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Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

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Chapter 2
MANAGEMENT LEARNING PAST TO PRESENT

Takeaway Questions & Learning Objectives

In studying this chapter, students should consider the following questions and be able to complete the
accompanying objectives:

Takeaway 1: What can we learn from classical management thinking?

Learning Objective: Identify what can be learned from the classical management approaches.

Takeaway 2: What insights come from behavioral management approaches?

Learning Objective: Identify what can be learned from the behavioral management approaches.

Takeaway 3: What are the foundations of modern management thinking?

Learning Objective: Identify what can be learned from the modern management approaches.

Overview

Historical records indicate that people have been “getting things done through others” since at least
biblical times. In all likelihood, prehistoric people also practiced management in order to secure shelter,
direct hunting expeditions, and cultivate the land. The systematic study of management through the use
of the scientific method, however, is a relatively recent development. Contemporary managers can
benefit from the organized body of knowledge we call “management.” It is a source of theories that
managers can use to guide their actions.
This chapter outlines the historical evolution of management thought. The systematic study of
management as a science began in earnest with the classical management approaches. Individuals such as
Frederick Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett, and Max Weber
contributed greatly to the development of the scientific management, administrative principles, and
bureaucratic organization branches of classical management. The theories and ideas of these individuals
are discussed in detail along with the lessons that were learned from these branches of the classical
approach. Many of these lessons have value for managers in contemporary businesses.

With the advent of the human resources (or behavioral management) approaches, the assumptions of
management theory shifted away from the notion that people are rational toward the idea that people are
social and self-actualizing. The Hawthorne studies and Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs provided
the impetus for this shift. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y and Chris Argyris’ ideas
regarding worker maturity further refined the notions regarding the social and psychological motivations
of workers. W. Edwards Deming brought about the quality movement in management, leading to the
emergence of total quality management with the concept of continuous improvement. The chapter
provides a thorough discussion of the contributions and insights of these behavioral management
approaches.

The chapter then examines modern approaches to management. The use of analytics, management
science and operations management investigate how quantitative techniques can improve managerial
decision making. Systems theory contributes to the modern perspective by providing managers with an
appreciation for the complexity and dynamic interplay of organizations and their environments.
Contingency thinking tries to match management practices with situational demands. Learning
organizations continuously change and improve, using the lessons of experience. Finally, high-
performance organizations consistently achieve excellence while creating a high-quality work
environment.

Lecture Outline

Teaching Objective: The purpose of this chapter is to expose students to the historical roots of
management theory and practice. By understanding the theoretical foundations for modern management,
students can develop a greater appreciation of the concepts advanced in subsequent chapters.

Suggested Time: A minimum of 2 hours of class time is required to thoroughly present this chapter.

Takeaway Question 1: What can we learn from classical management thinking?

Scientific management
Administrative principles
Bureaucratic organization

Takeaway Question 2: What insights come from the behavioral management approaches?
Follett’s organizations as communities
The Hawthorne studies Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs McGregor’s
Theory X and Theory Y Argyris’s
personality and organization
Takeaway Question 3: What are the foundations of modern management thinking?
Quantitative analysis and tools
Organizations as systems
Contingency thinking
Quality management
Evidence-based management
Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

CHAPTER 2 SUPPORTING MATERIALS

Figures
Figure 2.1: Major Branches in the Classical Approach to Management
Figure 2.2: Foundations in the Behavioral or Human Resource Approaches to Management
Figure 2.3: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs
Figure 2.4: Organizations as Complex Networks of Interacting Subsystems

Thematic Boxes
Analysis: Best Employers for Work-Life Balance
Ethics: Tracking Technology Monitors Worker Behavior
Wisdom: Former Microsoft Executive Fights Illiteracy and Gains Fulfillment
Insight: Make Learning Style Work for You
Choices: Employers Differ on Hiring and Retention Strategies
Recommended Reading: Great by Choice: Uncertainty, Chaos, and Luck -- Why Some Thrive
Despite Them All

Management Learning Review

Summary
Self-Test

Management Skills & Competencies

Evaluate Career Situations: What Would You Do?
Reflect on the Self-Assessment: Managerial Assumptions
Contribute to the Class Exercise: Evidence-Based Management Quiz
Manage a Critical Incident: Theory X versus Theory Y
Collaborate on the Team Activity: Management in Popular Culture
Analyze the Case Study: Zara International: Fashion at the Speed of Light

Lecture Notes

Today’s managers can draw on management theory to guide their actions; they can learn from the
insights of people throughout history who have thought about effective management.

