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STP 1497

Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue

and Fracture Testing and
Incorporation of Results into
Design

Jeffrey O. Bunch and M. R. Mitchell, editors

ASTM Stock Number: STP1497

ASTM
100 Barr Harbor Drive
PO Box C700
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959

Printed in the U.S.A.

ISBN: 0-8031-4472-5
ISBN: 978-0-8031-4472-9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of Results into Design /
Jeffrey O. Bunch, editor. I, Michael R. Mitchell, II
p. cm. -- (STP 1497)
ISBN 0-8031-4472-5 ISBN 978-0-8031-4472-9
1. Impact--Testing--Equipment and supplies. 2. Pendulum. 3. Notched bar testing--Equipment and
supplies. J. O. Bunch, I. Michael R. Mitchell, II., :ASTM special technical publication ; 1497.

TA418.34.P46
620.1'125--dc22 2007
2006016951

Copyright © 2007 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL,

West Conshohocken, PA. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in
whole or in part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media,
without the written consent of the publisher.

Photocopy Rights

Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use, or the inter-
nal, personal, or educational classroom use of specific clients, is granted by the American Society
for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) provided that the appropriate fee is paid to the
Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; Tel: 978-750-8400; online:
http://www.copyright.com/.

Peer Review Policy

Each paper published in this volume was evaluated by two peer reviewers and at least one editor.
The authors addressed all of the reviewers’ comments to the satisfaction of both the technical
editor(s) and the ASTM International Committee on Publications.
The quality of the papers in this publication reflects not only the obvious efforts of the au-
thors and the technical editor(s), but also the work of the peer reviewers. In keeping with long-stand-
ing publication practices, ASTM International maintains the anonymity of the peer reviewers. The
ASTM International Committee on Publications acknowledges with appreciation their dedication and
contribution of time and effort on behalf of ASTM International.

Printed in Lancaster, PA
January 2007
Foreword

This publication, Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of
Results into Design, contains papers presented at the Symposium on Residual Stress, which was held
in Salt Lake City, UT on 19-20 May, 2004. The symposium was sponsored by ASTM International
Committee E08 on Fatigue and Fracture. Dr. Jeffrey O. Bunch, Boeing Integrated Defense Systems,
presided as symposium chairman and served as editor of this compilation. Co-chair of the sympo-
sium, was Dr. Michael R. Mitchell, Northern Arizona University.

Dr. Jeffrey O. Bunch

Boeing Integrated Defense Systems
Seattle, WA
Symposium Chairman and Editor

Dr. Michael R. Mitchell

Northern Arizona University
Flagstaff, AZ
Symposium Co-chair and Editor

iii
Contents

Overview vii

Predicting Fatigue Crack Growth in the Residual Stress Field of a Cold Worked
Hole—M. T. KOKALY, J. S. RANSOM, J. H. RESTIS, AND L. F. REID 1

Modeling the Formation and Growth of Cracks from Cold-Worked Holes—

W. T. Fujimoto 14

Effect of Shot Peening on Fatigue Crack Growth in 7075-T7351—T. HONDA,

M. RAMULU, AND A. S. KOBAYASHI 33

Thermal Residual Stress Relaxation in Powder Metal IN100 Superalloy—

D. J. BUCHANAN, R. JOHN, AND N. E. ASHBAUGH 47

Stress Intensity Factor Analysis and Fatigue Behavior of a Crack in the Residual
Stress Field of Welding—H. TERADA 58

A Design Methodology to Take Credit for Residual Stresses in Fatigue Limited

Designs—P. PREVÉY AND N. JAYARAMAN 69

Correlation Between Strength and Measured Residual Stress in Tempered Glass

Products—A. S. REDNER, E. MOGNATO, AND M. SCHIAVONATO 85

Influence of Cold Rolling Threads Before or After Heat Treatment on High

Strength Bolts for Different Fatigue Preload Conditions—N. J. HORN AND
R. I. STEPHENS 95

An Integrated Approach to the Determination and Consequences of Residual

Stress on the Fatigue Performance of Welded Aircraft Structures—L. EDWARDS,
M. E. FITZPATRICK, P. E. IRVING, I. SINCLAIR, X. ZHANG, AND D. YAPP 116

