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RCPSYCH Royal College of Psychiatrists

FEFTH

Fish's ED1TION

Clinical
Psychopathology
SIGNS AND SYMPTOIVIS IN PSYCHIATRY
Patricia Casey
B ren dan Kelly
CAMUMUUt McrfiCinc
 Fish’s Clinical
Psychopathology

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 Fish’s Clinical
Psychopathology
Signs and Symptoms in Psychiatry
Patricia Casey
University College Dublin

Brendan Kelly
Trinity College Dublin

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8EA, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre,
New Delhi – 110025, India
103 Penang Road, #05–06/07, Visioncrest Commercial, Singapore 238467

Cambridge University Press is part of Cambridge University Press & Assessment,

a department of the University of Cambridge.
We share the University’s mission to contribute to society through the pursuit of education,
learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781009372695
DOI: 10.1017/9781009372688
© The Royal College of Psychiatrists 2024
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions
of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press & Assessment.
First published 1967, John Wright & Sons Ltd.
Revised edition 1974, John Wright & Sons Ltd.
Second edition 1985, John Wright & Sons Ltd.
Third edition 2007, The Royal College of Psychiatrists
Fourth edition published by Cambridge University Press 2019
This fifth edition published by Cambridge University Press 2024
Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Fish, F. J. (Frank James) author. | Casey, Patricia R., author. |
Kelly, Brendan (Brendan D.) author.
Title: Fish’s clinical psychopathology : signs and symptoms in psychiatry /
Patricia Casey, University College Dublin, Brendan Kelly, Trinity
College, Dublin.
Other titles: Clinical psychopathology
Description: 5 edition. | New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2023.
| Revised edition of Fish’s clinical psychopathology, 2019. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023029666 | ISBN 9781009372695 (paperback) | ISBN
9781009372688 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology, Pathological.
Classification: LCC RC454 .F57 2023 | DDC 616.89–dc23/eng/20230724
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023029666
ISBN 978-1-009-37269-5 Paperback
Cambridge University Press & Assessment has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Every effort has been made in preparing this book to provide accurate and up-to-date
information that is in accord with accepted standards and practice at the time of publication.
Although case histories are drawn from actual cases, every effort has been made to disguise the
identities of the individuals involved. Nevertheless, the authors, editors, and publishers can make
no warranties that the information contained herein is totally free from error, not least because
clinical standards are constantly changing through research and regulation. The authors, editors,
and publishers therefore disclaim all liability for direct or consequential damages resulting from
the use of material contained in this book. Readers are strongly advised to pay careful attention to
information provided by the manufacturer of any drugs or equipment that they plan to use.

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 Contents
Preface vii

1 Classification of Psychiatric 7 Disorders of the Experience of

Disorders 1 Self 80
2 What Is Psychopathology? 8 Motor Disorders 86
Controversies in Classifying
9 Disorders of Consciousness 103
Psychiatric Disorder 11
10 Personality Disorders 108
3 Disorders of Perception 24
4 Disorders of Thought and
Speech 42
5 Disorders of Memory 63 Appendix I: Psychiatric Syndromes 122
Appendix II: Defences and
6 Disorders of Emotion 71
Distortions 127
Index 132

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 Preface
Psychopathology is the science and study of psychological and psychiatric symptoms. Clinical
psychopathology locates this study in the clinical context in which psychiatrists make diag-
nostic assessments and deliver mental health services. A clear understanding of clinical psy-
chopathology lies at the heart of effective and appropriate delivery of such services.
In 1967, Frank Fish produced a 128-page volume on psychopathology, entitled Clinical
Psychopathology: Signs and Symptoms in Psychiatry (Fish, 1967). Despite its brevity or, more
likely, because of its brevity, Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology soon became an essential text
for medical students, psychiatric trainees and all healthcare workers involved in the deliv-
ery of mental health services. A revised edition, edited by Max Hamilton, appeared in 1974
(Hamilton, 1974) and was reprinted as a second edition in 1985 (Hamilton, 1985).
In 2007, we produced a third edition because Clinical Psychopathology had been out of
print and essentially impossible to locate for many years (Casey & Kelly, 2007). The purpose
of the third edition was to introduce this classic text to a new generation of psychiatrists and
trainees, and to reacquaint existing aficionados with the elegant insights and enduring val-
ues of Fish’s original work. The third edition was translated into Italian (Centro Scientifico
Editore, 2009) and Japanese (Seiwa Shoten Publishers, 2010), and a South Asian edition was
published in 2019.
In 2019, our fourth edition of this modern classic presented the clinical descriptions
and psychopathological insights of Fish to yet another generation of students and prac-
titioners (Casey & Kelly, 2019). For the fourth edition, we updated references, included
new material relating to the most recent diagnostic classification systems and added a new
chapter (Chapter 2) looking at controversies in classifying psychiatric disorders in the first
instance, and the fundamental roles and uses of psychopathology.
More than half a century after its original publication, this book remains an essential text
for students of medicine, trainees in psychiatry and practising psychiatrists. It is also of inter-
est to psychiatric nurses, mental health social workers, clinical psychologists and all readers
who value concise descriptions of the symptoms of mental illness and astute accounts of the
many and varied manifestations of disordered psychological function.
Once again, revising Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology has been both a humbling and excit-
ing experience. While striving at all times to retain the spirit of Fish’s original work, we have
again revised the language in various areas to take account of continued changes in linguis-
tic conventions, although we have, for historical reasons, retained the use of he/his/she/her
pronouns in some parts to refer to a singular, hypothetical patient; all genders are implied,
except where specified otherwise. This new edition also includes updated referencing cover-
ing recent developments, as well as the World Health Organization’s ICD-11: International
Classification of Diseases (World Health Organization, 2019).
Notwithstanding these revisions, we still trust that this text remains true to the spirit of
Fish’s original Clinical Psychopathology, the volume that has now shaped the clinical education
and practice of several generations of psychiatrists. We hope that this edition proves similarly
useful to contemporary readers. If it succeeds, all credit lies with the original insights of Frank
Fish; if it does not, the fault lies with us.

