INTRODUCTION

Marx’s general ideas about society are known as his theory of historical
materialism. Materialism is the basis of his sociological thought because for
Marx material conditions or economic factors affect the structure and
development of society.

His theory is that material conditions essentially comprise

technological means of production and human society is formed
by the forces and relations of production.

Marx’s theory of historical materialism is historical. It is historical

because Marx has traced the evolution of human societies from one stage to
another. It is called Materialistic because Marx has interpreted the evolution
of societies in terms of their material or economic bases. Materialism simply
means that it is matter or material reality, which is the basis for any change.

According to Friedrich Engels, the theory of historical materialism was

discovered by Karl Marx, but Marx thought it was Engels who has conceived
the materialist formulation of history independently. We shall say that both
of them used this theory, to quote Marx, as the “guiding thread” of all their
works.

Materialism means the materialist structure of society. It is how the

super structure of society is based on economic infrastructure. Marx’s theory
of historical materialism is the materialistic interpretation of the history of
societies. All the societies have experienced similar pattern of history and
every history is built upon its materialist foundations.

Marx has tried to suggest that all society passes through unilinear evolution,
every society progresses stage by stage and every society has marched ahead.
He has suggested about the history of society, i.e.

Primitive Communism → Slavery → Feudalism→ Capitalism

→Socialism →Communism

Historians recorded history in the manner it is found. But Marx had

a vision for future, how is history taking man through time. Each stage sows
the seeds of its own destruction. One will go and other will come. Such
precision and succession will continue till the ultimate i.e. communism is
reached.
Marx’s theory sought to explain all social phenomena in terms of
their place and function in the complex systems of society and
nature. This was without recourse to what may be considered as
metaphysical explanations clearly outlined in those early writings of Hegal
and his followers. This eventually became a mature sociological conception
of the making and development of human societies.

Marx’s views on human society and human nature:

1. Society as an interrelated whole.

2. Changeable nature of society.
3. Human nature and social relationships.

1. Marx views human society as an interrelated whole. The social groups,

institutions, beliefs and doctrines within it are integrally related. Therefore,
he has studied their interrelations rather than treating them separately.

2. Marx views society as inherently mutable, in which changes are

produced largely by internal contradictions and conflicts. Such
changes if observed in a large number of instances, according to Marx,
show a sufficient degree of regularity to allow the formulation of
general statements about their causes and consequences. Both these
assumptions relate to the nature of human society.
3. There is one other basic assumption behind historical materialism
without which the theory cannot be held together. This relates to the
concept of man in general. According to Marx, there is no permanent
persistence of human nature. Human nature is neither originally evil
nor originally good, it is in original potential.

If human nature is what human beings make history with, then at the same
time, it is human nature which they make. And human nature is potentially
revolutionary. Human will is not a passive reflection of events, but contains
the power to rebel against circumstances in the prevailing limitations of
human nature.

It is not that people produce out of material greed or the greed to accumulate
wealth, but the act of producing the essentials of life engages people into
social relationships that may be independent of their will. In most of human
history according to Marx, these relationships are class relationships that
create class struggle.
The Theory of Historical Materialism:
Karl Marx's Historical Materialism is a theory of history. It argues that the material conditions of a
society, such as its mode of production and economic relations, shape its social, political, and
ideological superstructure. Marx believed that history was a dialectical process in which the conflict
between the forces and relations of production drove change.

What is Materialism?
Materialism is a philosophical position that believes everything is made of matter. The laws of
nature are the only things that govern the universe. Marx's Historical Materialism is a materialist
theory. It argues that the material conditions of a society are the most important factors in
shaping its development.

What is Historical Materialism or Dialectical Materialism?

Historical materialism is a theory of history. It is connected to the German economist and

philosopher Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels. According to this theory, all
institutions within human society, such as government and religion, derive from economic
activities. It combines the materialist view of the world with the dialectical method of analysis.
The dialectical method is a way of thinking about change. It emphasizes the role of conflict and
contradiction.

What is Karl Marx's Historical Materialism?

Karl Marx's historical materialism is a theory that analyzes societal development based on the
interaction between productive forces (technology, labor, resources) and social relations (class
struggles, power dynamics). It argues that how a society produces and owns things determines
its social, political, and cultural systems.

Aspects of Historical Materialism

o Historical Progression: Societies evolve through different stages influenced by changes

in the mode of production.
o The superstructure is the set of social, political, and ideological institutions that arise from
the mode of production. It includes the state, the law, religion, and culture.
o The dialectical process is a change process that occurs through the conflict between
opposing forces. In the case of Historical Materialism, the opposing forces are the forces
and relations of production.
o Class Struggle: Society is divided into classes based on their relationship to the means of
production. This leads to conflicts that drive historical change.

Mode of Production
The mode of production is the way in which a society produces the goods and services it needs
to survive. It includes the following:
 o Forces of production - the tools, machines, and raw materials used to produce goods
and services, and
o Relations of production - how people are organized to produce goods and services.

Four Modes of Production

There are four main modes of production:

Ancient mode of production

The ancient mode of production was based on slavery. It largely focused on agriculture.