Residual Stress Measurements in Welded and Plastically Deformed Target

Structural Materials—A. K. ROY, A. VENKATESH, S. DRONAVALLI,
V. MARTHANDAM, D. WELLS, F. SELIM, AND R. ROGGE 133

Novel Applications of the Deep-Hole Drilling Technique for Measuring Through-

Thickness Residual Stress Distributions—E. J. KINGSTON, D. STEFANESCU,
A. H. MAHMOUDI, C. E. TRUMAN, AND D. J. SMITH 146

v
Overview

This book represents the research of several authors presented at the Symposium on Residual Stress
Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of Results into Design held in Salt Lake
City, Utah, May 19-20, 2004. This symposium brought together researchers, practitioners of resid-
ual stress measurement techniques, structural analysts, and designers specializing in the influence of
residual stress on fatigue and fracture. The intent of the symposium was to foster continued dialogue
between these groups and thereby provide each with an understanding of the state of knowledge con-
cerning residual stresses and their effect on structural integrity. Residual stresses can be present due
to processing and manufacturing of materials and structures, so it is imperative to understand how and
why they can influence the test data that we used in structural design methodologies. Residual
stresses may also be intentionally engineered into structures in attempts to improve fatigue life, and
it is equally important that designers understand how to account for these potential effects on fatigue
life.

ASTM Committee E08 on Fatigue and Fracture is committed to providing timely information on the
state-of-the-art of fatigue and fracture testing and lifetime prediction methods. Contained in this STP
is a continuation of that commitment. Manuscripts covering the influence of processing and methods
to account for residual stresses in predicting fatigue life are provided in this volume. Also included
are manuscripts in which are discussed several applications of residual stress measurement methods.
Engineered residual stresses further address fatigue crack growth and fatigue lifetime predictions of
cold-worked holes and the influence of shot peening.

Future workshops and symposia sponsored by ASTM Committee E08 on Fatigue and Fracture are
planned and will continue to foster dialogue on this highly important subject in fatigue and fracture.

Dr. Jeffrey O. Bunch

Boeing Integrated Defense Systems
Seattle, WA
Symposium Chairman and Editor

Dr. Michael R. Mitchell

Northern Arizona University
Flagstaff, AZ
Symposium Co-chair and Editor

vii
 Journal of ASTM International, May 2005, Vol. 2, No. 5
Paper ID JAI12556
Available online at www.astm.org

Matthew T. Kokaly,1 Ph.D., Joy S. Ransom,1 B.S., Jude H. Restis,1 M.Sc., and Len Reid,1 M.Sc.

Predicting Fatigue Crack Growth in the Residual Stress Field

of a Cold Worked Hole

ABSTRACT: Cold working of holes generates compressive residual stresses resulting in a significant
fatigue life improvement over a non-cold worked hole. Current fatigue life prediction methods for cold
worked holes are based on two-dimensional (2-D) linear superposition of stress intensity factor, K,
solutions of the non-cold worked hole and the residual stresses. Such predictions have shown various
levels of agreement with the overall fatigue life and have generally underpredicted the crack growth over
the majority of life. An inverse process was used to generate K solutions for the residual stresses of two
experimental data sets using AFGROW and the crack growth data from the experiments. The inverse K
solutions were inconsistent with the residual stress distribution indicating that it contained mechanisms or
features not inherent to the 2-D weight function method. The predicted fatigue life was found to be very
sensitive to a ± 1 % variance in the inversely generated K solution. This sensitivity of the K method is a
very important issue that must be addressed in the future. A 2-D FEA model indicated that the crack
remained completely closed over a range of crack lengths despite experimental crack growth indicating
that the model was not an accurate physical representation of the real crack. The results of this study
combined with the significantly faster crack growth observed on the side of the hole corresponding to the
entry side of the mandrel and the through thickness residual hoop stress variation show that the current
methodology based on a 2-D assumptions is inadequate in predicting the fatigue crack growth from cold
worked holes for the range of specimen thicknesses in this study. It is suggested that further research
focus on incorporating the through thickness stress variance in a solution that predicts crack growth both
in the radial and through thickness directions to capture the peculiar crack growth associated with cold
working.
KEYWORDS: cold working, residual stress, fatigue, crack growth, stress intensity factor

