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 Introduction to
the Mathematics
of Medical Imaging
+ +
IOT102_EpsteinFM1.Qxp 8/9/2007 3,27 PM Page 2~

+ +
IOT102_EpSeeinFM1. Qxp 8/9/2007 3:27 PM Page 3----$----

Introduction to
the Mathematics
of Medical Imaging
Second Edition
+ Charles L. Epstein
+
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

•
5!aJTL.
Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics· Philadelphia
 Copyright © 2008 by Charles L. Epstein.

This SIAM edition is a second edition of the work first published by Pearson Education, Inc.,
2003.

10987654321

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be
reproduced, stored, or transmitted in any manner without the written permission of the
publisher. For information, write to the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics,
3600 Market Street, 6th floor, Philadelphia, PA 19104-2688 USA.

Trademarked names may be used in this book without the inclusion of a trademark symbol.
These names are used in an editorial context only; no infringement of trademark is intended.

GE is owned and licensed by the General Electric Company and its subsidiaries.

Maple is a registered trademark of Waterloo Maple, Inc.

+ +
MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For MATLAB product information,
please contact The MathWorks, Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA,
508-647-7000, Fax: 508-647-7101, [email protected], wwwmathworks.com.

Figures 14.2-14.6 and figure 16.2 are from Charles L. Epstein and Felix W. Wehrli,
"Magnetic resonance imaging," in Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, pp. 367-375.
Copyright Elsevier 2006.

library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Epstein, Charles L.
Introduction to the mathematics of medical imaging / Charles L. Epstein. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-89871-642-9 (alk. paper)
1. Diagnostic imaging--Mathematics. 2. Imaging systems in medicine--Mathematics.
3. Medical physics--Mathematics. I. Title.

RC78.7.D53E6762008
616.07' 54--dc22 2007061801

•
5laJ11. is a registered trademark.
 This book is dedicated to my wife, Jane,
and our children, Leo and Sylvia.

They make it all worthwhile.

+ +
IOT102_EpsteinFM1.Qxp 8/9/2007 3,27 PM Page 6~

+ +
Contents

Preface to the second edition xvii

Preface xix

How to Use This Book xxv

Notational Conventions xxxi

1 Measurements and Modeling 1

1.1 Mathematical Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Finitely Many Degrees of Freedom . 5
1.1.2 Infinitely Many Degrees of Freedom . 16
1.2 A Simple Model Problem for Image Reconstruction 19
1.2.1 The Space of Lines in the Plane* . 20
1.2.2 Reconstructing an Object from Its Shadows 23
1.2.3 Approximate Reconstructions . 27
1.2.4 Can an Object Be Reconstructed from Its Width? 28
1.3 Conclusion . 30

2 Linear Models and Linear Equations 31

2.1 Linear Equations and Linear Maps 32
2.1.1 Solving Linear Equations. 34
2.1.2 Stability of Solutions . . . 38
2.2 Infinite-dimensional Linear Algebra 42
2.3 Complex Numbers and Vector Spaces* 47
2.3.1 Complex Numbers . . . 47
2.3.2 Complex Vector Spaces 50
2.4 Conclusion . 52

3 A Basic Model for Tomography 53

3.1 Tomography . 53
3.1.1 Beer's Law and X-ray Tomography 56
3.2 Analysis of a Point Source Device 62
3.3 Some Physical Considerations . 66

Vll
vin Contents

3.4 The Definition of the Radon Transform 69

3.4.1 Appendix: Proof of Lemma 3.4.1 * . 76
3.4.2 The Back-Projection Formula . . . 76
3.4.3 Continuity of the Radon Transform* 77
3.5 The Radon Transform on Radial Functions. 80
3.5.1 The Range of the Radial Radon Transform* 81
3.5.2 The Abel Transform*. . . . . . . 83
3.5.3 Volterra Equations of the First Kind* . 86
3.6 Conclusion .. . .. 89

