
The issues associated with drug use and abuse in contemporary
society are vexing subjects, fraught with political agendas
and ideals that often obscure essential information that teens
need to know to have intelligent discussions about how to
best deal with the problems associated with drug use and
abuse. Drugs: The Straight Facts aims to provide this essential
information through straightforward explanations of how an
individual drug or group of drugs works in both therapeutic
and non-therapeutic conditions; with historical information
about the use and abuse of specific drugs; with discussion of
drug policies in the United States; and with an ample list of
further reading.
From the start, the series uses the word “drug” to describe
psychoactive substances that are used for medicinal or non-
medicinal purposes. Included in this broad category are
substances that are legal or illegal. It is worth noting that
humans have used many of these substances for hundreds, if
not thousands of years. For example, traces of marijuana and
cocaine have been found in Egyptian mummies; the use of
peyote and Amanita fungi has long been a component of
religious ceremonies worldwide; and alcohol production and
consumption have been an integral part of many human
cultures’ social and religious ceremonies. One can speculate
about why early human societies chose to use such drugs.
Perhaps, anything that could provide relief from the harshness
of life—anything that could make the poor conditions and
fatigue associated with hard work easier to bear—was consid-
ered a welcome tonic. Life was likely to be, according to the
seventeenth century English philosopher Thomas Hobbes,
“poor, nasty, brutish and short.” One can also speculate about
modern human societies’ continued use and abuse of drugs.
Whatever the reasons, the consequences of sustained drug use
are not insignificant—addiction, overdose, incarceration, and
drug wars—and must be dealt with by an informed citizenry.
The problem that faces our society today is how to break

6
the connection between our demand for drugs and the will-
ingness of largely outside countries to supply this highly
profitable trade. This is the same problem we have faced
since narcotics and cocaine were outlawed by the Harrison
Narcotic Act of 1914, and we have yet to defeat it despite
current expenditures of approximately $20 billion per year on
“the war on drugs.” The first step in meeting any challenge
is always an intelligent and informed citizenry. The purpose
of this series is to educate our readers so that they can
make informed decisions about issues related to drugs and
drug abuse.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING

David T. Courtwright, Forces of Habit. Drugs and the making of

the modern world. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 2001. David Courtwright is Professor of History at
the University of North Florida.

Richard Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion. A global

history of narcotics. New York: Norton, 2002. The author
is a professional historian and a member of the Royal
Historical Society.

Aldous Huxley, Brave New World. New York: Harper & Row,
1932. Huxley’s book, written in 1932, paints a picture of a
cloned society devoted to the pursuit only of happiness.

David J. Triggle
University Professor
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences
State University of New York at Buffalo

7
1
The History
of Marijuana
Marijuana is the flowering part of the Indian hemp plant Cannabis
sativa, a weed-like species that grows wild and is also cultivated in many
tropical and temperate parts of the world. Cannabis means “hemp”
in Latin and is derived from the Greek word kannabis. Marijuana
probably comes from the Mexican Spanish marijuana/marihuana
(Mary’s leaf or plant) or from Maria and Juan (Mary and John).
Among its many names, marijuana is commonly known as weed,
ganja, mary jane, and pot.
For thousands of years, cannabis has enjoyed historical signifi-
cance as a recreational drug, a useful fiber, an oil, an edible seed, and
a medicine. It has been used to aid religious practices, alter mood
(psychoactive effect), stimulate creativity, treat disease, relieve anxiety
and boredom, enhance sensory experience and pleasure, rebel against
authority, and go along with peer influence. That is a lot of work for
one plant to do. This probably explains why cannabis has always been
an important cultivated crop and is currently a cornerstone of
controversial debate in all sectors of U.S. and international society.
Despite society’s focus on the marijuana “high,” cannabis histor-
ically has provided many meaningful industrial and medicinal values
that are not attributed to its psychoactive effects. Researchers discov-
ered that cannabis crops farmed as far back as 12,000 years ago
yielded hemp, a distinct variety of the cannabis plant associated with
little or no psychoactivity. The first evidence of the medicinal use
of cannabis can be traced to a Chinese health publication from

8
 Marijuana, or Cannabis sativa, is a weed-like plant that grows
in temperate and tropical climates. Although best known for its
psychoactive properties and use as a recreational drug, marijuana
has also been used historically for industrial and medicinal
purposes not related to its mind altering abilities.

5,000 years ago, which listed cannabis as an herbal remedy.

Cannabis probably originated in central Asia.