Introduction
Cold working of a hole generates large compressive stresses that result in a significant
fatigue life improvement over a non-cold worked hole. This fatigue life improvement, while
extensively documented, has not been easy to predict using conventional analytical methods.
The success of the stress intensity factor, K, in predicting fatigue crack growth in other fatigue
situations has resulted in numerous attempts to modify known solutions to fit that of a cold
worked hole. Most of these are composed of a linear superposition of the known non-cold
worked hole K solution and a K solution based on the residual stresses (often derived via a
weight function) to generate an effective K.
Keff = Knon-cold worked + Kresidual stresses (1)
These attempts have resulted in varying degrees of success in predicting the overall fatigue
life of holes [1–4] but at the same time have significantly underestimated the crack length over
the majority of life.

Manuscript received 6 April 2004; accepted for publication 2 November 2004; published May 2005. Presented at
ASTM Symposium on Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of Results into
Design on 19-21 May 2004 in Salt Lake City, UT.
1
Fatigue Technology, Inc., Seattle, WA.
Copyright © 2005 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.

1
2 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

The underprediction of the crack length over time can result in erroneous damage tolerance
and inspection intervals if such an analysis is used. To correctly establish inspection limits and to
accurately assess the replacement of a part in a damage tolerance program, the entire crack
growth from small cracks to failure must be more accurately determined over a significant
portion of the life.

Cold Working a Hole

Cold working of a hole is typically achieved by pulling an oversized mandrel through a split
sleeve inserted into the hole. The radial expansion of the hole is large enough to cause plastic
deformation in the parent material. Once the mandrel exits the material, a stress equilibrium is
reached between the plastically deformed material (in compression) and the material surrounding
the plastic zone (in tension). The plastic zone and compressive stresses extend approximately
one radius from the edge of the hole. It is important to note that the residual stress field is not
uniform through the thickness of the part due to axial material flow during the mandrel pull
through process and free edge effects during relaxation as seen in Fig. 1 for a 7xxx series
aluminum. Two-dimensional (2-D) plane stress models of the process are typically representative
of the material at the free edges, while plane strain models are typically representative of the
stresses near the center of the parent material.

Mandrel
Entry Side

Mandrel Exit Side

FIG. 1—Cold worked hole through thickness residual hoop stress gradient in a typical 7xxx
series aluminum.
 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 3

Objective
The objective of this study was to investigate the usefulness of combining experimental,
analytical, and numerical methods to further understanding of the crack growth mechanisms and
current prediction methodologies of fatigue cracks growing from cold worked holes.

Method of Approach
This introductory study was divided into two parts:

• K solution investigation: The K solution was calculated inversely using data from the
literature and from a new round of testing to further understand the K method as applied
to cold worked holes. Crack length (a) versus the number of cycles (N) data was used in
an inverse approach with AFGROW to determine the K solution due to the residual
stresses (Kresidual stress in Eq 1) required to match the crack growth curves. The robustness
of K based methods was explored by examining the effect of varying the inversely
calculated K solution on the crack growth prediction. General features about the K
solution were also noted.
• Finite Element Analysis: A ½ symmetry two-dimensional (2-D) FEA model of the test
specimens was created to observe the crack mechanics at various crack lengths.

Kresidual stress Investigation

Kresidual stress can be determined indirectly from a fatigue test when the crack length versus the
number of cycles has been recorded. The AFGROW crack prediction software contains an
option to enter modifications to the stress intensity factor of a given crack model at various crack
lengths. This option can be used in an inverse process to match the crack growth curve of an
experiment. The resulting Kresidual stress distribution should be representative of the contribution of
the residual stresses to Keff.
Two different sets of experimental data were used in the inverse process: the results of an
earlier study by Saunder and Grandt [5] and results of testing performed at Fatigue Technology,
Incorporated (FTI). The tests were very similar with a few exceptions. Details of the two
specimens are given in Table 1, and details of the two tests are shown in Table 2. The level of
expansion was determined by the FTI standard system based on the size of the hole.