David Wren’s The Evolution of Management Thought notes that early management thinking began with
the ancient Sumerian civilization in 5000 B. C. and evolved through many subsequent civilizations.

During the Industrial Revolution, Adam Smith established the principles of specialization and division of
labor. Henry Ford and others further popularized these principles through their emphasis on mass
production.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-3

Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

DISCUSSION TOPIC
One way to introduce this chapter is to ask students, “Why do we bother to study management history?”
Students are quick to point out that we can learn from the experiences of others, and can capitalize on
their successes and avoid their mistakes. After all, those who are “ignorant of history are doomed to
repeat it.”

CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

Takeaway 1: What can we learn from classical management thinking?
Learning Objective: Identify what can be learned from the classical management approaches.

FIGURE 2.1 of the text depicts the major branches of the classical approach to management,
which include scientific management, administrative principles, and bureaucratic organization.

Classical approaches share a common assumption: People at work act in a rational manner that is
primarily driven by economic concerns. Workers are expected to rationally consider
opportunities made available to them and to do whatever is necessary to achieve the greatest
personal and monetary gain.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Frederick Taylor is known as the “father” of scientific management, which emphasizes careful
selection and training of workers and supervisory support. He advocated the following four
principles of scientific management
1. Develop for every job a “science” that includes rules of motion, standardized work
implements, and proper working conditions.
2. Carefully select workers with the right abilities for the job.
3. Carefully train workers to do the job and give them the proper incentives to cooperate with
the job “science.”
4. Support workers by carefully planning their work and by smoothing the way as they go about
their jobs.

Although Taylor called his approach “scientific” management, contemporary scholars question
his reporting and the scientific rigor underlying his studies.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Students can appreciate Taylor’s work better if they understand that since his youth he looked for the
“one best way” of doing things. For example, he searched for the “best way” to take cross-country walks.
At Bethlehem Steel, Taylor searched for the “best way” to do various jobs. He studied the job of loading
92 pound “pigs of iron ore,” found a husky volunteer named Schmidt, and showed him the “best way” to

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-4

Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

load the ore. Interestingly, he told Schmidt to rest 58% of the time. The amount he could load rose from
12.5 to 47.5 tons per day and his wages rose 60%.
In telling this story, ask a muscular student to load a mock pig of ore (use a moderately heavy object)
before showing how to do so using fewer motions. This example illustrates the power of scientific
management. Taylor popularized this approach, and its impact on manufacturing is still apparent.

(Source: Wren, D.A. The Evolution of Management Thought, New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1972, pp. 112-133.)

Practical insights from scientific management:

1. Make results-based compensation a performance incentive.

2. Carefully design jobs with efficient work methods.
3. Carefully select workers with the abilities to do these jobs.
4. Train workers to perform jobs to the best of their abilities.
5. Train supervisors to support workers so they can perform jobs to the best of their abilities.

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth pioneered motion study –– the science of reducing a job or task to its
basic physical motions. Wasted motions are eliminated to improve performance. As the text
indicates, Worthington Industries in Ohio currently uses one of the techniques of motion study –
time clocks. Each workstation has a clock that shows the goal time for the task, and the actual
time it takes, which allows a worker to improve productivity.

DISCUSSION TOPIC
You may also want to point out to students that Henry Gantt, another contemporary of Frederick Taylor,
made important contributions, including: (a) an innovative task and bonus wage scheme in which
workers and supervisors received bonuses for exceeding standards; and (b) the Gantt chart which
graphically depicts the scheduling of tasks required to complete a project.

ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLES

Henri Fayol was a French executive who advanced the following five “rules” of management:

1. Foresight –– to complete a plan of action for the future.

2. Organization –– to provide and mobilize resources to implement the plan.
3. Command –– to lead, select, and evaluate workers to get the best work toward the plan.
4. Coordination –– to fit diverse efforts together and ensure information is shared and
problems solved.
5. Control –– to make sure things happen according to plan and to take necessary corrective
action.

Note the similarity of these “rules” to the contemporary management functions of planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-5

Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

Fayol believed that management could be taught, and formulated principles to guide management
practice.

Fayol introduced the following key principles of management:

1. Scalar chain principle –– there should be a clear and unbroken line of communication
from the top to the bottom of the organization.
2. Unity of command principle –– each person should receive orders from only one boss.
3. Unity of direction principle –– one person should be in charge of all activities that have
the same performance objective.

BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATION

Max Weber, a German intellectual, introduced bureaucracy as an organizational structure that

promotes efficiency and fairness.