vii

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 viii Preface

References Hamilton, M. (ed.) (1974) Fish’s Clinical

Psychopathology: Signs and Symptoms in
Casey, P., Kelly, B. (eds.) (2007) Fish’s Clinical Psychiatry (revised edn). Bristol: John Wright &
Psychopathology: Signs and Symptoms in Sons.
Psychiatry (3rd edn). London: Gaskell.
Hamilton, M. (ed.) (1985) Fish’s Clinical
Casey, P., Kelly, B. (eds.) (2019) Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology: Signs and Symptoms in
Psychopathology: Signs and Symptoms in Psychiatry (2nd edn). Bristol: John Wright &
Psychiatry (4th edn). Cambridge: Cambridge Sons.
University Press.
World Health Organization (2019) ICD-11:
Fish, F. (1967) Clinical Psychopathology: Signs International Classification of Diseases (11th
and Symptoms in Psychiatry. Bristol: John Wright edn). Geneva: World Health Organization.
& Sons.

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009372688.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press

 Classification of Psychiatric

1 Disorders

Any discussion of the classification of psychiatric disorders should begin with the frank
admission that any definitive classification of disease must be based on aetiology. Until we
know the causes of the various mental illnesses, we must adopt a pragmatic approach to clas-
sification that will best enable us to care for our patients, to communicate with other health
professionals and to carry out high-quality research.
In physical medicine, syndromes existed long before the aetiology of these illnesses were
known. Some of these syndromes have subsequently been shown to be true disease entities
because they have one essential cause. Thus, smallpox and measles were carefully described
and differentiated by the Arabian physician Rhazes in the tenth century. With each new step
in the progress of medicine, such as auscultation, microscopy, immunology, electrophysi-
ology and so on, some syndromes have been found to be true disease entities, while others
have been split into discrete entities, and others still jettisoned. For example, diabetes mellitus
has been shown to be a syndrome that can have several different aetiologies. On that basis,
the modern approach to classification has been to establish syndromes in order to facilitate
research and to assist us in extending our knowledge of them so that, ultimately, specific dis-
eases can be identified. We must not forget that syndromes may or may not be true disease
entities, and some will argue that the multifactorial aetiology of psychiatric disorder, related
to both constitutional and environmental vulnerability, as well as to precipitants, may make
the goal of identifying psychiatric syndromes as discrete diseases an elusive ideal.

Syndromes and Diseases

A syndrome is a constellation of symptoms that are unique as a group. It may of course contain
some symptoms that occur in other syndromes also, but it is the particular combination of
symptoms that makes the syndrome specific. In psychiatry, as in other branches of medicine,
many syndromes began with one specific and striking symptom. In the nineteenth century,
stupor, furore and hallucinosis were syndromes based on one prominent symptom.
Later, the recognition that certain other signs and symptoms co-occurred simultane-
ously led to the establishment of syndromes. Korsakoff ’s syndrome illustrates the progres-
sion from symptom to syndrome to disease. Initially, confabulation and impressionability
among alcoholics were recognised by Korsakoff as significant symptoms. Later, the pres-
ence of disorientation for time and place, euphoria, difficulty in registration, confabula-
tion and ‘tram-line’ thinking were identified as key features of this syndrome. Finally, the
discovery that in the alcoholic amnestic syndrome there was always severe damage to the
mammillary bodies confirmed that Korsakoff ’s psychosis (syndrome) is a true disease with
a ­neuropathological basis.

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 2 Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology

Sometimes, the symptoms of the syndrome seem to have a meaningful coherence. For
example, in mania the cheerfulness, the over-activity, the pressure of speech and the flight of
ideas can all be recognised as arising from the elevated mood. The fact that we can empathise
with and understand our patients’ symptoms by taking account of the context in which they
have arisen has led to the distinction between those symptoms that are primary, that is, are the
immediate result of the disease process, and secondary symptoms, which are a psychological
elaboration of, or reaction to, primary symptoms. The term ‘primary’ is also used to describe
symptoms that are not derived from any other psychological event.

Early Distinctions
The first major classification of mental illness was based on the distinction between disorders
arising from disease of the brain and those with no such obvious basis, that is, functional ver-
sus organic states. These terms are still used, but as knowledge of the neurobiological processes
associated with psychiatric disorders has increased and led to greater nuance, their original
meaning has been lost. Schizophrenia and manic depression are typical examples of func-
tional disorders, but the increasing evidence of the role of genetics and of neuropathological
abnormalities shows that there is at least some organic basis for these disorders. Indeed, the
category of ‘organic mental syndromes and disorders’ was renamed as ‘delirium, dementia
and amnestic and other cognitive disorders’ in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM−IV) (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), so that the recognition of the
role of abnormal brain functioning is not confined to dementia and delirium only. In their lit-
eral meaning, these categories of classification (i.e., organic versus functional) are absurd, yet
they continue to be used through tradition.

Organic Syndromes
The syndromes due to brain disorders can be classified into acute, subacute and chronic. In
acute organic syndromes, the most common feature is alteration of consciousness, which
can be dream-like, depressed or restricted. This gives rise to four subtypes: namely, delirium,
subacute delirium, organic stupor or torpor, and the twilight state. Disorientation, incoher-
ence of psychic life and some degree of anterograde amnesia are features of all of these acute
organic states. In delirium, there is a dream-like change in consciousness so that the patient
may also be unable to distinguish between mental images and perceptions, leading to hallu-
cinations and illusions. Usually there is severe anxiety and agitation. When stupor or torpor
is established, the patient responds poorly or not at all to stimuli and after recovery has no
recollection of events during the episode. In subacute delirium, there is a general lowering
of awareness and marked incoherence of psychic activity, so that the patient is bewildered
and perplexed. Isolated hallucinations, illusions and delusions may occur and the level of
awareness varies but is lower at night-time. The subacute delirious state can be regarded as
a transitional state between delirium and organic stupor. In twilight states, consciousness is
restricted such that the mind is dominated by a small group of ideas, attitudes and images.
These patients may appear to be perplexed but often their behaviour is well ordered and they
can carry out complex actions. Hallucinations are commonly present. In organic stupor (tor-
por), the level of consciousness is generally lowered and the patient responds poorly or not
at all to stimuli. After recovery, the patient usually has amnesia for the events that occurred
during the illness episode.
In addition, there are organic syndromes in which consciousness is not obviously disordered,
for example organic hallucinosis due to alcohol abuse, which is characterised by hallucinations,