Asiatic mode of production

The Asiatic mode of production was based on a system of peasant agriculture.

Feudal mode of production

The feudal mode of production was based on a system of land ownership and serfdom.

Capitalist mode of production

The capitalist mode of production is based on a system of private ownership of the means of
production and wage labor.

What is materialism?
• Materialism seeks to provide scientific explanations for
phenomena, including religion, and stands in opposition to
idealism. Idealism posits that ultimate reality lies in a realm of
transcendent phenomena known as “ideas,” while materialism
asserts that everything that exists depends on matter. Historical
Materialism, in particular, emphasizes the fundamental and causal role
of material production in shaping human history.
• The act of production, beyond mere material greed or wealth
accumulation, engages individuals in social
relationships. According to Marx, these social relations transcend the
realm of individual preferences. The production of basic necessities of
life compels individuals to enter into specific social relations that exist
independently of their will. This notion forms the foundation
of Marx’s theory of society.
• Marx emphasizes that certain social relations impact individuals
regardless of their choices. Understanding the historical process
depends on recognizing these objective social relations. Throughout
much of human history, Marx argues, these relationships manifest as
class relations, giving rise to class struggle. He contends that socio-
 political and intellectual developments are conditioned by the mode of
material production, forming the basis for his comprehensive view of
history.
• Marx states that the growth of new productive forces clashes with
existing relations of production. When people become aware of this
conflict, they seek to resolve it. This period of history, according to
Marx, is known as the period of social revolution. Revolutions bring
about the resolution of conflicts. Therefore, Marx posits that the growth
of new productive forces shapes the course of human history. These
productive forces represent the capacities society employs to produce
the material conditions of life. Thus, Marx views human history as an
account of the development and consequences of new forces of
material production, giving rise to the concept of historical materialism.
• Marx introduces the concepts of infrastructure and
superstructure to analyze societies. Social relations are defined by
material conditions, which Marx refers to as the infrastructure. The
economic base of a society forms its infrastructure. Any changes in
material conditions entail corresponding changes in social relations.
Forces and relations of production fall within the domain of
infrastructure. The superstructure encompasses legal, educational,
and political institutions, as well as values, cultural norms, religion,
ideologies, and philosophies.
• According to Marx, forces of production consist of two elements:
means of production (tools, machines, factories, etc.) and labor
power (the skills, knowledge, experience, and other human
faculties utilized in work). Relations of production are formed by the
pattern of economic ownership of the means of production. At each
stage of historical development, the owners of the means of production
constitute the dominant class, while those left with only labor power
form the dependent class.
• Marx speaks of the transformation of society from one stage to
another, attributing it to internal conflicts and the theory of class
struggle. He constructs a historical sequence of society types,
ranging from simple undifferentiated societies of “primitive
communism” to the complex class societies of “modern
capitalism.” Marx explains the great historical transformations that
dismantle old societal forms and create new ones in terms of
infrastructural changes, which he considers to operate universally and
consistently. Each period of contradiction between the forces and
relations of production is seen by Marx as a revolutionary period.
• The dialectical relationship between the forces and relations of
production provides the basis for a theory of revolution. In Marx’s
perspective, revolutions are not accidental political events but rather
the social expressions of historical movement. Revolutions occur when
 the conditions for change reach maturity. Marx asserts that no social
order disappears until all the productive forces it can accommodate
have been developed, and new higher relations of production do not
emerge until the material conditions for their existence have matured
within the old society.
• Marx distinguishes between social reality and consciousness, stating
that reality is not determined by human consciousness. Instead, he
argues that social reality shapes human consciousness. This leads to
a comprehensive conception where human

The clearest exposition of the theory of historical materialism is contained in

Marx’s ‘preface’ to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
(1859). Here he says that the actual basis of society is its economic structure.
For Marx, economic structure of society is made of its relations of
production. The legal and political super structure of society is based on
relations of production. Marx says that relations of production reflect the
stage of society’s forces of production.
Marx’s theory of Historical Materialism states that all objects,
whether living or inanimate are subject to continuous change. The
rate of this change is determined by the laws of dialectics. Marx says that new
developments of productive forces of society came in conflict with existing
relations of production.

When people become conscious of the state of conflict, they wish to bring an
end to it. This period of history is called by Marx the Period of Social
Revolution. The revolution brings about resolution of conflict. It means
that new forces of production take roots and give rise to new
relations of production.

Thus we can see that for Marx it is the growth of new productive forces which
outlines the course of human history. The productive forces are the powers
society uses to produce material conditions of life. So for Marx, human
history is an account of development and consequences of new forces of
material production. This is the reason why his view of history is given the
name of Historical Materialism.

What is dialectical thinking?

Dialectical thinking (also called dialectical idealism) is the use of dialectics only in the
abstract. This is how Hegel used dialectics. Hegel focused on understanding ideas in relation
to one another rather than looking into material conditions as the basis for understanding.

What is dialectics according to Marx?

Marx's dialectical materialism was born out of Marx's own work with Hegel. However, Hegel
works within dialectical thinking/idealism, considering the abstract first. Marx, on the other
hand, thinks that material conditions determine understanding (ideas, the abstract).

