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 1
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THE 6

ANCIENT 7
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ORACLES
MAKING THE GODS SPEAK
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YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS 9
N E W H AV E N A N D L O N D O N 40x
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1 Copyright © 2011 Richard Stoneman
2 All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form
3 (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and
except by reviewers for the public press) without written permission from the publishers.
4
5 For information about this and other Yale University Press publications, please contact:
6 U.S. Office: [email protected] www.yalebooks.com
Europe Office: sales @yaleup.co.uk www.yalebooks.co.uk
7
8 Set in Minion Pro by IDSUK (DataConnection) Ltd
Printed in Great Britain by TJ International, Padstow, Cornwall
9
30 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
1
Stoneman, Richard.
2 Making the gods speak: the ancient oracles/Richard Stoneman.
3 p. cm.
ISBN 978–0–300–14042–2 (cl:alk. paper)
4 1. Oracles, Greek. 2. Divination — Greece. 3. Greece —
5 Religion. I. Title. II. Title: Ancient oracles.
6 BF1765.S76 2011
292.3′2 – dc22
7 2010034993
8
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
9
40x 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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1
Thee, the son of God most high, 2
Famed for harping song, will I 3
Proclaim, and the deathless oracular word 4
From the snow-topped rock that we gaze on heard, 5
Counsels of thy glorious giving 6
Manifest for all men living, 7
How thou madest the tripod of prophecy thine 8
Which the wrath of the dragon kept guard on, a shrine 9
Voiceless till thy shafts could smite 20
All his live coiled glittering might. 1
2
Ye that hold of right alone 3
All deep woods on Helicon 4
Fair daughters of thunder-girt God, with your bright 5
White arms uplift as to lighten the light 6
Come to chant your brother’s praise, 7
Golden Phoebus, loud in lays. 8
9
A.C. Swinburne, ‘Delphic Hymn to Apollo’ (a free translation of the
30
Delphic Paean I, Collectanea Alexandrina, ed. J.U. Powell
1
(Oxford 1925), 141)
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 1
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Contents 6
7
8
List of Illustrations and Maps viii 9
10
Preface xi
1
Abbreviations xiii 2
3
Introduction 1 4
1 Why Did the Greeks Consult Oracles? 5 5
6
2 Possession or Policy: The Case of Delphi 26
7
3 The Riddles of the Pythia 40 8
4 From Egypt to Dodona 55 9
5 The Gods, the Heroes and the Dead 65 20
1
6 The Oracle Coast: Sibyls and Prophets of Asia Minor 77
2
7 Dreams and Healing 104 3
8 Dicing for Destiny 132 4
9 Foreknowledge, Fate and Philosophy 149 5
10 Sceptics, Frauds and Fakes 163 6
7
11 New Questions for the Oracles: Platonism and Theology 171
8
12 ‘Ecstatic Predictions of Woe’: The Sibylline Oracles 190 9
13 Silencing the Oracles 199 30
14 Conclusion 220 1
2
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Notes 225
4
Bibliography 253 5
Index 264 6
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1
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Illustrations and Maps
8
9 Rights were not granted to include these illustrations in electronic media.
10 Please refer to print publication.
1
2 ILLUSTRATIONS
3 1 Oedipus consults the Delphic oracle. Still from Pier Paolo Pasolini,
4 Edipo Re, 1967. Courtesy of the British Film Institute. 6
5 2 Alexander the Great prays to Sarapis before the founding of Alexandria.
6 Venice, Hellenic Institute Codex 5, f. 48r. 9
7 3 A late Ching representation of the legendary Emperor Shun and his
ministers consulting the oracles of the tortoiseshell and the milfoil,
8
1644–c.1900. From Needham 1954. fig 43. 17
9 4 ‘Hammurabi hallucinating judgements from his god Marduk’ and
20 ‘Tukulti stands and then kneels before the empty throne of his god’,
1 c.1750 BC. From Jaynes 1977, 199 and 224. 20
2 5 The Pythia seated on the tripod and giving responses. From Van Dale
3 1700, pl. 4 opposite p. 141. 27
6 Delphi. Temple of Apollo. 28
4
7 Aegeus consults Themis, who sits on a tripod in the posture of the
5 Pythia. Attic red figure cup by the Codrus painter, fifth century BC,
6 Berlin Mus. 2538, reproduced from Eduard Gerhard, Auserlesene
7 griechischen Vasenbilder, vol. 4 no. 328; Berlin, 1858. 29
8 8 John Collier, Priestess of Delphi, 1891. Art Gallery of South Australia. 32
9 9 Preparation for rendering and receiving responses at Delphi. From
Van Dale 1700, pl. 3, opposite p. 112. 41
30
10 The temple of Zeus at Dodona. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 56
1 11 Ammon is borne on the shoulders of priests in order to give oracular
2 responses. Egyptian relief. New Kingdom. From Černy 1962, 37. 59
3 12 Ayia Triadha sarcophagus, c.1400 BC. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 68
4 13 J.W. Waterhouse, Consulting the Oracle. Tate Britain. 69
5 14 Landscape of the mouth of the Acheron, seen from the ‘Oracle of the
Dead’. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 71
6
15 The so-called Oracle of the Dead, Nekyomanteion, on the Acheron.
7 Photo: Richard Stoneman. 72
8 16 The interior of the cavern of Trophonius with its chambers and vaults.
9 From Van Dale 1700, pl. 6, opposite p. 195. 75
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 ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS ix