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 Classification of Psychiatric Disorders 3

most commonly auditory and occurring in clear consciousness, as distinct from the hallucin-
ations of delirium tremens that occur in association with clouded consciousness. Amnestic dis-
orders, of which Korsakoff ’s syndrome is but one, also belong in this group of organic disorders,
and are characterised primarily by the single symptom of memory impairment in a setting of
clear consciousness and in the absence of other cognitive features of dementia.
The chronic organic states include the various dementias, generalised and focal, as well as
the amnestic disorders. Included among the generalised dementias are Lewy body disease,
Alzheimer’s disease and so on, while the best-known focal dementia is frontal lobe dementia
(or syndrome). The latter is associated with a lack of drive, lack of foresight, inability to plan
ahead and an indifference to the feelings of others, although there is no disorientation. Some
patients may also demonstrate a happy-go-lucky carelessness and a facetious humour, termed
Witzelsucht, whereas others are rigid in their thinking and have difficulty moving from one
topic to the next. The most common cause is trauma to the brain such as occurs in road traf-
fic accidents. The presence of frontal lobe damage may be assessed psychologically using the
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test or the Stroop Test. Amnestic disorders are chronic organic dis-
orders in which there is the single symptom of memory impairment; if other signs of cognitive
impairment are present (such as disorientation or impaired attention), then the diagnosis is
dementia. The major neuroanatomical structures involved are the thalamus, hippocampus,
mammillary bodies and the amygdala. Amnesia is usually the result of bilateral damage, but
some cases can occur with unilateral damage. Further, the left hemisphere appears to be more
critical than the right in its genesis.

Functional Syndromes
Functional syndromes (or disorders), a term seldom used nowadays, refers to those syn-
dromes in which there is no readily apparent coarse brain disease, although increasingly it is
recognised that some finer variety of brain disease may exist, often at a cellular level.
For many years, it was customary to divide these functional mental illnesses into neur-
oses and psychoses. The person with neurosis was believed to have insight into his illness,
with only part of the personality involved in the disorder, and to have intact reality testing.
The individual with psychosis, by contrast, was believed to lack insight, had the whole of his
personality distorted by the illness and constructed a false environment out of his distorted
subjective experience. Yet, such differences are an oversimplification, since many individuals
with neurotic conditions have no insight, and far from accepting their illness, may minimise
or deny it totally, whereas people with schizophrenia may seek help willingly during or before
episodes of relapse. Moreover, personality can be changed significantly by non-psychotic dis-
orders such as depressive illness, while it may remain intact in some people with psychotic
disorders, such as those with persistent delusional disorder.
Jaspers (1962) regarded the person with neurosis as an individual who has an abnormal
response to difficulties in which some specific defence mechanism has transformed their
experiences. For example, in conversion and dissociative disorders (formerly hysteria), the
mechanism of dissociation is used to transform the emotional experiences into physical
symptoms. Since we can all use this mechanism, the differences between the neurotic person
and the normal person is one of degree. Schneider (1959) has suggested that neuroses and per-
sonality disorders are variations of human existence that differ from the norm quantitatively
rather than qualitatively. However, this view of the neuroses breaks down when ­obsessive–
compulsive disorder is considered, since the symptoms are not variations of normal but differ
qualitatively from normal behaviours.

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 4 Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology

Over time, the use of the terms ‘neurotic’ and ‘psychotic’ changed, and instead of describ-
ing symptoms, particularly symptom types such as hallucinations or delusions, in the psy-
chotic person they were used to distinguish mild and severe disorders or to distinguish those
symptoms that are ego-syntonic (i.e., creating no distress for the person or compatible with
the individual’s self-concept or ego) from those that are ego-dystonic (i.e., causing distress
and incompatible with the person’s self-concept). Some practitioners also used the word ‘neu-
rotic’ as a term of opprobrium. Owing to the confusion that abounded in the various uses of
these terms, DSM-IV excluded the term ‘neurosis’ totally from its nomenclature, and this has
continued in DSM-5. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) (World Health
Organization, 1992) named a group of disorders ‘neurotic, stress-related and somatoform
disorders’. However, ICD-11 does not use this term and the aforementioned group is now
divided between ‘anxiety and fear-related disorder’, ‘disorders of bodily distress’ and ‘disor-
ders specifically associated with stress’.

Personality Disorders and Psychogenic Reactions

The status of personality disorder vis-à-vis other psychiatric disorders was historically
regarded differently in the English-speaking world compared with the rest of the world. In
the English-speaking world, it was customary to separate the neuroses from personality dis-
orders, but in the German-speaking countries, epitomised by Schneider, the neuroses were
regarded as reactions of abnormal personalities to moderate or mild stress and of normal
personalities to severe stress. This difference was reflected in the approach of DSM-IV in pla-
cing personality and other disorders (e.g., major depression) on separate axes, while ICD-10
did not. The DSM has now also removed the multiaxial approach in its entirety, including the
removal of the assessment of functioning.
Psychogenic reactions constituted reversible prolonged psychological responses to
trauma, the reactions being the consequence of the causative agent on the patient’s ­personality.
Thus, acute anxiety and hysteria were considered to be varieties of psychogenic reactions pro-
voked by stress and determined by personality and cultural factors. Sometimes, the stress
was believed to cause psychotic reactions, termed symptomatic or psychogenic psychoses:
for example, the person with a paranoid personality who, in light of ongoing marital diffi-
culties, begins to suspect his wife’s fidelity, finally becoming deluded about this. The idea of
delusional states that were not due to functional psychoses was treated with scepticism by
English-speaking psychiatrists, but had adherents in Scandinavia, particularly in what were
termed psychogenic psychoses. These have gained increasing acceptance and were included
in ICD-10 and retained in ICD-11 as acute and transient psychotic disorders. In DSM-IV and
5, they are called brief psychotic disorder. In both, they are regarded as being associated with
a stressor although this is not essential. They are classified in the group of disorders entitled
‘Schizophrenia and other primary psychotic disorders’. Other psychogenic reactions such
as dissociation and conversion disorders are now renamed as dissociative disorders in both
DSM-5 and ICD-11. The word ‘psychogenic’, like ‘neurotic’, has been eliminated from recent
iterations of both classifications.