4 Introduction to the Fourier Transform 91

4.1 The Complex Exponential Function 91
4.2 Functions of a Single Variable .. 93
4.2.1 Absolutely Integrable Functions 94
4.2.2 The Fourier Transform for Integrable Functions* 94
4.2.3 Appendix: The Fourier Transform of a Gaussian* 98
4.2.4 Regularity and Decay* . 101
4.2.5 Fourier Transform on L 2(~) . .. 111
4.2.6 A General Principle in Functional Analysis* . 116
4.3 Functions With Weak Derivatives. . . . .. . .. 117
4.3.1 Functions With L 2-Derivatives* .. . .. 120
4.3.2 Fractional Derivatives and L 2-Derivatives* 121
4.4 Some Refined Properties of the Fourier Transform. 123
4.4.1 Localization Principle . 123
4.4.2 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle* 125
4.4.3 The Paley-Wiener Theorem* . . . 129
4.4.4 The Fourier Transform of Generalized Functions* . 130
4.5 Functions of Several Variables 136
4.5.1 L I-case . . . . .. 136
4.5.2 Regularity and Decay. 140
4.5.3 L 2_Theory .. . . . 144
4.5.4 The Fourier Transform on Radial Functions 146
4.5.5 The Failure of Localization in Higher Dimensions 148
4.6 Conclusion . .. 149

5 Convolution 151
5.1 Convolution...... . 154
5.1.1 Basic Properties of the Convolution Product . 155
5.1.2 Shift Invariant Filters* 160
5.1.3 Convolution Equations . 161
5.2 Convolution and Regularity.. . . 163
5.2.1 Approximation by Smooth Functions 164
5.2.2 Some Convergence Results* ... 166
5.2.3 Approximating Derivatives and Regularized Derivatives 169
Contents IX

5.2.4 The Support of f * g. . .. 170

5.3 The l5-Function* . . .. . .. 172
5.3.1 Approximating the l5-Function in One-Dimension. 173
5.3.2 Resolution and the Full-Width Half-Maximum 175
5.4 Conclusion .. . .. 177

6 The Radon Transform 179

6.1 The Radon Transform. . . . .. 179
6.2 Inversion of the Radon Transform 184
6.2.1 The Central Slice Theorem* 184
6.2.2 The Radon Inversion Formula* . 188
6.2.3 Filtered Back-Projection* . . . 190
6.2.4 Inverting the Radon Transform, Two Examples 195
6.2.5 Back-Projection* .. . . 197
6.3 The Hilbert Transform . .. .201
6.3.1 The Hilbert Transform as a Convolution . . . .202
6.3.2 Mapping Properties of the Hilbert Transform* .206
6.4 Approximate Inverses for the Radon Transform .207
6.4.1 Addendum*.. . .. .209
6.5 Functions with Bounded Support . .210
6.6 Continuity of the Radon Transform and Its Inverse* . 213
6.6.1 Data With Bounded Support . . . . . 213
6.6.2 Estimates for the Inverse Transform .216
6.7 The Higher-Dimensional Radon Transform* .219
6.8 The Hilbert Transform and Complex Analysis* .223
6.9 Conclusion . .225

7 Introduction to Fourier Series 227

7.1 Fourier Series in One Dimension* .227
7.2 Decay of Fourier Coefficients. .233
7.2.1 Periodic Extension . . .234
7.2.2 Fourier Coefficients of Differentiable Functions. .237
7.3 L 2 -Theory....... . .. .239
7.3.1 Geometry in L 2([0, 1]) .239
7.3.2 The L 2-Inversion formula .244
7.3.3 Bessel's Inequality .246
7.3.4 L 2-Derivatives* . . . . .248
7.4 General Periodic Functions .. .251
7.4.1 Convolution and Partial Sums* . .252
7.4.2 Dirichlet Kernel . . . . .. .254
7.5 The Gibbs Phenomenon. . .. . .. .256
7.5.1 An Example of the Gibbs Phenomenon .257
7.5.2 The General Gibbs Phenomenon* .260
7.5.3 Fejer Means.. . . . . . . . . . .262
x Contents

7.5.4 Resolution . .265

7.6 The Localization Principle . .267
7.7 Higher-Dimensional Fourier Series. .269
7.7.1 L 2_ Theory .272
7.8 Conclusion .274

8 Sampling 277
8.1 Sampling and Nyquist's Theorem* . .278
8.1.1 Bandlimited Functions and Nyquist's Theorem .278
8.1.2 Shannon-Whittaker Interpolation. .281
8.2 The Poisson Summation Formula . . . . . .284
8.2.1 The Poisson Summation Formula .285
8.2.2 Undersampling and Aliasing* .288
8.2.3 Subsampling . . . . . .294
8.3 The Finite Fourier Transform* .294
8.4 Quantization Errors . .298
8.5 Higher-Dimensional Sampling .300
8.6 Conclusion . .303