Weber viewed a bureaucracy as an ideal, intentionally rational, and very efficient form of
organization founded on principles of logic, order, and legitimate authority.

Characteristics of bureaucratic organizations include the following

Clear division of labor: Jobs are well defined, and workers become highly skilled at
performing them.
Clear hierarchy of authority: Authority and responsibility are well defined for each position,
and each position reports to a higher-level one.
Formal rules and procedures: Written guidelines direct behavior and decisions in jobs, and
written files are kept for historical record.
Impersonality: Rules and procedures are impartially and uniformly applied, with no one
receiving preferential treatment.
Careers based on merit: Workers are selected and promoted on ability and performance, and
managers are career employees of the organization.

Possible disadvantages of bureaucracy:

Excessive paperwork or “red tape.”
Slowness in handling problems.
Rigidity in the face of shifting customer or client needs.
Resistance to change.
Employee apathy.

DISCUSSION TOPIC
Modern management theory does not consider bureaucracy to be appropriate or inappropriate for all
situations; instead, the bureaucratic structure is recommended for simple and stable environments, while
more flexible structures are suggested for dynamic and complex environments. Ask students to explain

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-6

Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

why a bureaucratic organization would be an inappropriate structure for organizations operating in very
dynamic and complex environments.

BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

Takeaway 2: What insights come from behavioral management approaches?
Learning Objective: Identify what can be learned from the behavioral management approaches.

Behavioral approaches to management maintain that people are social and self-actualizing. People at
work are assumed to seek satisfying social relationships, respond to group pressures, and search for
personal fulfillment.

Figure 2.2 of the text depicts the foundations of the human resource approaches to management. These
are the Hawthorne studies, Maslow’s theory of human needs, McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y,
Follett’s organizations as communities and Argyris’ theory of adult personality. The historical
foundations set by these approaches are found in the field of organizational behavior, which is devoted
to the study of individuals and groups in organizations.

FOLLETT ON ORGANIZATIONS AS COMMUNITIES

Mary Parker Follett describes organizations as communities within which managers and workers
should labor in harmony, without one party dominating the other and with the freedom to talk
over and truly reconcile conflicts and differences.

THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES

These studies started off as scientific management experiments designed to determine how
economic incentives and the physical conditions of the workplace affected the output of workers.
Despite repeated efforts, however, no consistent relationship was found. The researchers
concluded that psychological factors had influenced the results.

Social Setting and Human Relations

Elton Mayo and his associates manipulated physical work conditions to assess their
impact on output. Experiments were designed to minimize the “psychological factors”
associated with previous experiments in the Hawthorne studies. Once again, output
increased regardless of the changes made.

Mayo and his colleagues concluded that increases arose from a group atmosphere that
fostered pleasant social relations, and from the participative supervision found in the
experimental groups.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-7

Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

Lessons of the Hawthorne Studies

People’s feelings, attitudes, and relationships with co-workers influence their

performance.

The Hawthorne effect was identified as a tendency of people who are singled out for
special attention to perform as anticipated merely because of expectations created by the
situation.

The Hawthorne studies contributed to development of the human relations movement

during the 1950s and 1960s, which asserted that managers who use good human relations
in the workplace would achieve productivity. In turn, the human relations movement
became the precursor of contemporary organizational behavior, the study of individuals
and groups in organizations.

DISCUSSION TOPIC
To the Hawthorne researchers’ surprise, the workers in the Bank Wiring Room established an informal
group norm regarding the quantity of output that was below the standard set by management. Output was
restricted despite a group incentive plan that rewarded each worker on the basis of the total output of the
group. Group members enforced this output restriction norm by using disciplinary devices such as
sarcasm, ridicule, ostracizing co-workers, and “binging.”
For fun, ask the students if they know what “binging” means; chances are they won’t. Then find a
volunteer for a demonstration. Pretend that you are going to “bing” the student by punching him or her in
the arm but stop short before making contact. This amuses the class while demonstrating the lengths that
groups will go to in enforcing norms. Wrap up the demonstration by noting the contribution of the
Hawthorne Studies in revealing these subtle group processes.

MASLOW’S THEORY OF HUMAN NEEDS

FIGURE 2.3 of the text illustrates Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

A need is a physiological or psychological deficiency that a person feels compelled to satisfy.

Maslow’s hierarchy identifies five levels of human needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization.

The deficit principle states that people act to satisfy “deprived” needs –– that is, needs for which
a satisfaction deficit exists; conversely, a satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior.