HISTORY OF HEMP IN AMERICA

Let’s take a quick look at hemp and marijuana through
American history, beginning with the colonists fresh from their
trip from England.
The first American crop of Indian hemp was planted by
English colonists in 1611 near Jamestown, Virginia. Cultivation

9
10 MARIJUANA

of this plant for its fibrous content was mandated (ordered) by

the colonists’ mother country, England, which relied on the
hemp plant for sails, ropes, linens, and paper. The American
climate was considered ideal for growing hemp, and the
English looked forward to an abundant yield. When Sir Walter
Raleigh suggested to King James I that the land might be better
suited for tobacco, which was just being introduced to Europe,
King James I “firmly corrected” the future tobacco baron and
ordered the colonists to produce hemp.
After the American Revolution, American settlers contin-
ued to grow hemp of excellent quality in the land now known
as Kentucky. Hemp fiber continued to be a cash crop, the
source of rope that rigged many of the world’s sailing ships,
and the rugged fabric that covered settlers’ wagons as they
made their way westward. Canvas, another hemp product, was
widely used for sails in the shipping industry. A remarkably
durable cloth, it is one of the few that seawater does not rot or
mildew. (The word canvas is rooted in “cannabis.”)
For centuries of American history, use of the cannabis
plant as an intoxicant was rare. In fact, Kentucky pioneers
cultivated tons of hemp without a single reference to its intox-
icating properties. People probably didn’t know of the use of
cannabis as an intoxicant. Entries from George Washington’s
diary in 1765 show that he personally planted and harvested
cannabis for both fiber and medicinal purposes.
By the early nineteenth century, the medicinal use of
cannabis spread from Asia and the Middle East to Europe,
and finally to the Americas by the mid 1800s. A Western
physician named W.B. O’Shaughnessey who was working in
Calcutta, India, observed the use of cannabis there. After
performing tests on animals, the doctor assured himself
that cannabis was safe. He developed a solution of cannabis
in alcohol, known as a tincture. When placed in the mouth,
this tincture proved an effective analgesic (pain reliever).
The doctor was also impressed with its muscle relaxant and
 The History of Marijuana 11

anticonvulsant (seizure preventive) qualities and brought his

“tincture of marijuana” to the United States after publishing
his study results in 1839.
Touting it as a nerve tonic, doctors began to prescribe
tincture of marijuana for a variety of conditions. However,
pharmacies posted a warning that large doses of this medicinal
remedy were dangerous and considered narcotic (addictive).
In addition, physicians found that cannabis stimulated the
appetite. By 1887, dentists found hemp to be an excellent
topical anesthetic for performing dental procedures on their
patients. Cannabis was also found to be a powerful disinfectant.

CAN HEMP SAVE

THE ENVIRONMENT?
Proponents of hemp cultivation for uses unrelated to its
psychoactive effects often site the following environmental
benefits of hemp over traditional materials:

• Hemp can be used as a substitute for cotton in clothing and

linens. It is naturally resistant to most pests, eliminating
the need for toxic pesticides. Cotton production uses 50
percent of all the world’s pesticides.

• Hemp can be cultivated for wood and paper products

every 100 days, whereas trees take years to grow back.

• Hemp, like trees, is an abundant source of cellulose, a

basic component of plastic. However, 1 acre of hemp
produces nearly as much cellulose as 4 acres of trees.

• Hemp contains the highest concentration of essential

amino and fatty acids found in any food, and its protein
content is second only to soy.

• There are over 25,000 economically feasible yet environ-

mentally friendly uses for hemp, including diesel fuel, food
and beauty products, insulation, textiles, paper, and paints.
12 MARIJUANA

A team of narcotics agents in Kentucky searches fields for a small

crop of marijuana plants spotted from a helicopter. Despite attempts
to enforce the law, some growers manage to evade authorities and
sell their marijuana harvest illegally.

In the early part of the twentieth century, marijuana and

hashish (concentrated resin from the hemp plant) became
popular with artists and musicians, who felt that marijuana
enhanced their creativity. Moreover, all sorts of excessive
behavior, including violence and mental illness, became associ-
ated with marijuana. In 1936, a movie called Tell Your Children
was financed by a small church group who wanted to deliver a
strong cautionary message to parents about the “evils” of
 The History of Marijuana 13