Modern Classifications
Two modern systems of classification are in use. The DSM is used mainly in the United States
and is prepared by the American Psychiatric Association every few years. The International
Classification of Diseases (ICD) is a World Health Organization document and covers all
medical conditions; one chapter is devoted to mental and behavioural problems. International

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 Classification of Psychiatric Disorders 5

Table 1.1 Dates of publication of DSM and ICD

DSM ICD
DSM-I 1952 ICD-7 1955
DSM-II 1968 ICD-8 1965
DSM-III 1980 ICD-9 1978
DSM-IV 1994 ICD-10 1992
DSM-5 2013 ICD-11 2022

Classification of Diseases is in use throughout the world, although the DSM is often used in
research, including drug trials, because each disorder is operationally defined and these crite-
ria can be applied when attempting to obtain homogenous populations, as is required in drug
trials for the treatment of certain conditions.
DSM-I, published by the American Psychiatric Association, first appeared in 1952, and
since then it has evolved significantly, to the extent that DSM-5 includes large amounts of
detail concerning each syndrome and, owing to its rigorous adherence to operational defin-
itions for each disorder, is suitable for use in both clinical practice and research.
However, the DSM system is considerably less user-friendly than the ICD, since it is
viewed as Procrustean by its critics. Interestingly, the billing codes for Medicare in the United
States are mandated to follow the ICD system rather than their own DSM. The ICD, by con-
trast, is more clinically orientated and is not so rigid in its definitions, eschewing operational
definitions in favour of general descriptions. It allows clinical judgement to inform diagnoses,
but this freedom makes it unsuitable for research purposes, necessitating the development
of separate research diagnostic criteria. Thus, different versions of ICD-10 now exist; these
include the clinical version (World Health Organization, 1992), a version with diagnostic
criteria for research (World Health Organization, 1993) (which resembles DSM in its use
of detailed operational criteria) and a version for use in primary care (ICD-10−PC; World
Health Organization, 1996), the latter consisting of definitions for twenty-five common con-
ditions as well as a shorter version of six disorders for use by other primary care workers.
Management guidelines incorporate information for the patient as well as details of medical,
social and psychological interventions. Finally, assistance on when to refer for specialist treat-
ment is provided. DSM-5 was published in 2013, and ICD-11 has been officially in use since
2022 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The historical timeline of the DSM and ICD
systems are shown in Table 1.1.

Comparison of DSM-5 and ICD-11

The DSM-5 and ICD-11 are syndrome-based classifications. This means that they are based
on commonly co-occurring symptoms and not on aetiology, psychobiology or prognosis.
Hence, the removal of terms such as ‘psychogenic’, ‘neurotic’, ‘functional’ and ‘psychosomatic’,
which have connotations for the cause of particular disorders. Apart from the few condi-
tions classified under the stress-related rubric and substance misuse, both classifications are
­aetiology-free in thinking. It was envisaged by the authors of DSM-IV that by the time pub-
lication of DSM-5 was ready, our knowledge of the biological and genetic underpinnings of
many psychiatric disorders would have increased to the extent that classification based on the
­underlying psychobiology would be possible.

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 6 Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology

Yet, as work commenced on DSM-5, Dr Gerard Kupfer, who chaired the task force charged
with its development, commented:

Not one laboratory marker has been found to be specific in identifying any of the DSM-defined
syndromes. Epidemiologic and clinical studies have shown extremely high rates of comorbidity
among the disorders, undermining the hypothesis that the syndromes represent distinct ­etiologies.
Furthermore, epidemiologic studies have shown a high degree of short-term diagnostic instability
for many disorders. With regard to treatment, lack of treatment specificity is the rule rather than
the exception. (Kupfer et al., 2005)

Alas, the promise of a new approach to classification was not realised and both DSM-5
and ICD-11 continue to be based on predominant symptoms and syndromes, not disease
entities.
An accompaniment to ICD-11 will be the publication of Clinical Guidelines and
Diagnostic Requirements (or Guidelines) (CDDR or CDDG) for all the listed psychiatric
disorders. This will include expanded clinical descriptions, differential diagnosis, boundar-
ies with other disorders as well as cultural aspects of symptoms and their distinction from
normal emotional responses. This may assist in preventing the over-diagnosis of mood and
anxiety disorders.

(1) DSM-5
The latest DSM classification (2013) has jettisoned the five axes of classification used in DSM-IV.
This was the biggest change. This, together with the expansion in diagnoses, results in the over-
all package being the most controversial in the history of DSM. The debate began even while
DSM-5 was being developed (Wakefield, 2016), with charges of lack of transparency. Among
the controversies that arose following its publication, the removal of the bereavement exclusion
from the criteria for major depression was also widely criticised. Heretofore, major depression
could not be diagnosed in the presence of bereavement. In the current edition, this has been
removed following a successful argument made by some that even in the presence of grief, the
symptoms can be so severe as to constitute major depression. It is unclear if this has resulted in
this diagnosis being made in the presence of normal grief, and the criteria go to some lengths to
specify the features of normal grief so as to forestall this. A further area of controversy has been
the addition of fourteen new disorders in DSM-5 that were not included in DSM-IV. These are
listed in Table 1.2.
The failure to remove oppositional defiant disorder from DSM-5 was also greeted with
concern. These changes, or their absence, have been robustly criticised by several commenta-
tors within, and with links to, the profession (Frances, 2013; Wakefield, 2016).