TABLE 1—Specimen parameters.

Saunder and Grandt [5] FTI

Type of Specimen Dogbone Dogbone
Material 7075-T651 7075-T651
Specimen Width 63.5 mm 59.7 mm
Specimen Thickness 6.35 mm 5.08 mm
Final Hole Size 6.35 mm 9.91 mm
Initial Crack Size 1.24 mm 0.51 mm
Special Notes Pre-cracked before coldworking, Pre-cracked after coldworking,
hole was offset with e/D = 4.0 hole was centered
4 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

TABLE 2—Fatigue test parameters.

Saunder and Grandt [5] FTI

Type of Fatigue Loading Constant Amplitude Constant Amplitude
R Ratio 0.05 0.05
Peak Stress 206 MPa 172 MPa
Number of Specimens 1 Cold Worked 1 Cold Worked, 1 Non-Cold
Worked

The results of Saunder and Grandt [5] were subjected first to the inverse process. Saunder
and Grandt fitted a segmented Walker Equation to their experimental da/dN versus ∆K data and
to additional data given in [6] for the 7075-T651 aluminum used in their study. The same
relation was used here. Test specimens consisted of dogbones with different offset 6.35 mm-in.
cold worked holes. Since edge margins (e/D) can significantly affect the residual stress field and
resulting crack growth, only the data from the specimen with e/D = 4.0 were used in this study.
The data with e/D = 4.5 were not used, as they did not appear consistent with the rest of the data.
Figure 2 shows the average crack length (a) versus number of cycles (N) for the e/D = 4.0
specimen. It should be noted that a large difference between the size of the crack on the entry
and exit sides was observed, though it is not shown here. The majority of the fatigue life
occurred when the crack length was less than approximately 2.54-mm long. A simple 2-D plane
stress FEA model confirmed that the edge of the compressive zone for a hole this size in 7075-
T651 extended approximately 2.54-mm from the edge of the hole as seen in Fig. 3.
Figure 2 also shows the a versus N curve obtained from the AFGROW inverse process. The
experimental and inverse curves were nearly identical as expected. The values of Kresidual stress
versus crack length used to generate the AFGROW a versus N curve are provided in Fig. 4.
Kresidual stress was nearly constant over a range of crack lengths from ~1.52-mm to 2.54-mm. This
same crack length range was associated with nearly 100 000 of the total 120 000 cycles of the
fatigue life. Over that same range, the residual stress decreased significantly as seen in Fig. 3.

25

20
Crack Length (mm)

15
Experimental Average
Afgrow Inverse Fit
10

0
0 50000 100000 150000
Number of Cycles

FIG. 2—Crack growth data of Saunder and Grandt [5].

 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 5

200

100
Residual Hoop Stress (MPa)

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500

-600
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance From Edge of Hole (mm)

FIG. 3—2-D FEA residual hoop stress distribution around a 6.35 mm cold worked hole in
7075-T651.
0
K Residual Stress (MPa*m^0.5)

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Crack Length (mm)

FIG. 4—Kresidual stress from the AFGROW inverse analysis on data of Saunder and Grandt [5].

The effect of increasing and decreasing Kresidual stress on the fatigue life was examined to
determine the sensitivity of the K based method. Unfortunately, estimates of the level of error
inherent in the prediction of K via the current linear superposition method (errors in the residual
stress profile and material properties) were lacking. A value of ± 1 % was chosen with high
confidence that the level of actual error was higher.
The results are shown in Fig. 5. The 1 % variance of Kresidual stress translated into a range of
fatigue life from 96 000–160 000 cycles, severely underpredicting and overpredicting the actual
fatigue life of 120 000 cycles. The majority of the difference in life again occurred over a small
range of crack lengths bound by the compressive zone. This level of sensitivity is troubling
since errors in material data and estimates of the residual stress field are expected to be larger
than 1 %. This sensitivity issue must be addressed before methods employing K will yield
reliable and consistent predictions of crack growth from cold worked holes.
6 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

25

20
Crack Length (mm)

15 AFGROW Kres Fit

Kres reduced 1%
10 Kres increased 1%

0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000
Number of Cycles

FIG. 5—Effect of ± 1 % Change in Kresidual stress on the predicted fatigue life.