17 The Sibyl. Coin of L. Torquatus 58 BC. Private collection. 78 1

18 Mopsus, identified as a seer by his wings and by a mirror (used as a 2
‘crystal ball’), which he holds, on a coin of Mallos, c.390–385 BC. 3
Collection of Richard Stoneman. 80
19 Coin of Myrina, depicting Apollo of Gryneion. Reverse: Apollo
4
advancing right, holding a branch of bay, second century BC. 5
Collection of Richard Stoneman. 82 6
20 The Smintheion. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 83 7
21 Pool at Labranda, possible site of the fish oracle, fourth century BC. 8
Photo: Richard Stoneman. 83 9
22 Didyma. Temple of Apollo. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 84
23 Didyma. Ground plan of the temple of Apollo, fourth century BC.
10
From Fontenrose 1978, 130. 85 1
24 Didyma. Sloping passage from the pronaos to the interior courtyard. 2
Photo: Richard Stoneman. 86 3
25 The naiskos in the courtyard of the Temple of Apollo, Didyma, 4
fourth century BC. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 87 5
26 Claros. Altars of Apollo and Artemis. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 93
27 The author with the cult statue of Artemis at Claros, still in situ,
6
c.1985. Photo: Richard Stoneman 93 7
28 Claros. The vaults of the underground passage to the adyton. Photo: 8
Richard Stoneman. 94 9
29 Claros. Inscribed temple steps. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 96 20
30 Sura. General view. Photo: Richard Stoneman. 102 1
31 Honorific inscriptions of the priests of Apollo Surios. Photo: Richard
Stoneman. 103
2
32 Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal, seventh century BC. Ishtar, armed with 3
quivers and swords and holding a bow and arrows, facing a eunuch 4
official. Original: British Museum. 110 5
33 The Amphiareion, Oropos. The stoa for incubation. Photo: Richard 6
Stoneman. 116 7
34 Roman statue of the goddess Hygieia, first century AD. Cos Museum. 120
35 Pergamon, Asclepieion. The circular building, first century AD.
8
Photo: Richard Stoneman. 125 9
36 Elihu Vedder, The Sphinx. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 130 30
37 The oracle tomb at Olympos, second century AD. Photo: Richard 1
Stoneman. 140 2
38 The arms of Yale University, bearing the Hebrew words ‘Urim wa 3
Thummim’. 167
39 Glycon, the snake-god of Alexander of Abonuteichos, second century
4
AD. Drawing by Eriko Ogden. The original marble statue is in the 5
National Museum, Romania. 169 6
40 The oracle inscription at Oenoanda, third century AD. Photo: Richard 7
Stoneman. 182 8
41 Domenico Beccafumi, Tanaquil, c.1519. London: The National 9
Gallery. 193
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 x ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS

1 42 The title page of the first edition (1683) of Anton van Dale, De Oraculis,
2 showing exultant soldiers destroying the pagan shrines. 200
3 43 A coin of Leo VI, The Wise AD 886–912. Collection of Richard
Stoneman. 216
4 44 From a manuscript of The Oracles of Leo the Wise, 1577 (Bodl. Barocc
5 170). Bodleian Library. 217
6
7
8 MAPS
9 1 Mainland Greece. xv
10 2 Western Asia Minor. xvi
1 3 South-eastern Asia Minor and the Levant. xvii
2 4 Dice oracles of Lycia and neighbouring regions. xviii
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 1
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Preface 7
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1
The idea for this book arose from a series of visits to the western coast of 2
Turkey from the mid-1990s, lecturing about classical sites on gület holidays 3
with Westminster Classic Tours. A theme for a tour is always attractive, and 4
as we visited at various times the sites of Pergamon, Erythrae, Didyma, 5
Labranda, Claros, Cnidus, Telmessos, Olympos, Limyra, Patara and Sura, 6
the importance of oracles as a strand running through the lives of the 7
ancient inhabitants of the region insistently presented itself. What began 8
as a light-hearted exposition of some remarkable phenomena deepened 9
itself, as it began to take the form of a book, into an exploration of some 20
intriguing and, perhaps, perennial features of the human psyche. Early 1
listeners to these talks raised many pertinent questions and I am grateful 2
to all the guests on those tours as well as to the Anglo-Turkish Society for 3
inviting me to give an illustrated talk on the subject in December 2003. The 4
receptiveness of Heather McCallum at Yale University Press to the idea 5
gave me the impetus to produce the present book. 6
I am grateful, as always, to the libraries that have been indispensable to 7
my research: the London Library and the Institute of Classical Studies. 8
Since moving to Exeter in 2006 I have been able to make full use of the 9
privileges afforded to Honorary Fellows of the University of Exeter, 30
including its library and office facilities. 1
I am particularly grateful to the two anonymous readers for the Press, as 2
well as to Rachael Lonsdale, for their acute and systematic reviews of an 3
earlier version of the text. All faults that remain, as those who consult 4
oracles know well, are mine and not those of the advisers. 5
6
Richard Stoneman 7
University of Exeter, 2010 8
9
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 1
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6
Abbreviations 7
8
9
10
1
Note: The normal conventions for classical authors are followed: see Liddell- 2
Scott-Jones’ Greek–English Lexicon and the Oxford Classical Dictionary. I have 3
expanded some of the more telegraphic ones for the sake of clarity. Works in 4
Plutarch’s Moralia are cited by their individual titles.
Standard abbreviations for classical journals may be found in the Oxford
5
Classical Dictionary and L’Année Philologique. Note especially the following 6
abbreviations of journals and other works. 7
8
ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 9
Ant Class Antiquité Classique 20
AP Anthologia Palatina
APF J.K. Davies, Athenian Propertied Families (Oxford 1971)
1
BMC British Museum Coins 2
CIG Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum 3
CJ Classical Journal 4
Coll. Alex. Collectanea Alexandrina, ed. J.U. Powell (Oxford 1925) 5
CRAI Comptes rendues de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres 6
Delt Ch AE Deltion tes Christianikes Arkhaiologikes Etaireias
DK Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, ed. H. Diels and W. Kranz
7
GRBS Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies 8
HSCP Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 9
HThR Harvard Theological Review 30
IG Inscriptiones Graecae 1
IGRRP Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes 2
JANES Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
3
JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies 4
JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology 5
JRS Journal of Roman Studies 6
LdÄ Lexikon der Ägyptologie 7
LSCG Lois sacrées des cites grecques 8
Mus. Helv. Museum Helveticum
P Papyrus
9
40x
 xiv ABBREVIATIONS