(2) ICD-11
It was envisaged that ICD-11 and DSM-5 would be published simultaneously, but this has
not happened. ICD-11 did not come into use until 2022 (published by the World Health
Organization). Mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders are dealt with in
Chapter 6 of that document.
The process began with the establishment of various working groups to deal with broad
categories such as schizophrenia, substance misuse and so on. These surveyed mental health
professionals to obtain their views on classification, on their patterns of use and on possible
changes to ICD-10. This resulted in a set of preliminary guidelines which were used as a basis
for evaluative field trials using case material in the form of vignettes. They were international

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 Classification of Psychiatric Disorders 7

Table 1.2 New disorders in DSM-5

Mild neurocognitive disorder

Hoarding disorder
Disruptive mood disorder dysregulation
Social pragmatic communication disorder
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
Caffeine withdrawal
Cannabis withdrawal
Excoriation (skin picking) disorder
Binge eating disorder
Rapid eye movement sleep disorder
Restless les syndrome
Major neuro-cognitive disorder with Lewy Body Disease
Disinhibited social engagement disorder
Reactive attachment disorder
Central sleep apnoea and sleep-related hypoventilation

and multilingual. Their purpose was to examine the diagnostic process and to compare the
accuracy and consistency with the proposed guidelines. The study by Keeley et al. (2016) in
respect of stress-related disorders serves as an example of the process in arriving at a final
classification for specific disorders. This study found that re-experiencing the trauma was
unclearly defined in ICD-11, that there were problems applying the functional impairment
criterion and that for adjustment disorder the criteria did not assist clearly enough in distin-
guishing adjustment disorder from the vignette in which no disorder was present. On the
other hand, clinicians were able to distinguish complex PTSD and prolonged grief disorder
from similar conditions and from normality. A recent study using real patients (n = 1,086)
across a range of disorders in thirteen countries has shown that clinicians’ rating of the pro-
posed diagnostic guidelines were positive overall and they were rated less favourably for
assessing treatment options and prognosis than for communicating with health professionals
(Reed et al., 2018).
These results assisted in clarifying the criteria that were applied in the next set of field
studies focusing on real patients in clinical settings. These were followed by reliability studies,
but not validity studies, in eighteen countries around the world. These will consider the clini-
cal utility of the criteria as well as their reliability but they do not test validity (see Chapter 2,
pp. 15, 16, 18). They are being carried out in eighteen countries across the globe.
Significant changes to a number of major groups in ICD-10 have been made. In ICD-
11, personality disorder has a much reduced number of categories and they will be based
on severity (see Chapter 10). Acute stress disorder has been moved from the stress-related
disorder conditions and placed in the section on factors affecting health. It is not considered
a psychiatric disorder, unlike DSM-5, where it resides in the Trauma and Stressor-Related
Disorder group. A number of new conditions have been added, including gaming disorder,
hoarding disorder and prolonged grief disorder. A welcome development is the addition of a
section on the boundaries between normal and human functioning and disorders.

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 8 Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology

The multiple areas of difference between DSM-5 and ICD-11 are explored in detail in the
paper by First et al. (2021).

Interview Schedules
In order to carry out epidemiological studies in which diagnoses are standardised, Diagnostic
Interview Schedules (DIS) were developed to meet the criteria for the ICD and the DSM
diagnoses.
The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID-5) was developed from SCID-IV.
There are now four versions: a clinical version (SCID-5-CV) (First et al., 2016a), a research
version (SCID-5-R) (First et al., 2015a), a clinical trials version (SCID-5-CT) (First et al.,
2015b) and a personality disorders version (SCID-5-PD) (First et al., 2015). There is also a
screening version (SCID SPQ) (First et al., 2016) and one for personality disorder, termed an
alternate model for personality disorders (SCID-AMPD). SCID-AMPD differs from SCID-
5-PD as the former allows for a dimensional assessment of personality, while the latter is
based on the traditional categorical model of personality disorder. This is a semi-structured
interview since it allows some latitude in its administration to elaborate on questions.
Another schedule used to evaluate diagnoses based on the DSM criteria is the Composite
International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) (Robins et al., 1989). It developed from the DIS
(Robins et al., 1985) but unlike SCID is not a semi-structured interview. Instead, it is stand-
ardised and is suitable for use with lay interviewers. No clinical judgement is brought to
bear in rating the symptoms since questions are asked in a rigid and prescribed manner. The
questions are clearly stated to elicit symptoms, followed by questions about frequency, dura-
tion and severity. The only judgement the interviewer has to make is whether the respond-
ent understood the question, and if not, it is repeated verbatim. Composite International
Diagnostic Interview is available in computer format also and so can be self-administered.
It was later explained to facilitate ICD-10 diagnoses. This resulted in the World Health
Organization World Mental Health-CIDI (WHO WMH-CIDI) (Kessler and Ustun, 2004). It
does not include personality disorders and only evaluates lifetime and twelve-month disor-
ders. It has a screening section and can also be used in modular form for evaluating specific
disorders. It has sections on functioning, services sought and family burden. CIDI-5 is cur-
rently being developed to coincide with the use of DSM-5.
As with Schedule for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN) (see in the next par-
agraph), the symptoms are then entered into a computer algorithm for diagnosis according to
ICD or DSM. The advantage of this approach is that it is cheaper than using semi-­structured
interviews, since lay people can be trained in its use. However, the absence of clinical judge-
ment is an obvious disadvantage that has resulted in its validity being questioned. Some recent
reviews question the prevalence for some psychiatric disorders obtained using standardised
interviews such as CIDI and suggest that the high rates identified in some studies require
revision downwards (Regier et al., 1998). These different approaches are discussed in detail by
Brugha et al. (1999) and Wittchen et al. (1999).
In Europe, SCAN (Wing et al., 1990) has evolved from the older Present State Examination
(PSE) (Wing et al., 1974). Schedule for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry itself is a
set of instruments aimed at assessing and classifying psychopathology in adults. The four
instruments include PSE-10 (the tenth edition of the PSE); the SCAN glossary, which defines
the symptoms; the Item Group Checklist for symptoms that can be rated directly (e.g.,
from case notes); and the Clinical History Schedule. Schedule for Clinical Assessment in
Neuropsychiatry provides diagnoses according to both ICD-10 and DSM-IV criteria. The