FTI conducted similar tests to Saunder and Grandt as seen in Tables 1 and 2. Tests were
performed on both a cold worked (Cx) and non-cold worked (NCx) specimen. The Cx specimen
was first cold worked at a diameter of 9.22 mm. A 0.38-mm long notch was introduced, and the
tip was sharpened with a razor blade. The specimen was then fatigue cracked at 172 MPa until
the crack extended a distance of 5.46 mm from the centerline of the hole. The hole was then
reamed to a diameter of 9.91 mm to clean up the notch. The same procedure was performed on
the NCx specimen without the cold working step.
To determine the validity of the AFGROW model and the use of material data from Saunder
and Grandt in the current investigation, the a versus N curve of the FTI NCx test was compared
with the AFGROW prediction using the material data from [5]. The AFGROW prediction
closely matched the experimental data for the NCx specimen indicating the validity of the non-
cold worked K solution used in AFGROW and the material data [5] as seen in Fig. 6.

25

20
Crack Length (mm)

Front Side
15
Back Side
Experiment Average
10
AFGROW

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Number of Cycles
FIG. 6—Comparison of NCx AFGROW prediction and FTI NCx data.
 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 7

The crack growth data for the Cx specimen is shown in Fig. 7. Similar to the Saunder and
Grandt data, the crack length was significantly higher on the mandrel entry side than the mandrel
exit side. The average of the cracks on these two surfaces was used in the AFGROW inverse
process. As with the analysis of the Saunder and Grandt data, the majority of life occurred over
a very small range of crack lengths. A simple 2-D plane stress model of the residual compressive
stress shows that this region also correlated with the approximate size of the compressive zone as
shown in Fig. 8.

20
18
16
Crack Length (mm)

14
Exit Side
12
Entry Side
10
Average Experimental
8
AFGROW inverse fit
6
4
2
0
0 100000 200000 300000 400000
Number of Cycles
FIG. 7—FTI crack growth data.

200

100
Residual Hoop Stress (MPa)

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500

-600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance From Edge of Hole (mm)
FIG. 8—2-D FEA residual hoop stress distribution around a 9.91 mm cold worked hole in
7075-T651.

The Kresidual stress from the inverse process on the FTI data is given in Fig. 9. The curve is of a
similar shape to the results shown in Fig. 4 with a pronounced flat region. The flattened region
of the Kresidual stress solution again occurred over a region of decreasing residual compressive
stress. A Kresidual stress solution generated via weight function methods and the residual stress
8 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

profile result in a discrete peak value that decays with the residual compressive stress. The lack
of agreement between the inversely calculated K and the shape of K solutions derived from
weight function methods demonstrated that, at a minimum, additional K modifications are
needed in the 2-D method to accurately predict the crack growth and fatigue life. These K
modifications may not be able to be computed via a closed form solution since they are most
likely associated with modeling a 3-D problem (crack growth and residual stress distributions
through the thickness are neglected or averaged) in 2-D.
To further explore the behavior of K during the crack growth, ∆Keff was plotted versus
number of cycles in Fig. 10. To achieve the slow crack growth of the experiment, the range of
∆Keff was small and nearly constant over the majority of the life. The region of the da/dN versus
∆K curve responsible for ~88 % of the fatigue life is highlighted in Fig. 11. Together, Figs. 10
and 11 illustrate the reason for the extreme sensitivity of the K method seen in Fig. 5, as a small
change in ∆K has a large effect on the crack growth rate.

0
K Residual Stress (MPa*m^0.5)

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Crack Length (mm)
FIG. 9—Kresidual stress from the AFGROW inverse analysis of current study.