1 PDM Papyri Demoticae Magicae

2 PG Patrologia Graeca, ed. J.P. Migne
3 PGM Papyri Graecae Magicae
POxy Oxyrhynchus Papyri
4 PSI Papiri della Società Italiana
5 REA Revue des Etudes Antiques
6 RFIC Rivista di Filologia ed Istruzione Classica
7 Rh Mus Rheinisches Museum
8 SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum
9 SIG Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum
Syll3 Ibid.: 3rd edition
10 Symb Osl Symbolae Osloenses
1 TAM Tituli Asiae Minoris
2 TAPA Transactions of the American Philological Association
3 UPZ Urkunden der Ptolemäerzeit
4 ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik
5
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Apollonia
1
2
3
4
5
A E G E A N 6
Trikka
Dodona Larissa
7
Koropi S E A
Ephyra 8
(Nekyomanteion)
9
20
Orchomenos
1
Ionian
Delphi Lebadeia 2
Islands Onchestos
Thebes Ptoon
Oropos 3
4
Bura Athens
5
Corinth
Epidaurus
6
Olympia
7
Phigaleia
I O N I A N 8
9
S E A Sparta 30
1
Thalamae
2
3
C. Tainaron
4
5
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A 6
C r e t e
7
8
Map 1 Mainland Greece.
9
40x
 B L A C K S E A
s
ru
ho
sp
Bo

Byzantium

Sea of
Marmara
s
lle
ne
a
rd
Da

Smintheion A N A T O L I A

Pergamon

Gryneion
Lesbos Aegae
Daldis

Erythrae
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Chios Ephesus

Samos Hieracome Acharaca

Adada
Didyma Labranda

A E G E A N
Cos
S E A Castabos Telmessos Limyra
Cos Cnidus
Cyaneae Sura
Patara

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Karpathos

C r e t e
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A

Map 2 Western Asia Minor.

 Samosata

Eu
ph
A N A T O L I A

ra
tes
Hierapolis
(Membij)
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Mallus

Seleuceia Antioch

C. Sarpedon

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Antiocheia Apamea

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T
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N
Aphaca
Heliopolis (Baalbek)
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V

M E D I T E R R A N E A N
E

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Jordan
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Map 3 South-eastern Asia Minor and the Levant.

 Five-throw oracles of a
community
Lesb os A N A T O L I A Five-throw oracles not
attached to a community
Seven-throw oracles

Amabura Alphabet oracles

Prostanna
Hierapolis Timbriada
Ch i os Askeriye Sagalassos Adada
Laodikeia Kremna
S amo s Sigirlik
Takina Yariköy
Pednelissos Selge
Ormeleis
Incik
Anbarcik Termessos Perge Aspendos
A E G E A N Side
Attaleia Hamaxia
Oinoanda
S E A Kitanaura

Cos Olympos
Antiocheia
ad Cragum

Rho d e s

Karpathos Soloi
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A C y p r u s
C r e t e

Map 4 Dice oracles of Lycia and neighbouring regions.

 1
2
3
4
5
6
Introduction 7
8
9
10
1
Apollo will never fail me, so his tremendous power, his oracle charges me to 2
see this trial through. 3
Aeschylus, Libation-Bearers ll.269–70 (tr. Robert Fagles) 4
5
Phoebus says clearly, ‘Wait, friend’. 6
Dice oracle at Olympus, Lycia 7
8
In sickness and in fear, in distress and despair, before important life 9
decisions and puzzling quandaries, people seek answers that introspection 20
alone cannot give. The advice of friends may fail, or be no more reliable 1
than one’s own reflections. Even professional advisers may be suspect,1 and 2
sages, from the Hebrew prophets and the Arab kahins to Greek mages 3
like Empedocles,2 often concerned themselves with revelations rather than 4
practical advice. One seeks an independent assessment of one’s situation 5
and chances. A higher power is required. But in most cultures, from 6
antiquity to the present, people have had recourse to the distant gods for 7
assistance, whether by prayer or by visiting, for example, healing sanctu- 8
aries like Lourdes in southern France. Such recourse to the gods is a form 9
of divination (though divination need not involve gods at all).3 In these 30
cases, the afflicted seek to divine the opinion of the gods in the hope that a 1
god’s words will also offer guidance. This book is about the distinctive ways 2
in which the ancient Greeks and their neighbours sought to ascertain the 3
opinions of the gods, how they set about making the gods speak. 4
Over more than a thousand years, Greeks consulted oracles for guidance. 5
Oracles and sacrifice formed the twin pillars of Greek civic religion, and 6
both came to an end only with the abolition of all forms of pagan obser- 7
vance by Theodosius I in AD 395. But even then the oracles continued, 8
sometimes attached to Christian or Muslim shrines, but more often in 9
different forms. The consultation of random passages of sacred books 40x
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