marijuana in a mock documentary format. Soon after the film

was shot, it was re-edited and released as Reefer Madness.
Today, many of the “deviant” behaviors portrayed in this movie
are known to be greatly exaggerated. In its time, however,
Reefer Madness was viewed by many as proof of marijuana’s
“menace to society.”
As a result of these and other concerns, the Marihuana Tax
Act was passed in 1937 with the intention of making recre-
ational marijuana too expensive to obtain legally. Although not
specifically aimed at the medical or hemp industry, this act
(along with other legal restrictions) created the conditions that
led to the removal of cannabis as a prescribed drug by 1941 and
to the end of the once-prosperous hemp industry by the 1950s.
Despite this attempt at restriction, marijuana use spread to
other subgroups, and in the 1960s it became a prominent
symbol of the youth movement on college campuses. Since
then, marijuana has steadily become more popular, and today
it is the most widely used of all illegal drugs.
Within the last 30 years, medical research has discovered
new and potentially beneficial therapeutic effects of marijuana
and THC (tetrahydrocannabinol, the primary active ingredient
in marijuana). For example, it has been found that marijuana
can reduce internal eye pressure in persons suffering from
glaucoma. Similarly, it alleviates the nausea and vomiting that
are often caused by chemotherapeutic drugs used to treat
cancer patients. Because of its appetite-stimulating effects,
marijuana has also been shown to help people suffering from
cancer and AIDS to maintain their weight. And, marijuana may
be able to reduce the pain and convulsions associated with
multiple sclerosis and epilepsy in some patients.
2
The Properties and
Effects of Marijuana
AN INTRODUCTION TO CANNABIS SATIVA
The chemical compounds primarily responsible for the psychoactive
and medicinal properties of the hemp plant are concentrated in an
aromatic, tar-like resin in the flowering tops of the Indian hemp
plant (Cannabis sativa). This resin tends to be most potent in the
female plants, especially when they are cultivated before the seeds
form. (They are also known as sinsemilla, a Spanish word meaning
“without seed.”) It is said that the hemp plant produces the resin as
protection from heat in order to preserve moisture during reproduc-
tion. The plants highest in resin therefore tend to grow in hot regions
such as Mexico, the Middle East, and India.
It is the flowers, buds, or leaves of the hemp plant that are known
as marijuana. The resin itself can be collected and pressed into cakes
or lumps called hashish. In addition, the resin can be extracted into
a thick, oily liquid known as hashish oil. Any of these preparations
can be eaten or smoked.
The three most prevalent varieties of the Indian hemp plant are
Cannabis sativa (C. sativa), the most common of the three varieties,
which is tall, loosely branched, and grows as high as 20 feet; Cannabis
indica, which is three or four feet in height, pyramidal in shape, and
densely branched; and Cannabis ruderalis, which grows to a height of
about two feet with few or no branches. There is disagreement over
whether these three cannabis types are different species or whether
C. sativa is the main species of Indian hemp, with the other plants

14
The resin of the flowering tops of the Indian hemp plant contain the
chemical compounds responsible for marijuana’s psychoactive and
medicinal properties. This resin can be collected and pressed into
blocks, known as hashish.

being just two of the many varieties of that species. Many

recent scientific reports refer to the C. sativa plant; therefore,
we will use “cannabis,” “hemp plant,” and “marijuana” inter-
changeably with C. sativa.
There are differences among these plants in the leaves, stems,
and, most important, the resin. The resin content determines the
the effective strength of a hemp preparation; yet the resin amount
can vary greatly from plant to plant. Hashish, a more concentrated
form of resin, is about eight times stronger than marijuana.
Cannabis bred specifically for industrial use with little or no

15
16 MARIJUANA

This is the chemical structure of THC, or tetrahydrocannabinol —

the only psychoactive compound present in large amounts in
marijuana resin. THC content varies with the genetic strain and
maturity of the plant.

psychoactive properties is usually known as hemp and is used in a

multitude of products such as clothing and food.

CANNABINOIDS AND THC

The psychoactive and medicinal chemical compounds found in
the resin of the marijuana plant are known as cannabinoids. The
cannabis plant contains more than 460 known compounds; over
60 of these have a cannabinoid structure. The only cannabinoid
that is highly psychoactive and present in large amounts in the
resin of the cannabis plant is tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC.
The other two major cannabinoids are the cannabidiols and the
cannabinols. It appears that the cannabis plant first produces
the mildly active cannabidiols, which are converted to the more
psychoactive THCs and then broken down to relatively inactive
 The Properties and Effects of Marijuana 17

cannabinols as the plant matures. Therefore, the THC content

can vary, depending on the genetic strain of the plant and its
degree of maturity.
When protected from exposure to air and light, marijuana
may retain its THC content for many months. Other THCs
exist that are roughly as potent as THC, but they are found in
much smaller quantities and in only a few varieties of cannabis.
Cannabis may be smoked like a cigarette (a “joint”), or in
a water pipe (a “bong”) or a regular pipe (a “bowl”). Smokers
typically inhale deeply and hold their breath to maximize the
amount of THC absorption by the lungs. Marijuana can also
be eaten and is sometimes prepared in brownies or other
baked goods.

