Digital Control System

Digital Control System

1. Introduction
Digital control has become the cornerstone of all industrial automation and control systems. Digital
technology, or simply digital system, is defined as a system that employs digital theory and
technique for the design of information systems and sophisticated electronic devices and
components to be used for digital control.
In digital technology the inputs and outputs are strictly digital in nature. Compared to analog, digital
technology is inherently versatile because it employs digital signals, which are more accurate,
reliable and error free compared to analog systems. Digital technology based control
implementations are configurable, interoperable, extendable and scalable. With the development
and increased applications of digital technology over its analog counterpart, the basics of digital
technology must be understood.
In the past few decades, analog controllers have often been replaced by digital controllers whose
inputs and outputs are defined at discrete time instants. The digital controllers are in the form of
digital circuits, digital computers, or microprocessors.

2. Analog or Continuous Systems, Digital or Discrete-Time Systems and Hybrid

Systems
A signal is called analog or continuous-time if it is defined at every time t.
A system is a analog or continuous-time system if it takes a continuous-time input signal, and outputs a
continuous-time output signal.
A signal is called digital or discrete-time if it is only defined for particular points in time. A digital system
takes discrete-time input signals, and produces discrete-time output signals.
Hybrid Systems are systems that have both analog and digital components. Devices called samplers are
used to convert analog signals into digital signals, and Devices called reconstructors are used to convert
digital signals into analog signals. Because of the use of samplers, hybrid systems are frequently called
sampled-data systems.

3. Why Digital Control (Advantages of Digital Control System)

Digital control offers distinct advantages over analog that explain its popularity. Here are some of
its main advantages:
1. Accuracy: Digital signal are represented in terms of zeros and ones with typically 12 bits or
more to represent a single number. This involves a very small error as compared to analog
signals, where noise and power supply drift are always present.
2. Implementation Errors: Digital processing of control signals involves addition and
multiplication by stored numerical values. The errors that result from digital
representation and arithmetic are negligible. By contrast, the processing of analog signals
is performed using components such as resistors and capacitors with actual values that vary
significantly from the nominal design values.
3. Noise Immunity: Digital systems exhibit more noise immunity than analog systems by
virtue of the methods of implementation. Once signal is converted, noise and drift
problems are minimized.
4. Flexibility: Complex function can be implemented in software so easily rather than
hardware. Easy to add more functions, safety functions, digital readouts, etc. An analog
controller is difficult to modify or redesign once implemented in hardware. A digital
controller is implemented in firmware or software and its modification is possible without a
complete replacement of the original controller. Furthermore, the structure of the digital
controller need not follow one of the simple forms that are typically used in analog control.
More complex controller structures involve a few extra arithmetic operations and are easily
realizable.

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 1 of 11

 Digital Control System

5. Speed: The speed of computer hardware has increased exponentially since the 1980s. This
increase in processing speed has made it possible to sample and process control signals at
very high speeds. Because the interval between samples, the sampling period, can be made
very small, digital controllers achieve performance that is essentially the same as the based
on continuous monitoring of the controlled variable. Multiple processes can be controlled
using one microprocessor with very high speed.
6. Cost: Hardware is replaced by software, which is costly-effective. Although the prices of
most goods and services have steadily increased, the cost of digital circuitry continues to
decrease. Advances in very large-scale integration (VLSI) technology have made it possible
to manufacture better, faster, and more reliable integrated circuits and to offer them to the
consumer at a lower price. This has made the use of digital controllers more economical
even for small, low-cost applications.
7. Reliable: Reliability in implementation, that means, you can simply modify the control
function in software without extra cost.
8. Wide Selection of Control Algorithm: Implementation of advanced control techniques was
earlier constrained by the limitations of analog controllers and the high costs digital
computers. However, with the advent of inexpensive digital computers with virtually
limitless computing power, the techniques of modern control theory may now be put to
practice. For example, in multivariable control systems with more than one input and one
output, modern techniques for optimizing system performance or reducing interactions
between feedback loops can now be implemented. Infinite algorithms are possible.
9. Integrated Control of Industrial Systems: Feedback control is only one of the functions of
the computer. In fact, most of the information transfer between the process and the computer
exploits the logical decision-making capability of the computer. Real-time applications of
information processing and decision-making, e.g., producing planning, scheduling,
optimizing, operations control, etc., may now be integrated with the traditional process
control functions.