The progression principle states that the five needs exist in a hierarchy of prepotency, and that a
need at any level only becomes activated once the preceding lower-level need is satisfied.

The deficit and progression principles cease to operate at the self-actualization level.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-8

Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

MCGREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y

The Hawthorne studies and Maslow’s theory of human needs heavily influenced Douglas
McGregor, the developer of Theory X and Theory Y. He argued that managers should devote
more attention to people’s social and self-actualizing needs at work.

McGregor asserted that managers must shift their perspective from Theory X assumptions to
Theory Y assumptions.

Theory X – managers assume that subordinates:

1. Dislike work.
2. Lack ambition
3. Are irresponsible
4. Resist change.
5. Prefer to be led rather than to lead.

Theory Y – managers assume that subordinates are:

1. Willing to work.
2. Capable of self-control.
3. Willing to accept responsibility.
4. Imaginative and creative.
5. Capable of self-direction.

DISCUSSION TOPIC
Once you have presented the assumptions held by Theory X and Theory Y managers, ask students to
think about supervisors they worked for and to indicate if the supervisors seemed to make Theory X or
Theory Y assumptions about their subordinates. Then ask: “How did these supervisors treat their
employees?” “Do you consider them to be good or bad managers?”

McGregor believed that managers who hold either set of assumptions can create self-fulfilling
prophecies — that is, through their behavior they create situations where subordinates act to
confirm their expectations.

Theory X managers create situations where workers become dependent and reluctant.

Theory Y managers create situations where workers respond with initiative and high
performance.
Theory Y assumptions are central to contemporary ideas about employee participation,
involvement, empowerment, and self-management.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-9

Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

ARGYRIS’ THEORY OF ADULT PERSONALITY

Argyris asserts that some classical management principles such as task specialization, hierarchy
of authority, and unity of direction inhibit worker maturation by discouraging independence,
initiative, and self-actualization. Thus, these classical management principles are inconsistent
with the mature adult personality.

Argyris’ advice is to expand job responsibilities, allow more task variety, and adjust supervisory
styles to allow more participation and promote better human relations. He believes that the
common problems of employee absenteeism, turnover, apathy, alienation, and low morale may
be signs of a mismatch between management practices and mature adult personalities.

MODERN MANAGEMENT FOUNDATIONS

Takeaway 3: What are the foundations of modern management thinking?
Learning Objective: Identify what can be learned from the modern management approaches.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS AND TOOLS

Today, managers use data to solve problems and make informed decisions using systematic
analysis. This technique is known as analytics.

The terms management science and operations research are often used interchangeably to
describe the scientific applications of mathematical techniques to management problems.

Operations management is the study of how organizations produce goods and services.

Management science applications include:

Mathematical forecasting which helps make future projections that are useful in the planning
process.
Inventory analysis helps control inventories by mathematically establishing how much to
order and when.
Queuing theory which helps allocate service personnel or workstations to minimize customer
waiting time and service cost.
Linear programming which is used to calculate how best to allocate scarce resources among
competing uses.
Network models break large tasks into smaller components to allow for better analysis,
planning, and control of complex projects.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-10

Schermerhorn & Bachrach / Management, 13th Instructor’s Guide

ORGANIZATIONS AS SYSTEMS

A system is a collection of interrelated parts that function together to achieve a common

purpose.

A subsystem is a smaller component of a larger system.

An open system interacts with its environment in a continual process of transforming inputs
from suppliers into outputs for customers.

FIGURE 2.4 on page 46 of the text shows organizations as complex networks of interacting
subsystems.

CONTINGENCY THINKING

Contingency thinking tries to match managerial responses with the problems and opportunities
specific to different situations, particularly those posed by individual and environmental
differences.

Contingency approaches to management assert that there is no one best way to manage. Instead,
managers should understand situational differences and respond to them in appropriate ways.

QUALITY MANAGEMENT

W. Edwards Deming is the cornerstone of the quality movement in management. His approach to
quality emphasizes constant innovation, use of statistical methods, and commitment to training in
the fundamentals of quality assurance.

Total quality management is a process of making a commitment to quality part of all

operations.

Continuous improvement is a process of always looking for new ways to improve.

DISCUSSION TOPIC
Using the above core ingredients of learning organizations, have students analyze a business firm, a
volunteer organization, or a college/university with which they are familiar. Make sure that they provide
examples to illustrate each of the core ingredients. Also, you may wish to have them discuss how the
presence or absence of these core ingredients seems to have affected the focal organization’s
effectiveness, efficiency, and ability to compete.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-11

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