POTENCY OF THC
Some studies indicate that the THC content of cannabis rose
dramatically from the 1960s to the 1990s. The increase is
assumed to be a result of different growing and breeding
methods. As a result, many researchers and policymakers
believe that it is possible that today’s marijuana users are
experiencing a much more potent, and therefore more danger-
ous, drug than previous users. Although these researchers
report an increase in the THC levels from the 1960s to the
1990s, they also report that the average THC level in cannabis
has been relatively stable in recent years.
Other researchers disagree with the theory of increased
THC levels. They argue that the original studies showing this
increase were faulty because they were based on samples of
marijuana with lower-than-average THC content—not repre-
sentative of the marijuana available years ago. Thus, today’s
THC potency is overstated. These researchers assert that
the average potency of THC in today’s marijuana remains
relatively unchanged; yet they acknowledge that more potent
marijuana at the “high end of the spectrum” is more widely
available today than previously.
18 MARIJUANA

Research also suggests that marijuana with a high THC

content is not necessarily more dangerous to the user; however,
very potent levels can increase adverse physical and psycho-
logical effects in those who are not used to marijuana’s effects.
Various research sources indicate that there are no documented
cases of fatal overdose from smoking or eating marijuana,
regardless of THC content. In studying the amount of THC
that would kill rats (the lethal dose), scientists were unable to
establish a comparable lethal dose in primates such as monkeys,
which are genetically similar to humans.
Aside from this controversy, recent research shows that the
THC content of marijuana ranges from 0.5 to 5.0 percent, and
the THC in hashish ranges from 2 to 20 percent. Hashish oil
may contain between 15 to 50 percent THC, and sinsemilla
varieties may have a THC content of up to 20 percent. Many
studies indicate that marijuana of less than 0.5 percent potency
has basically no psychoactivity. However, every individual’s
reaction to the psychoactive effects of THC is different. Some
reports indicate that what marijuana users may term “bad
trips” have been recorded with marijuana that ranges from
quite low (0.7 percent THC content) to quite high (7.5 percent
THC content).

IN A CLASS BY ITSELF
A common definition of the word “drug” is any substance that in
small amounts produces significant changes in the body or mind.
Psychoactive drugs such as marijuana affect the mind, thoughts,
perceptions, and especially moods. Although marijuana is con-
sidered by many to be a mild psychedelic (producing abnormal
or distorted psychic effects), its effects are different from hallu-
cinogens (drugs that distort perceptions of reality). Marijuana is
neither a stimulant nor a depressant, but has characteristics of
both. Unlike hallucinogens and other drugs, marijuana can be
used frequently or even continually while one goes about daily
activities. This creates strong possibilities for abuse.
 The Properties and Effects of Marijuana 19

Marijuana is also distinctive because it is soluble in oil,

but not in water. As a result, THC accumulates in fat cells.
Although many drugs enter the body’s fat cells in a similar
fashion to marijuana, most drugs exit the body quickly. Since
THC exits the fat cells slowly, traces of THC are detectable in
the body for days or weeks after inhaling or ingesting it. Several
studies indicate that active THC can leave fat cells and re-enter
the bloodstream, creating a subtle high for up to 24 hours.
Other researchers cite evidence that the psychoactive effects of
THC wear off within two to four hours after use, even in
frequent users. Nevertheless, there is little evidence to suggest
that there are harmful short-term or long-term effects on the
fat cells where THC lingers.

A WORD ABOUT DOSE

Before discussing the short-term and long-term physical effects
of marijuana, we need to say a word about dose. Any substance,
whether a drug or even water, can benefit or harm a person,
depending on its quantity and potency. High doses of a sub-
stance can produce very different effects from those of low
doses. Water is necessary for human life, but drink extreme

TOLERANCE AND DEPENDENCE

The concept of tolerance is important in understanding the
properties and effects of marijuana. Tolerance can be defined
as the need for increasing doses of a drug over time to maintain
the same effect achieved at previous lower doses. Receptors
in the brain develop a tolerance to THC. Since the body
becomes tolerant to the effects of marijuana, heavy users
often feel a decreasing effect from the drug and thus may
need to smoke ever-increasing quantities to achieve the
earlier “high.” Because of this, we can see why tolerance is
an important characteristic of dependence on marijuana.
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