4. Digital Controller
Digital controllers could take one of the forms:
1. Computer: A computer or simply microprocessor board. Microprocessors are developed in
the early 1970s as a large scale integration of digital integrated circuits. Once they have
developed and started to be manufactured commercially, digital controller are developed.
2. Microcontroller: Microcontroller is a microprocessor system on chip as a single integrated
circuit. It can be used in embedded control applications such as TV, mobile phones, Air
conditioner, Video Camera, Hard disk controllers, Robots, Smart car manufacturing, etc. It
is a digital controller that can be used for a limited number of inputs and outputs in process
control applications.
3. Programmable logic controller (PLCs): PLC can handle a very large number (as hundreds
or thousands) of digital inputs and outputs in industrial control applications. It has a standard
interfaces with the field measurements in the industry. Therefore, it has increasing attention
to replace old relay logic control cabinets in the industry by PLC developments.

Function of Digital Controller

The digital controller can perform two functions:
™ Supervisory (external to the feedback loop): supervisory functions consist of scheduling
tasks, monitoring parameters and variables for out-of-range values, or initiating safety
shutdown.
™ Control (internal to the feedback loop): Control functions are of primary interest to us,
since a computer that performs within the feedback loop replaces the methods of
compensation heretofore discussed. Examples of control functions are lead and lag
compensation.

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 2 of 11

 Digital Control System

5. Digital Control System

The overall block diagram of a digital control system is shown in Figure 12.1. Digital control
system consists of (see Figure 12.1):
1. Digital controller
2. ADC, Analog to digital converter
3. DAC, Digital to analog converter

Figure 12.1: Block Diagram of a Digital Control System.

Connecting digital circuitry to sensor devices is simple if the sensor devices are digital inherently
themselves. Switches, relays, and encoders are easily interfaced with gate circuits due to the on/off
nature of their signals.
When analog devices are involved, interfacing becomes much more complex. What is needed is a
way to electronically translate analog signals into digital (binary) quantities, and vice-versa. An
analog-to-digital converter (ADC), performs the former task while a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC), performs the latter.
Error detection and controller action are determined by software. The digital controller then
provides output directly to the actuator via digital representation, which is converted to the analog
voltage by the DAC.
An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and outputs a binary number.
In block diagram form as shown in Figure 12.2, it can be represented as such: A DAC, on the other
hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an analog voltage or current signal. Together, they are
often used in digital systems to provide complete interface with analog sensors and output devices
for control systems such as those used in automotive engine controls:

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 3 of 11

 Digital Control System

Since a digital controller is like a computer, it stores information in the form of ones and zeros,
referred to as binary digits (bits). Sometimes binary digits are used individually and sometimes they
are used to represent numerical values.

Figure 12.2: Computer control interface system.

6. Sampling and Holding Process

The basic concept of the sample and hold circuit is shown in Figure 12.4

Figure 12.4: Sample and hold circuit.

The sample and hold is connected to the input of ADC. When the electronic switch (FET transistor)
is closed the capacitor voltage will track the input voltage. T some time, when a conversion of the
input signal is desired, the electronic switch is opened, isolating the capacitor from the input signal.
Thus, the capacitor will hold (be charged) to the voltage when the switch was closed. The voltage
follower allows this voltage to be impressed upon the ADC input, but the capacitor does not
discharge because of very high input impedance of the follower. The start convert is then is then
issued, and the conversion proceeds with the input voltage remaining constant from the capacitor.
When the conversion is complete the electronic switch is reclosed to capture a new sample and the
above sequence is repeated.

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 4 of 11

 Digital Control System

Selection of Sampling Frequency

When the sample period is too long (too slow), substantial details of the analog signal will be
missed. An ADC's sample time is fast enough to capture essential changes in the analog waveform.
In data acquisition terminology, the highest-frequency waveform that an ADC can theoretically
capture is the so-called Nyquist frequency, equal to one-half of the ADC's sample frequency.
If an ADC circuit has a sample frequency of 5000 Hz, the highest-frequency waveform it can
successfully resolve will be the Nyquist frequency of 2500 Hz.
The sampling rate must be at least twice the bandwidth of the signal, or else there will be
distortion. This minimum sampling frequency is called the Nyquist sampling rate.
If an ADC is subjected to an analog input signal whose frequency exceeds the Nyquist frequency
for that ADC, the converter will output a digitized signal of falsely low frequency. This
phenomenon is known as aliasing. Observe the following illustration to see how aliasing occurs.