35.0

30.0
∆ Keff (MPa*m^1/2)

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000
Number of Cycles
FIG. 10—∆Keff from the AFGROW inverse analysis of current study.
 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 9

300,000 cycles

1.E-01
Crack Growth Rate, da/dN (mm/cycle)

1.E-02

1.E-03

1.E-04

1.E-05

1.E-06

1.E-07
1.0 10.0 100.0
Stress Intensity Factor Range, ∆ K (MPa*m^1/2)

FIG. 11—Material da/dN versus ∆K curve [5] highlighting range of ∆Keff over 88 % of the
fatigue life.

In practice, the largest source of variability is associated with the estimation of the residual
stress field used to calculate Kresidual stress. As seen previously, a 1 % change in the Kresidual stress
(and ∆Keff) for this experiment resulted in much larger error in the fatigue life prediction.

Finite Element Analysis

The purpose of the FEA was to observe the crack mechanics (physical crack opening under
load) and not the crack tip stress field. A ½ symmetry two-dimensional (2-D) plane stress finite
element model was constructed simulating the test specimen used by FTI with a predetermined
crack path as shown in Fig. 12. As mentioned previously, a residual hoop stress gradient is
present through the thickness of a part, and this is not accounted for in a 2-D model. The
decision to use a 2-D model has been made generally in most other studies and implementations
of the K method to simplify the problem. Since the goal of the study was to evaluate the current
methods, a 2-D model was used here to evaluate whether it adequately modeled the crack
mechanics. The specimen thicknesses were on the borderline for plane stress and plane strain
using a 2.5*(KIc/σys)^2 relation, and the fast fracture surfaces of the specimens were indicative of
plane stress. The plane stress model also yields a more conservative approach since the residual
stresses are lower than in the plane strain model. An attempt was made to include a plain strain
core as per Newman, et al. [7], but difficulties associated with stress gradients during the cold
working operation could not be overcome in the current model.
The hole was cold worked by applying and then removing a uniform radial displacement to
the hole. Elements were removed to capture the final ream operation. A crack was introduced
and grown by removing boundary conditions along the face of the crack. To simulate contact
with the mating crack surface during unloads, a rigid surface was placed along the crack plane.
The model was subjected to an alternating pattern of crack growth generated by releasing
boundary conditions followed by a load and unload step. The crack opening along the crack face
was observed during the load for various crack lengths.
10 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

FIG. 12—Two-dimensional FEA model of the fatigue specimen.

The shape of the crack opening along the crack at different crack lengths is shown in Fig. 13.
The rudimentary model used in this analysis indicated that the majority of the crack and the
entirety of the crack tip remained completely closed under the 172 MPa load for crack lengths
less than 1.88 mm. A small amount of opening was observed at the crack mouth. At crack
lengths greater than 1.88 mm, the crack opened at both the edge of the hole and at the tip, while a
considerable amount of the crack remained closed at the peak load.
Observations during the experiment showed that the crack grew continuously during the
fatigue test and appeared to open and close at the crack tip throughout the test. This was
contrary to 2-D FEA model results. As a result, it appeared that the 2-D model did not yield an
accurate depiction of the crack mechanics. The differing crack growth on the exit and entry side
in the experiment was another indication that the assumption of an average crack length in the 2-
D FEA model was flawed and that a more general 3-D model is required.
 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 11

Discussion
The results indicate that the current 2-D Kresidual stress method for predicting crack growth from
cold worked holes has several issues associated with a successful implementation. The shape of
the Kresidual stress solution (determined inversely) required to match the crack growth curve is not
consistent with the residual stress profile, and the prediction is highly sensitive to small changes
in Kresidual stress. 2-D FEA modeling of the crack around cold worked holes was also found to be
flawed, as the results did not accurately model the crack mechanics.
These issues appear to be a result of imposing a 2-D solution onto a 3-D problem. The
different crack lengths observed on the exit and entry face together with the through thickness
variation of the residual hoop stresses are other good indicators that the 2-D methodology is not
applicable in most cases, with the possible exception of thin materials.
In the 2-D case, a uniform through thickness crack has generally been treated as growing
through a uniform residual stress field. The current experiment and others [3–5] have shown that
crack growth on the entry side of the specimen is often significantly more than the crack growth
observed on the exit side of the specimen. In the case of the current experiment, the crack grew
significantly (~2.87-mm) more on the entry side than on the exit side. This difference occurred
over a majority of the overall fatigue life. At the same time, 3-D models of the cold worked
process have shown a significantly larger residual compressive stress in the center of the part
than at the edges and a larger stress at the exit side than the entry side. The differences in the
crack growth between the two surfaces and the abnormal delay in generating a through thickness
crack may be attributable to the residual stress differences.
A crack in a cold worked hole typically initiates as a corner crack on the entry side of the
part. In a non-cold worked situation, it quickly transitions to a through thickness crack. In the
case of a cold worked hole, the residual stresses provide resistance to both crack growth radially
from the hole and crack growth through the thickness. The resistance to crack growth increases
through the thickness but decreases in the radial direction. The path of least resistance initially
for a crack at the surface is radially where it grows into the diminishing residual compressive
stress field. At some point, redistributions of the stress result in more crack growth through the
thickness and on the exit side. 2-D methods are unable to capture this event and as a result are
12 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