9 Filters 305
9.1 Basic Definitions . .306
9.1.1 Examples of Filters . .306
9.1.2 Linear filters . . . . .309
9.1.3 Shift Invariant Filters and the Impulse Response .310
9.1.4 Harmonic Components .314
9.1.5 The Transfer Function .319
9.1.6 Cascades of Filters .323
9.1.7 Causal Filters . . . .325
9.1.8 Bandpass Filters . .326
9.1.9 The Inverse Filter . .328
9.1.10 Resolution . . . . .332
9.1.11 The Resolution of a Cascade of Filters . .335
9.2 Filtering Periodic Inputs . .337
9.2.1 Resolution of Periodic Filters . .340
9.2.2 The Comb Filter and Poisson Summation* . .341
9.3 Higher-Dimensional Filters .343
9.3.1 Isotropic Filters . .347
9.3.2 Resolution . .349
9.4 Some Applications of Filtering Theory. .350
9.4.1 Image Processing . . . . . . . . .350
9.4.2 Linear Filter Analysis of Imaging Hardware. .365
9.5 Conclusion . .376
Contents Xl

10 Implementing Shift Invariant Filters 377

10.1 Sampled Data . .378
10.2 Implementing Periodic Convolutions . .381
10.2.1 Further Properties of the Finite Fourier Transform .381
10.2.2 The Approximation of Fourier Coefficients .382
10.2.3 Approximating Periodic Convolutions . .384
10.3 Implementing Filters on Finitely Sampled Data .386
10.3.1 Zero Padding Reconsidered .. .390
lOA Higher-Dimensional Filters . .392
1004.1 Riemann Sum Approximations . .393
1004.2 The Finite Fourier Transform in n Dimensions .394
1004.3 The Fourier Representation for Shift Invariant Filters .395
10.5 Appendix: The Fast Fourier Transform. .397
10.6 Conclusion . .399

11 Reconstruction in X-Ray Tomography 401

11.1 Basic Setup in X-Ray Tomography .402
11.2 The Reconstruction Problem . .405
11.3 Scanner Geometries . .408
11.4 Algorithms for a Parallel Beam Machine. .413
1104.1 Direct Fourier Inversion .. .413
11.4.2 Filtered Back-Projection . . . . . .415
11.4.3 Linear!y Interpolated Filters . . . .419
11.404 The Shepp-Logan Analysis of the Ram-Lak Filters .421
11.4.5 Sample Spacing in a Parallel Beam Machine .426
11.5 Filtered Back-Projection in the Fan Beam Case .428
11.5.1 Fan Beam Geometry . . . . . . . . . . .428
11.5.2 Fan Beam Filtered Back-Projection .. .431
11.5.3 Implementing the Fan Beam Algorithm .433
11.504 Data Collection for a Fan Beam Scanner. .435
11.5.5 Rebinning. . . . . . . .437
11.6 Some Mathematical Remarks* .437
11.7 Spiral Scan CT . .439
11.7.1 Interpolation methods .439
11.7.2 3d-Reconstruction Formul<:e .442
11.8 The Gridding Method* .443
11.9 Conclusion . .447

12 Imaging Artifacts in X-Ray Tomography 451

12.1 The Effect of a Finite Width X-Ray Beam . . . . . .451
12.1.1 A Linear Model for Finite Beam Width .. .452
12.1.2 A Nonlinear Model for Finite Beam Width .454
12.1.3 The Partial Volume Effect .456
12.2 The PSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458
XlI Contents

12.2.1 Point Sources . .459

12.2.2 The PSF without Sampling . .459
12.3 The PSF with Sampling . .466
12.3.1 Ray Sampling . .466
12.3.2 View Sampling . .472
12.4 The Effects of Measurement Errors. .481
12.4.1 A Single Bad Ray .483
12.4.2 A Bad Ray in Each View .484
12.4.3 A Bad View. .486
12.5 Beam Hardening .488
12.6 Conclusion . . . . . .490

13 Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques 493

13.1 Algebraic Reconstruction .493
13.2 Kaczmarz's Method . .498
13.3 A Bayesian Estimate . .503
13.4 Variants of the Kaczmarz Method .505
13.4.1 Relaxation Parameters .. .505
13.4.2 Other Related Algorithms .506
13.5 Conclusion . .507

14 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 509

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
14.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance . . . . . .510
14.3 The Bloch Phenomological Equation. . 511
14.4 The Rotating Reference Frame . 513
14.5 A Basic Imaging Experiment .514
14.6 Selective Excitation . . . .517
14.7 Spin-warp Imaging . . . .519
14.8 Contrast and Resolution. .521
14.9 Conclusion . .523