(a) Analog signal (b) Analog signal after sample-and-hold

(c) Conversion of samples to digital numbers

Figure 12.5: Steps in analog-to-digital conversion.

In Figure 12.5(a), we start with the analog signal. In Figure 12.5(b), we see the analog signal
sampled at periodic intervals and held over the sampling interval by a device called a zero-order
sample-and-hold (z.o.h.) that yields a staircase approximation to the analog signal. Higher-order
holds, such as a first-order hold, generate more complex and more accurate waveshapes between
samples. For example, a first-order hold generates a ramp between the samples.
Samples are held before being digitized because the analog-to-digital converter converts the voltage
to a digital number via a digital counter, which takes time to reach the correct digital number.
Hence, the constant analog voltage must be present during the conversion process.
After sampling and holding, the analog-to-digital converter converts the sample to a digital number
(as shown in Figure 12.5(c)), which is arrived at in the following manner. The dynamic range of the
analog signal’s voltage is divided into discrete levels, and each level is assigned a digital number.
For example, in Figure 12.5(b), the analog signal is divided into eight levels. A three-bit digital
number can represent each of the eight levels as shown in the figure. Thus, the difference between

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 5 of 11

 Digital Control System

quantization levels is M/8 volts, where M is the maximum analog voltage. In general, for any
system, this difference is M/2n volts, where n is the number of binary bits used for the analog-to-
digital conversion.

7. Analog to digital converter (ADC)

A device that converts analog signals to digital signals is called an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter
(ADC). This device acts on a continuous physical variable, typically a voltage, and converts it into
an integer number. The ADC requires three operations in sequence:
1. Sampling circuit
2. Holding circuit
3. ADC circuit
Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) is a two-step process and is not instantaneous. There is a delay
between the input analog voltage and the output digital word. In an ADC, the analog signal is first
converted to a sampled signal and then converted to a sequence of binary numbers, the digital
signal. It is often sequential circuit that takes a considerable time to convert the holding sample into
digital word. Different types of ADC circuits are as follows:
(i) Digital ramp ADC [Use stair-step ramp or simply counter]
(ii) Successive approximation ADC [Use successive-approximation register (SAR)]
(iii) Tracking ADC [Use up/down counter]
(iv) Dual-Slope ADC
(v) Voltage-to-Frequency ADC [Use a linear voltage controlled oscillator]
(vi) Delta-Sigma (∆Σ) ADC [Use the capital Greek letter delta (∆) represents difference
or change, while the capital letter sigma (Σ) represents summation: the adding of
multiple terms together]
(vii) Flash ADC [Also called Parallel ADC]

Figure 12.3: Performance of ADC Type.

8. Digital to analog converter (DAC)

A device that converts digital signals to analog signals is called a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter
(DAC). This device converts an (integer) number to a voltage. DAC requires two operations in
sequence:
1. DAC Circuit
2. Holding Circuit

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 6 of 11

 Digital Control System

Digital-to-analog conversion is simple and effectively instantaneous. Properly weighted voltages

are summed together to yield the analog output. For example, in Figure 12.5, three weighted
voltages are summed. The three-bit binary code is represented by the switches. Thus, if the binary
number is 1102, the center and bottom switches are on, and the analog output is 6 volts. In actual
use, the switches are electronic and are set by the input binary code.

Figure 12.5: Digital-to-Analog converter.

Different types of DAC circuits are as follows:

(i) R/2nR DAC (Also called Binary-Weighted-Input DAC)
(ii) R/2R DAC (An alternative to the binary-weighted-input DAC)

9. Z-Transform
The primary new component of discrete systems is the notion of time discretization. No longer are
we dealing with variables which are functions of time, now we have sequences of discrete numbers.
These discrete numbers may come from sampling a continuous variable, or they may be generated
within a computer. In either case, the tools that were used in the analysis of continuous variables
will no longer work. We need new methods.

The z-transform bears exactly the same relationship to a discrete variable that the Laplace transform
bears to a continuous variable. This is the new tool we need, and the whole of transform-based
digital control system design turns on the z-transform.