What is a dialectic example?

In a dialectic, one begins by offering two seemingly opposite ideas and then arrives at a
synthesis of them which merges the two into a new understanding. Hegel uses "being" and
"nothing," both of which only mean something when defined in relation to the other. The
synthesis of these is "becoming."

Four Modes of Production:

1. Asiatic mode of Production:

The concept of Asiatic mode of production refers to a specific

original mode of production. This is distinct from the ancient slave
mode of production or the feudal mode of production. It is characterised by
primitive communities in which ownership of land is communal. These
communities are still partly organised on the basis of kinship relations. State
power which expresses the real or imaginary unity of these communities
controls the use of essential economic resources and directly appropriates
part of the labour and production of the community.

This mode of production constitutes one of the possible forms of

transition from classless to class societies. It is also perhaps the most
ancient form of this transition. It contains the contradiction of this
transition, i.e. the combination of communal relations of production with
emerging forms of the exploiting classes and of the state.

The concept of Asiatic mode of production is inadequate because there was

no class; no concept of private property. The entire property is owned by the
society. So that no individual has access to it—so no clashes of classes.
Resources were low and there was low population.

Gradually towards the end of primitive communism there were certain group
of people who were physically strong and so towards its end the concept of
private property came into being. So primitive communism could not survive
and there emerged a different type of society.

2. Ancient mode of Production:

According to Marx, every part of history has its end point. So

primitive communism was to go and slavery came into being. People who
had physical, political and material strength had authority over others. So
two classes were found and this is where the concept of private property
emerged. There were two classes—the owning class, they are the masters,
and non-owning class, they were the slaves.

Marx has tried to suggest that in course of time different people grabbed
certain plots of land as a result of which there was grabbing and as a result
of which a large number were left wretched. So they had to depend on these
owners in order to make a living and it went on rising and so when they would
not pay their debts they were sold and engaged under the so called masters.

Slaves were mere chattels. They had no right and were used like
commodities and they could be bought and sold. So individuals were slaves
and it went on resulting in a family of slaves and masters were masters. So it
became very heinous of people worked without any voice, even if the torture
was unbearable. Slaves were made to work under stringent physical
conditions. They were engaged in agricultural, menial and physical labour.
If the society has experienced heinous system at any point of time,
it is slavery. So it was to go and another stage was to come. So, towards its
end, a sort of internal struggle was found so that the slaves, peasants started
a revolution against the masters so as to release certain slaves from the
clutches of the masters. Slavery is called the stage of initial agriculture.

So agricultural capitalism was to come. Agricultural innovations

would take place. Technology was applied to agriculture. People started to
understand the dignity of labour and the stage came, i.e. Feudalism or
Agricultural capitalism.

3. Feudal Mode of Production:

At this stage as Marx said throughout the pages of history we find

two classes. They were feudal lords and serfs. Lords owned the land in their
favour and their job was to lease land and employ agricultural labour in their
lands. The owners who were leased had to pay certain taxes and the labourers
were given wages.

This is even a heinous system and the lords exploited by not

paying the labour its due. So Marx said that this stage was also
exploitative in character. Heavy taxes were imposed on serfs. This stage
could not grow much as industries were growing and people sought their job
in industries and in cities. So the serfs fought against the lords. With the
spreading of industries, urbanization grew, so emphasis was on industries
and came the next stage, i.e. Industrial capitalism.

4. Capitalistic mode of production:

Marx was very much bothered about this stage because this represented the
most heinous and migration was found from rural to urban areas. Those who
worked in agricultural lands shifted to industries. There were two classes—
the working classes, the proletariats and the bourgeoisie.

Karl Marx and His Basic Postulates:

According to Karl Marx in all stratified societies there are two major social groups: a ruling class and a subject class,
both having inherently antagonistic interests. Marx determined these as the Bourgeoisie (Owners of capital or means of
production) and the Proletariat (workers or providers of labour). Marx believed that the bourgeoisie use a mode of
production in the form of capitalism to oppress the proletariat. The owners of production (bourgeoisie) use the workers
(proletariat) labour to produce their surplus value. In turn, they pay their workers the smallest amount possible to make
the highest possible surplus value or profit, thus exploiting the working class. Therefore, Marx’s theory is that it is a
person’s relationship to the means of production that determines his class both inside the workplace and in the wider
society. The ruling class derives its power from its ownership and control of the forces of production. It exploits and
oppresses the subject class. The various institutions of society such as the legal and political system are instruments of
ruling class domination and serve to further its interests.
Marxian Postulates on Social Stratification:
1. Capitalist controls political power, since they control the means of production.
2. Capitalists constitute a minority group, who hold the majority of wealth
3. The dominant ideas of an epoch/period are usually those that originate and or are perpetuated by the ruling class
4. All the major institutions in a society reflect the interests of the ruling class. Marx believed that western society
developed through four main epochs-primitive communism, ancient society, feudal society and capitalist society.
Primitive communism is represented by the societies of pre-history and provides the only example of the classless
society. From then all societies are divided into two major classes - master and slaves in ancient society, lords and serfs
in feudal society and capitalist and wage labourers in capitalist society.