15 Probability and Random Variables 525

15.1 Measure Theory* . . . . . . . . .526
15.1.1 Allowable Events . . . . .526
15.1.2 Measures and Probability . .529
15.1.3 Integration . .533
15.1.4 Independent Events . . . .540
15.1.5 Conditional Probability . .541
15.2 Random Variables* . .543
15.2.1 Cumulative Distribution Function .546
15.2.2 The Variance . .549
15.2.3 The Characteristic Function .550
15.2.4 A Pair of Random Variables .552
Contents XlII

15.2.5 Several Random Variables . .558

15.3 Some Important Random Variables . .560
15.3.1 Bernoulli Random Variables .560
15.3.2 Poisson Random Variables . .561
15.3.3 Gaussian Random Variables .562
15.4 Limits of Random Variables . . . . .565
15.4.1 The Central Limit Theorem .565
15.4.2 Other Examples of Limiting Distributions .568
15.5 Statistics and Measurements .571
15.6 Conclusion . .574

16 Applications of Probability 577

16.1 Applications to X-Ray Imaging . .577
16.1.1 Modeling a Source-Detector Pair. .577
16.1.2 Beer's Law . .578
16.2 Noise in the Filtered Back-Projection Algorithm. .581
16.2.1 Sampled Data . .582
16.2.2 A Computation of the Variance in the Measurements .585
16.2.3 The Variance of the Radon Transform . . . . .586
16.2.4 The Variance in the Reconstructed Image .. .588
16.2.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio, Dosage and Contrast . .589
16.3 Signal-to-Noise in Magnetic Resonance Imaging .591
16.4 Image Reconstruction in PET . .593
16.4.1 Positron Emission Physics . .594
16.4.2 A Probabilistic Model for PET . .597
16.4.3 The Maximum Likelihood Algorithm .599
16.4.4 Determining the Transition Matrix . .601
16.5 Conclusion . .603

17 Random Processes 605

17.1 Random Processes in Measurements . . . . . . . . .605
17.2 Basic Definitions . .607
17.2.1 Statistical Properties of Random Processes .609
17.2.2 Stationary Random Processes . .610
17.2.3 Spectral Analysis of Stationary Processes* . 611
17.2.4 Independent and Stationary Increments .615
17.3 Examples of Random Processes . . . .615
17.3.1 Gaussian Random Process .. .615
17.3.2 The Poisson Counting Process .616
17.3.3 Poisson Arrival Process .619
17.3.4 Fourier Coefficients for Periodic Processes* .622
17.3.5 White Noise* . .625
17.4 Random Inputs to Linear Systems . .627
17.4.1 The Autocorrelation of the Output .629
XIV Contents

1704.2 Thermal or Johnson Noise . 631

1704.3 Optimal Filters . . . . . . .633
17.5 Noise in Filtered Back-Projection .635
17.6 Conclusion . .638

A Background Material 639

A.l Numbers.. . . . . . . . . . 639
A.I.l Integers...... . 639
A.I.2 Rational Numbers . 641
A.I.3 Real Numbers. . . . 645
A.I.4 Cauchy Sequences . 648
A.2 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . 649
A.2.1 Euclidean n-Space . 650
A.2.2 General Vector Spaces . 653
A.2.3 Linear Transformations and Matrices . 656
A.204 Norms and Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . 661
A.2.5 Inner Product Structure. . . . . . . . . 665
A.2.6 Linear Transformations and Linear Equations . 671
A.3 Functions, Theory, and Practice. . 673
A.3.1 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
A.3.2 The Binomial Formula . . . . . . . . . . 679
A.3.3 Some Higher Transcendental Functions . 681
Ao4 Spaces of Functions* . . . . . . . . . . 686
Ao4.l Examples of Function Spaces . 686
Ao4.2 Completeness......... . 690
Ao4.3 Linear Functionals . . . . . . . 692
Ao404 Measurement, Linear Functionals, and Weak Convergence . 694
Ao4.5 Generalized Functions on ~ . 696
Ao4.6 Generalized Functions on ~n • 702
A.5 Functions in the Real World . . . . . 705
A.5.1 Approximation . . . . . . . . 705
A.5.2 Sampling and Interpolation. . 711
A.6 Numerical Differentiation and Integration . 714
A.6.1 Numerical Integration .. . 716
A.6.2 Numerical Differentiation . 719

B Basic Analysis 723

B.l Sequences.............. . 723
B.2 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
B.3 Limits of Functions and Continuity. . 729
Bo4 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
B.5 Higher-Order Derivatives and Taylor's Theorem . 732
B.6 Integration. . . . . . 732
B.7 Improper Integrals . 735
Contents xv