An ideal sampler described by

∞
f * (t ) =∑ f (kT )δ (t − kT ) (13.7)
k = −∞
Where, k is sampling instant, f(kT) is constant for a sampling period.
Taking the Laplace transform of this sampled time waveform, we obtain
∞
F * (s ) =∑ f (kT )e − kTs (13.9)
k =0
Now, letting z = eTs , Eq. (13.9) can be written as

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 7 of 11

 Digital Control System

∞
F (z ) = ∑ f (kT ) z − k (3.10)
k =0
Equation (13.10) defines the z-transform. That is, an F(z) can be transformed to f(kT), or an f(kT)
can be transformed to F(z). Alternately, we can write
e − kTs = z − k (3.10a)
f (kT ) ↔ F ( z ) (3.10b)
Paralleling the development of the Laplace transform, we can form a table relating f(kT), the value
of the sampled time function at the sampling instants, to F(z). Let us look at an example.

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 8 of 11

 Digital Control System

A partial table of z-transforms is shown in Table 13.1, and a partial table of z-transform theorems is
shown in Table 13.2. For functions not in the table, we must perform an inverse z-transform
calculation similar to the inverse Laplace transform by partial-fraction expansion. Let us now see
how we can work in the reverse direction and find the time function from its z-transform.

10. Digital System Stability via the z-Plane

In the s-plane, the region of stability is the left half-plane. If the transfer function, G(s), is
transformed into a sampled-data transfer function, G(z), the region of stability on the z-plane can be
evaluated from the definition, z = eTs. Letting s=α + jω, we obtain
z = eTs = eT (α + jω ) = eαT e jωT
(13.47)
α α
= e (cos ωT + j sin ωT ) = e ∠ωT
T T
Since (cosωT+jsinωT)=1∠ωT.

Each region of the s-plane can be mapped into a corresponding region on the z-plane (see Figure
13.13).

Figure 13.13: Mapping regions of the s-plane into the z-plane.

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 9 of 11

 Digital Control System

Points that have positive values of α are in the right half of the s-plane, region C. From Eq. (13.47),
the magnitudes of the mapped points are α>1. Thus points in the right half of the s-plane map into
points outside the unit circle on the z-plane.
Points on the jω-axis, region B, have zero values of α and yield points on the z-plane with
magnitude=1, the unit circle. Hence, points on the jω-axis in the s-plane map into points on the unit
circle on the z-plane.
Finally, points on the s-plane that yield negative values of α (left–half-plane roots, region A) map
into the inside of the unit circle on the z-plane.

Thus, a digital control system is

1. Stable if all poles of the closed-loop transfer function, T(z), are inside the unit circle on the
z-plane.
2. Unstable if any pole is outside the unit circle and/or there are poles of multiplicity greater
than one on the unit circle.
3. Marginally stable if poles of multiplicity one are on the unit circle and all other poles are
inside the unit circle. Let us look at an example.

Disadvantages of Digital Control Systems

There are certain limitations of a sampled data control system. These limitations or disadvantages
are as follows:
1. Designing the digital controllers is very much complex than designing the analog controllers
for an equivalent level of performance.
2. The sampling process tends to result in more errors, which may affect the system
performance.
3. There are limitations on the signal resolution due to the finite wordlength of the digital
processors.
4. Requires more components.
5. Digitizing analog signals results limited resolution.
6. Adding more functions might limit performance.
7. Requires better design skills.
8. Digital computers cannot integrate signals, must be converted to products and sums.
9. Components inherently susceptible to damage in harsh environments.

Review Questions
1. What do you mean by analog or continuous systems, digital or discrete-time systems and
hybrid systems?
2. Why digital control system is more preferable than analog control system?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital control system?
4. What are the different forms of digital controller? Briefly describe the different forms of
digital controller.
5. Name two functions that the digital computer can perform when used with feedback control
systems.
6. With necessary block diagram briefly explain the different major blocks of block diagram of
digital control system.
7. What do you mean by analog-to-digital converter (ADC)? What are the required operations
in sequence for ADC? What are the different types of ADC?
8. What do you mean by digital-to-analog converter (DAC)? What are the required operations
in sequence for DAC? What are the different types of DAC?

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 10 of 11

 Digital Control System

9. Briefly explain the sampling and holding process to convert from analog signal to digital
signal.
10. What is the z-transform?
11. Where is the region for stability on the z-plane?

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan Page 11 of 11