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 Classification of Psychiatric Disorders 9

interview itself is semi-structured, the aim being to encapsulate the clinical interview while
minimising its vagaries. There are probe questions with standard wording to elucidate the
psychopathological symptoms, defined in the glossary and accompanied by severity ratings.
Where there is doubt, the interviewer can proceed to a free-style interview to clarify the fea-
ture further and may, if necessary, include the patient’s phraseology in questioning to enhance
clarity. It is designed for use by psychiatrists or clinical psychologists, thereby utilising clinical
interviewing skills in evaluating each symptom. The symptoms ratings are then entered into
a computer algorithm and a computer diagnosis obtained according to either classification.
The role of the interviewer is to rate symptoms rather than make diagnoses. Schedule for
Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry can generate a current diagnosis, a lifetime diagnosis
or a representative episode diagnosis. The use of mental health professionals in interviewing
with SCAN makes this an expensive method but has the advantage of approximating the
‘gold standard’ diagnosis achieved by clinical interview. Schedule for Clinical Assessment in
Neuropsychiatry pays little attention to personality disorder and it is only in the clinical his-
tory section that details of diagnoses that are not covered in PSE-10 are recorded, usually from
other sources of information. It is unclear if there will be changes to SCID and SCAN so that
epidemiological research can follow the publication of ICD-11.

References First, M. B., Skodol, A. E., Bender, D. S., &

Oldham, J. M. (2018) Module I: Structured
American Psychiatric Association (1952) Clinical Interview for the Level of Personality
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Functioning Scale. In Structured Clinical
Disorders (1st ed.) (DSM-I). Washington, DC: Interview for the DSM-5 Alternative Model
American Psychiatric Association. for Personality Disorders (SCID-AMPD) (eds.
American Psychiatric Association (1994) M. B. First, A. E. Skodol, D. S. Bender, & J.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental M. Oldham), 5–56 Arlington, VA: American
Disorders (4th ed.) (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: Psychiatric Association.
American Psychiatric Association. First, M. B., Williams, J. B. W., Benjamin, L. S.,
American Psychiatric Association (2000) & Spitzer, R. L. (2015) User’s Guide for the SCID-
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 5-PD (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5
Disorders (4th ed., text revision) (DSM-IV-TR). Personality Disorder). Arlington, VA: American
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Psychiatric Association.
Association. First, M. B., Williams, J. B. W., Benjamin, L. S., &
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Spitzer, R. L. (2016) Structured Clinical Interview
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental for DSM-5: Screening Personality Questionnaire
Disorders (5th ed.) (DSM-5). Washington, DC: (SCID-5-SPQ). Arlington, VA: American
American Psychiatric Publishing. Psychiatric Association.
Brugha, T. S., Bebbington, P. E., & Jenkins, R. First, M. B., Williams, J. B. W., Karg, R. S.,
(1999) A Difference that Matters: Comparisons & Spitzer, R. L. (2015a) Structured Clinical
of Structured and Semi-structured Psychiatric Interview for DSM-5: Research Version
Diagnostic Interviews in the General (SCID-5 for DSM-5, Research Version (SCID-
Population. Psychological Medicine, 29, 5-RV)). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric
1013–20. Association.
First M. B., Gaebel W., Maj M. et al. (2021) First, M. B., Williams, J. B. W., Karg, R. S.,
An Organisation- and Category-Level & Spitzer, R. L. (2015b) Structured Clinical
Comparison of Diagnostic Requirements for Interview for DSM-5 Disorders: Clinical Trials
Mental Disorders in ICD-11 and DSM-5. World Version (SCID-5-CT). Arlington, VA: American
Psychiatry, 1, 34–51. Psychiatric Association.

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 10 Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology

First, M. B., Williams, J. B. W., Karg, R. S., Robins, L. N., Wing, J., Wittchen, H. U. et al.
& Spitzer, R. L. (2016a) Structured Clinical (1989) The Composite International Diagnostic
Interview for DSM-5 Disorders: Clinician Interview: An Epidemiologic Instrument
Version (SCID-5-CV). Arlington, VA: American Suitable for Use in Conjunction with Different
Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic Systems and in Different Cultures.
Frances, A. J. (2013) Saving Normal: An Insider’s Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1069–77.
Revolt against Out-of-Control Psychiatric Schneider, K. (1959) Clinical Psychopathology
Diagnosis, DSM-5: Big Pharma, and the (5th ed.), (trans. M. W. Hamilton). New York:
Medicalization of Ordinary Life. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Harper Collins. Wakefield, J. C. (2016). Diagnostic Issues and
Jaspers, K. (1962) General Psychopathology Controversies in DSM-5: Return of the False
(7th ed.), (trans. J. Hoenig & M. W. Hamilton). Positive Problem. Annual Review of Clinical
Manchester: Manchester University Press. Psychology, 12, 105–32.
Keeley, J. W., Reed, G. M., Roberts, M. C. et Wing, J. K., Babor, T., Brugha, T. et al. (1990)
al. (2016) Disorders Specifically Associated SCAN: Schedules for Clinical Assessment in
with Stress: A Case-Controlled Field Study for Neuropsychiatry. Archives of General Psychiatry,
ICD-11 Mental and Behavioural Disorders. 47, 589–93.
International Journal of Clinical Health Wing, J. K., Cooper, J., & Sartorius, N. (1974)
Psychology, 16, 109–27. Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric
Kessler, R. C., & Ustun, T. B. (2004) The World Symptoms. New York: Cambridge University
Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative Version Press.
of the World Health Organization (WHO) Wittchen, H. U., Ustun, T. B., & Kessler, R.
Composite International Diagnostic Interview C. (1999) Diagnosing Mental Disorders in
(CIDI). The International Journal of Methods in the Community: A Difference that Matters?
Psychiatric Research, 13:2, 93–121. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1021–7.
Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Regier, D. A. eds. World Health Organization (1992) The ICD-
(2005) In Introduction, p xviii: A Research 10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural
Agenda for DSM-V. Washington, DC: American Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic
Psychiatric Association. Guidelines (10th ed.). Geneva: World Health
Reed, G. M., Keeley, J. W., Rebello, T. J. et al. Organization.
(2018) Clinical Utility of ICD-10 Diagnostic World Health Organization (1993) The ICD-
Guidelines for High-Burden Mental Disorders: 10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural
Results from Mental Health Settings in 13 Disorders: Diagnostic Criteria for Research (10th
Countries. World Psychiatry, 17:3, 306–15. ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization.
Regier, D. A., Kaelber, C. T., Rae, D. S. et al. World Health Organization (1996) ICD-10
(1998) Limitations of Diagnostic Criteria and Diagnostic and Management Guidelines for
Assessment Instruments for Mental Disorders: Mental Disorders in Primary Care. Geneva:
Implications for Research and Policy. Archives of World Health Organization.
General Psychiatry, 55, 105–15.
World Health Organization (2019). International
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Orvaschel, H. et al. Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related
(1985) The Diagnostic Interview Schedule. In Health Problems (11th ed.). Geneva: World
Epidemiologic Field Methods in Psychiatry: The Health Organization.
NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program
(eds. W. Eaton & L. G. Kessler ), 143–70.
Orlando: Academic Press.

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 What Is Psychopathology?

2 Controversies in Classifying Psychiatric

Disorder

Karl Jaspers, a psychiatrist, theologian and philosopher, is the father of psychopathology.

His work General Psychopathology (translated 2013) is a classic in the psychiatric literature.
He believed that mental illness, in particular psychosis, should be evaluated with regard to
the abnormal phenomena that are present – for example, hallucination, delusions, thought
­disorder – rather than to their content. The latter (content) was the focus of the psychoanalytic
school who argued that content was a clue to underlying traumas and issues that may have
contributed to the person’s current state. So whether the content of a delusion was persecutory
or guilt-laden, Jaspers believed, was less important than the presence per se of the delusion.
Thus, he was distinguishing between form (primary or secondary, systematised or non-­
systematised, etc.) and content (e.g., persecutory, guilt and nihilistic). He did not ­subscribe
to the notion of understandability, and he described autochthonous or primary delusions (a
delusion not derived from any other primary psychotic experience such as a person hearing
a voice telling them they are being watched and the belief that they were being spied upon)
(see Chapter 4, p. 49) as arising from abnormal biological processes. Secondary delusions,
on the other hand, arise from other underlying abnormal phenomena such as hallucinations:
for example, a voice telling a person that they are being watched leading to beliefs that there
is a camera spying on them. These can also be driven by a person’s personal, social or cultural
background. Jaspers’ contribution has been to delineate the diagnostic features of mental
illnesses.
A more current definition of what psychopathology is much broader and it is defined as
the ‘systematic study of abnormal experience, cognition and behaviour’. It includes a number
of approaches (see Table 2.1).
In discussing the nature of psychiatric illness and psychopathology, there are two broad
approaches. The first of these is philosophical in nature and asks questions such as whether
mental illness exists and how best to conceptualise it. A further issue is whether the syn-
dromes we recognise as disorders are discrete entities naturally occurring in nature or,
alternatively, if they are social constructs that change over time in different cultures and in
different eras as societies try to make sense of human behaviour.
The second approach is clinical. It deals with issues such as aetiology, symptoms, course
and so on. It attempts to demarcate the distinction between symptoms of disorder and psy-
chological phenomena found in the general population. This is the method with which most
clinicians are familiar. It is the one adopted with enthusiasm by the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual (DSM) since the third edition (1980), when diagnostic criteria were specified and
definitions operationalised.

11

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 12 Fish’s Clinical Psychopathology

Table 2.1 Approaches to psychopathology

Descriptive psychopathology Explanatory psychopathology

Describes phenomena based on the Cognitive
person’s subjective state, eschews Behavioural
explanation Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic
Form and content

The International Classification of Diseases (ICD), beginning with the eighth edition
(1965), and continuing into the tenth edition, also used a clinical approach, but with less
emphasis on rigid diagnostic criteria and more on clinical judgement than DSM. This, argu-
ably, has resulted in less homogeneity than DSM when syndromes are used to identify suitable
patients for inclusion in clinical trials or to answer broader research questions.
These approaches are not mutually exclusive, and some authors have straddled both
(Kendler, 2016) to better illuminate our understanding of these complex questions.