B.8 Fubini's Theorem and Differentiation of Integrals* .739

Bibliography 743

Index 753
Preface to the second edition

It seems like only yesterday that I was sending the "camera ready" pdf file of this book off
to Prentice Hall. Despite a very positive response from the mathematics and engineering
communities, Pearson decided, last year, to let the book go out of print. I would like to
thank George Lobell, my editor at Prentice Hall, for making it so easy to reacquire the
publication rights. Secondly I would like to thank SIAM, and my editors Sarah Granlund
and Ann Manning Allen, for making it so easy to prepare this second edition. I would be
very remiss if I did not thank Sergei Gelfand, editor at the AMS, who prodded me to get
the rights back, so I could prepare a second edition.
The main differences between this edition and the Prentice Hall edition are: 1. A
revised section on the relationship between the continuum and discrete Fourier transforms,
Section 10.2.2 (reflecting my improved understanding of this problem); 2. A short section
on Grangreat's formula, Section 10.2.2, which forms the basis of most of the recent work
on cone-beam reconstruction algorithms; 3. A better description of the gridding method,
Section 11.8 (many thanks to Leslie Greengard and Jeremy Magland for helping me to
understand this properly); 4. A chapter on magnetic resonance imaging, Chapter 14; 5.
A short section on noise analysis in MR-imaging, Section 16.3. For the last two items I
would like to express my deep gratitude to Felix Wehrli, for allowing me to adapt an article
we wrote together for the Elsevier Encyclopedia on Mathematical Physics, and for his
enormous hospitality, welcoming me into his research group, the Laboratory for Structural
NMR Imaging, at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania.
With a bit more experience teaching the course and using the book, I now feel that it is
essential for students to have taken at least one semester of undergraduate analysis, beyond
calculus, and a semester of linear algebra. Without this level of sophistication, it is difficult
to appreciate what all the fuss is about.
I have received a lot of encouragement to prepare this second edition from the many
people who used the book, either as a course textbook or for self study. I would like
to thank Rafe Mazzeo, Petra Bonfert-Taylor, Ed Taylor, Doug Cochran, John Schotland,
Larry Shepp, and Leslie Greengard for their kind words and advice. Finally, I thank my
wife, Jane, and our children, Leo and Sylvia, for their forebearance during the endless
preparation of the first edition, and their encouragement to produce this second edition.
Charles L. Epstein
May 16,2007

XVll
Preface

Over the past several decades, advanced mathematics has quietly insinuated itself into many
facets of our day-to-day life. Mathematics is at the heart of technologies from cellular tele-
phones and satellite positioning systems to online banking and metal detectors. Arguably
no technology has had a more positive and profound effect on our lives than medical imag-
ing, and in no technology is the role of mathematics more pronounced or less appreci-
ated. X-ray tomography, ultrasound, positron emission tomography, and magnetic reso-
nance imaging have fundamentally altered the practice of medicine. At the core of each
modality is a mathematical model to interpret the measurements and a numerical algorithm
to reconstruct an image. While each modality operates on a different physical principle and
probes a different aspect of our anatomy or physiology, there is a large overlap in the math-
ematics used to model the measurements, design reconstruction algorithms, and analyze
the effects of noise. In this text we provide a tool kit, with detailed operating instructions,
to work on the sorts of mathematical problems that arise in medical imaging. Our treat-
ment steers a course midway between a complete, rigorous mathematical discussion and a
cookbook engineering approach.
The target audience for this book is junior or senior math undergraduates with a firm
command of multi-variable calculus, linear algebra over the real and complex numbers, and
the basic facts of mathematical analysis. Some familiarity with basic physics would also
be useful. The book is written in the language of mathematics, which, as I have learned,
is quite distinct from the language of physics or the language of engineering. Nonetheless,
the discussion of every topic begins at an elementary level and the book should, with a little
translation, be usable by advanced science and engineering students with some mathemati-
cal sophistication. A large part of the mathematical background material is provided in two
appendices.
X-ray tomography is employed as a pedagogical machine, similar in spirit to the elabo-
rate devices used to illustrate the principles of Newtonian mechanics. The physical princi-
ples used in x-ray tomography are simple to describe and require little formal background
in physics to understand. This is not the case in any of the other modalities listed nor in less
developed modalities like infrared imaging or impedance tomography. The mathematical
problems that arise in x-ray tomography and the tools used to solve them have a great deal

XIX
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