unable to accurately model the crack growth and crack mechanics. A move to a 3-D approach is
required as illustrated in Fig. 14.

Through Thickness K

Crack Crack Crack

Plane Plane

Surface K
FIG. 14—3-D approach to incorporating variable crack growth and residual stress through
thickness.

On a final note, underprediction of the crack growth during the majority of the fatigue life is
common to many of the past studies. This underprediction is nearly as important as an accurate
prediction of the fatigue life. Underprediction of the crack growth may result in removing and
replacing parts earlier than required when the vast majority of life of the component remains.
The current measure of effectiveness of a given prediction method should be expanded from a
simple determination of the fatigue life to an accurate prediction of the entire crack growth
curve.

Conclusions
The following conclusions can be made from this study:

• The inverse process was successful at generating the Kresidual stress required to match the
crack growth curves of the experimental results provided here.
• The inverse process was useful as a tool to examine the Kresidual stress for a specific test
result as used here. A larger number of specimens is required to develop a general
empirical solution.
• The Kresidual stress required to match the crack growth curve appeared to be inconsistent
with the residual compressive stress distribution indicating that either additional
modifications are needed to the current 2-D K methodology to account for additional
factors, such as variable through thickness stress distributions and crack growth rates, or
a new methodology is needed.
• The current 2-D K methodology was found to be extremely sensitive to small differences
in Kresidual stress and could result in significantly under or overestimating the fatigue life.
• The 2-D FEA model indicated that the crack did not open during a significant portion of
the fatigue life, which was inconsistent with the crack growth results and indicated that
the 2-D model was not physically representative of the crack.
• Cracks in this and other studies were found to initiate and propagate faster on the entry
side of the specimen than on the exit side of the specimen.
• Changes to the current method must be made to more accurately model the mechanics of
the crack due to the residual stress gradient through the thickness. These changes will
 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 13

most likely require analysis of the crack front in two directions and include the through
thickness variation of the residual compressive stress (A full 3-D analyses).

References
[1] Chandawanich, N. and Sharpe, W., Jr., “An Experimental Study of Fatigue Crack Growth
Initiation and Growth from Cold worked Holes,” Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 11,
1979, pp. 609–620.
[2] Cathey, W. H. and Grandt, A. F., “Fracture Mechanics Consideration of Residual Stresses
Introduced by Cold working Fastener Holes,” Journal of Engineering Materials and
Technology, Vol. 102, 1980, pp. 85–91.
[3] Ball, D. L. and Lowry, D. R., “Experimental Investigation on the Effects of Cold Expansion
of Fastener Holes,” Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials and Structures, Vol. 21,
1998, pp.17–34.
[4] Gaerke, J., Zhang, X., and Wang, Z., “Life Enhancement of Fatigue-Aged Fastener Holes
using the Cold Expansion Process,” Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers,
Vol. 214, Part G, 2000, pp. 281–293.
[5] Saunder, T. J. and Grandt, A. F., “The Effect of Edge Distance on Cold Working Fastener
Holes," Proceedings of the Fourth Joint DoD/FAA/NASA Conference on Aging Aircraft, St.
Louis, MO, 15–18 May 2000.
[6] Damage Tolerance Deign Handbook – A Compiliation of Fracture and Crack Growth Rate
for High Strength Alloys, MCIC-HB-01R, University of Dayton Research Institute and
Materials Laboratory, Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB,
December 1983.
[7] Newman, J. C., Booth, B. C., and Shivakumar, K. N., “An Elastic-Plastic Finite-Element
Analysis of the J-Resistance Curve Using a CTOD Criterion,” Fracture Mechanics: 18th
Volume, ASTM STP 945, D. T. Read and R. P. Reed, Eds., ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 1988, pp. 665–685.
 Journal of ASTM International, Vol. 3, No. 5
Paper ID JAI12559
Available online at www.astm.org