Philosophical Approaches to Defining Psychiatric Disorder

Kendler (2016) discusses the three approaches to understanding the metaphysical aspects
of psychiatric disorder, or in other words, the three approaches to the question of the under-
lying nature of psychiatric disorder. These are referred to as realism, constructivism and
pragmatism.
Realism is the perspective of most psychiatrists, who, when asked if mental illness exists,
will assert that it does, just as the elements in the periodic table, or DNA and RNA, do. Most
psychiatrists think that mental illness is real in the same way that a bone is really broken or
a mass is found to be a cancerous tumour. So most will claim that generalised anxiety disor-
der, major depression or schizophrenia exist as entities that will eventually be identified by
their genes, their cerebral pathways and/or other markers. This is the perspective of biological
psychiatry.
Counterarguments are that there are very few disorders in psychiatry that have the clarity
of other medical conditions, such as cancer, bronchitis and so on, despite decades of research.
Indeed, when DSM-IV (1994) was published, its architects expressed optimism that by the time
DSM-5 (2013) was written, the possibility of identifying the pathophysiological underpinning
of most psychiatric disorders (see Chapter 1 page 5 Comparison of DSM 5 and ­ICD-11) would
usher in a new paradigm in classification. This aspiration has not been realised.
Constructivism is the view that psychiatric disorders have no biological reality and are
constructed by humans in the same way that fashions or music genres are, being the products
of social convention and human activity, not innate in nature. This too is the view of the anti­
psychiatry school. While most psychiatrists would not support the belief that the conditions
we treat are mere social constructs born of habit and convention, there are many prominent
psychiatrists (Kendler, 2016; Paris, 2013; Summerville, 2001; Tyrer, 2016) who, although not
antipsychiatry, have concerns about the emergence of many syndromes as recognised psychi-
atric disorders in response to the social and political climate of the time. They opine that this
strongly influenced decisions on whether to include conditions such as PTSD (Summerville,
2001), oppositional defiant disorder, multiple personality disorder, recovered memory,
­menstruation-related mood disorders and even major depression (Parker et al., 2005). In
relation to constructing disorders, DSM has been subject to much more criticism than ICD,
and while there has been broad overlap between the two systems, debate has focused mainly

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 Controversies in Classifying Psychiatric Disorder 13

on DSM, arguably because of the rigidity with which the criteria have been applied in clinical
practice. Some of these criticisms of DSM-5 have been summarised in Chapter 1 (pp. 5–8).
Pragmatism, sometimes referred to as utility (to be distinguished from utilitarianism),
is the view that psychiatric classification and the conditions named there are based on what
works and is useful rather than on what is real. This is the backbone of the arguments of
Jablensky (2016). He contends that few diagnoses have validity and that there are trans-diag-
nostic commonalities in measures such as genomic variants that should discourage us from
arguing at this point for the validity of specific disorders as discrete entities. Rather, he argues
for ‘comparative validity’, by which he means that criteria, justified rationally and based on
current scientific knowledge, represent improvements on previous models. It can be seen as a
middle ground between the realist and constructionist perspectives. Kendler (2016) is unim-
pressed, describing it as ‘unambitious’. His criticism of pragmatism as applied in psychiatry
is an ethical one with two strands. He argues that to not fully understand the essence of a
person’s underlying condition and the suffering it causes them and their families is disrespect-
ful. There is a lurking danger that they will be regarded as ‘not really sick’. The second ethical
concern is that this will undermine the profession, which if it was thought to be pragmatic
by the general public would be viewed as not doing anything ‘real’, and as not belonging to a
‘legitimate biomedical discipline’, with all the resource implications that such a perspective
carries. Another critic of the pragmatic argument is Wakefield (2016). Wakefield’s concern
is similar to Kendler’s, namely, it detracts from the scientific basis of psychiatric diagnosis.
Resolving the philosophical conundrum about the nature of psychiatric illness, Kendler
cautiously leans towards the perspective of realism, although he accepts that its certainty may
be arrogant, especially when considered against the backdrop of a history wherein accepted
ideas and scientific theories are constantly being jettisoned and replaced over time. Termed
pessimistic induction (Kuhn, 1992), it holds that each generation of scientists will argue that
they have now arrived at the truth, yet this is likely to be as erroneous as the views of the previ-
ous one. Examples of this in psychiatry include the identification and subsequent jettison of
various conditions, including masturbatory insanity, paraphrenia, monomania, homosexu-
ality, hysteria and so on. Kuhn argues for a modified version of realism combined with ele-
ments of pragmatism. He and others (Wakefield, 2016) point out that psychiatric disorders
do not exist as ‘essences’, since there is no single cause of any identifiable disorder, as there
is for cystic fibrosis or Huntington’s disease. Kendler et al. (2011) argue for a multifactorial
understanding just as, for example, with coronary artery disease, where a cluster of properties
define it. As more information becomes available, our understanding of psychiatric disorders
will fit better with what philosophers term the ‘coherence theory of truth’, ultimately identify-
ing valid categories. This theory regards truth as coherence (‘hanging together’) within some
­specified set of propositions or beliefs and it was advanced by Spinoza, Kant and Hegel.

Clinical Approaches to Defining Psychiatric Disorder (Validity)

The clinical approach used in DSM and, to a lesser extent, ICD is to identify symptoms, their
number and their duration in order to define each disorder. These must be clinically signifi-
cant (see the following) and cause either distress or dysfunction.
The purpose of the classifications is to:
1 Distinguish between normal and abnormal emotional states
• in non-psychotic states
• in psychotic states
2 Distinguish one psychiatric disorder from another.

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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 International Relations - Course Outline
Winter 2024 - Institute

Prepared by: Prof. Smith

Date: July 28, 2025

Methodology 1: Fundamental concepts and principles

Learning Objective 1: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 4: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 2: Case studies and real-world applications
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 14: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 19: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Introduction 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 23: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 4: Critical analysis and evaluation
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 32: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 33: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 37: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 38: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Part 5: Current trends and future directions
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 6: Critical analysis and evaluation
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 52: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 55: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 58: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 59: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 7: Historical development and evolution
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 64: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Background 8: Research findings and conclusions
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 75: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 9: Current trends and future directions
Example 80: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 87: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Part 10: Study tips and learning strategies
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 91: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 92: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 93: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 93: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice 11: Literature review and discussion
Practice Problem 100: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 102: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 104: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 108: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 110: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 12: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 116: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 116: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 118: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 119: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 120: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
References 13: Practical applications and examples
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 121: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 123: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 125: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 128: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 129: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 14: Study tips and learning strategies
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 131: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 131: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 132: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 133: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 138: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 138: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 139: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 139: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 15: Study tips and learning strategies
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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