William T. Fujimoto1

Modeling the Formation and Growth of Cracks from Cold-

Worked Holes

ABSTRACT: First generation crack formation and crack growth predictive approaches for cold-worked
holes—based on the growth of a single noninteracting crack in a stationary residual stress field—fail to
account fully for the physical mechanisms by which cracks form and grow from cold-worked holes. This
failure leads in many cases to large differences between predicted and actual lives. Factors not accounted
for in first generation approaches include the following: 1. 3-D nature of residual stress field due to mandrel
pull-through. 2. Multistage crack growth involving a progressively spreading system of cracks. 3. Multiple
potential initial crack sites, and the effect of site upon the multistage crack growth path. 4. Relaxation of the
residual stress field due to overloads/underloads, or due to cyclic reyielding from crack growth. 5. Interac-
tion of the hole with adjacent structural elements for multilayer joints.A physics-based second generation
methodology for accounting for these factors is described. This methodology separates into individual
building blocks each of the various mechanisms controlling the formation and relaxation of residual
stresses, and the nucleation and progression of a system of cracks. Because it explicitly models each of
these mechanisms, it is capable of eliminating or reducing the uncertainty over the life improvement po-
tential of the cold-working process, allowing the full potential of cold-working to alleviate the aging aircraft
problem to be untapped.
KEYWORDS: residual stresses, cold-working, fatigue, fracture mechanics, weight function, stress
intensity factors

Introduction
Cold-working of fastener holes is used extensively to increase the fatigue life and damage tolerance of
mechanically-fastened joints in aircraft structural members. Life improvement factors of up to five or more
are possible with holes which are cold-worked, while factors approaching 40 关1兴 are possible if cold-
working is used in conjunction with interference fit fasteners. Clearly, if exploited to its full potential,
cold-working can be a key element in a structural sustainment strategy to reduce life cycle costs via life
extension, or in developing long life, low maintenance airframe members.
While the general principles by which cold-working can extend life are understood, exploiting the full
potential of cold-working has been held back by a lack of a full understanding of the failure mechanisms
in cold-worked holes. The life increase which is possible in multilayer aircraft joints is a function of many
parameters, i.e., stress spectra, fastener system, % mandrel interference, edge distance, material properties,
fastener clamp-up, restraint of secondary bending, surface finish and coating of the joint members, etc.
First generation approaches, such as the equivalent initial flaw size 共EIFS兲 关2兴, or elastoplastic analyses
based on two-dimensional solutions for the uniform expansion of a cylinder 关3,4兴, either ignore the physics
of the crack growth process, such as in the case of EIFS, or idealize the crack growth progress as involving
a single crack growing from the edge of the hole in a stationary two-dimensional stress field which is
unaffected by the growth of the crack.
Because the effects of many of the parameters controlling life are difficult to quantify, the life of a
complex joint with cold-worked holes must usually be established by test. Testing is costly and time-
consuming, and is only good for determining the life of the joint for a specific usage spectrum, not for
optimizing the design for improved life, or for understanding how variations in usage can affect life.
Depending on how these parameters interact, the actual life improvement factor for a joint with cold-

Manuscript received March 22, 2004; accepted for publication February 13, 2006; published online April 2006. Presented at
ASTM Symposium on Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of Results into Design on 19-21
May 2004 in Salt Lake City, UT; J. Bunch, Guest Editor.
1
Advanced Structural Technology, Inc., e-mail: [email protected]
Copyright © 2006 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
14
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