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Football Biomechanics

Football Biomechanics explores the latest knowledge of this core discipline in sport sci-
ence across all codes of the sport. Encompassing a variety of styles, including original
scientific studies, syntheses of the latest research, and position statements, the text offers
readers the most up-to-date and comprehensive reference of the underlying mechanics of
high-level football performance.
The book is divided into five parts, covering fundamental football actions, the biome-
chanics of direct free kicks, footwear, biomechanical considerations in skill acquisition
and training, and artificial turf. It bridges the gap between theory and practice in a variety
of key areas such as:

•• ball kicking mechanics (in soccer and other football codes)

• ball impact dynamics
• aerodynamics of ball flight
• special techniques (such as the ‘knuckle ball shot’) by world-famous players
• the efficacy and development of footwear
• biomechanical and motor performance differences between female and male soccer
players
•• artificial turf from an injury and a performance perspective.

Made up of contributions from leading experts from around the world, Football
Biomechanics is a vital resource for researchers and practitioners working in all football
codes, and useful applied reading for any sport science student with an interest in football.

Hiroyuki Nunome is a Professor of Biomechanics in the Faculty of Sports and Health Science,
Fukuoka University, Japan. He is a former President of the Japanese Society of Science and
Football and has been a member of the International Steering Group on Science and Football.
He is well known for his pioneering work regarding the biomechanics of football actions.

Ewald Hennig is a Professor of Biomechanics at the Institute of Health and Biomedical

Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Australia. He is well known as patent
holder for pressure distribution devices of the company NOVEL Inc., Munich, and as a
world expert for footwear biomechanics relating to football.

Neal Smith is a Field Leader in Biomechanics and Research Methods at Chichester

University, UK. He has recently been featured by Sky Sports in ‘Ronaldo: Tested to the
Limit’ and by Disney XD in ‘Goalmouth’.
Routledge Research in Football

1. Elite Soccer Referees

Officiating in the Premier League, La Liga and Serie A
Tom Webb

2. The English Premier League

A socio-cultural analysis
Edited by Richard Elliott

3. Football Biomechanics
Edited by Hiroyuki Nunome, Ewald Hennig and Neal Smith
Football Biomechanics

Edited by Hiroyuki Nunome,

Ewald Hennig and Neal Smith
First published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
© 2018 selection and editorial matter, Hiroyuki Nunome, Ewald Hennig,
and Neal Smith; individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Hiroyuki Nunome, Ewald Hennig, and Neal Smith to be
identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for
their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-138-19512-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-63855-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Cenveo Publisher Services
Contents

List of contributors ix
Preface xiii

PART I
Football actions 1

1 Does biomechanical evidence support coaching cues of kicking? 3

H iroyu k i N unome

2 The support leg motion as a great contributor to football kicking 13

Koichiro I noue

3 The biomechanics of place kicking in Rugby Union 24

N eil B e z odis , A lexandra Atac k and S tacy W inter

4 Impact in ovoid ball kicking 36

Kevin B all

5 Biomechanical characteristics of the long throw-in 44

H ironari S hin k ai

PART II
Direct free kicks 55

6 Aerodynamics of modern footballs 57

Ta k eshi A sai

7 Impact phase of the knuckle shot 68

S ungchan H ong and Ta k eshi A sai

8 How to kick the knuckle shot: ball impact characteristics of

top professional players and its application for training 77
H ironari S hin k ai and N eal S mith
vi  Contents
Part III
Footwear 89

9 Kicking accuracy can be influenced by soccer shoe design 91

E wald M . H ennig and Katharina A lthoff

10 Biomechanical and motor performance differences between

female and male soccer players: influences on the game and
recommendations for gender specific footwear 101
Katharina A lthoff and E wald M . H ennig

11 Plantar pressure distribution patterns and a one-year aging

process during soccer specific movements on a grass surface 114
E ric E ils

12 Influence of traction on running performance and lower

extremity loading of soccer players: interplay of shoes,
surfaces and training 124
T horsten S ter z ing

13 Boot–turf interaction during a 180° cutting movement

on artificial turf when wet and dry 141
D ir k D e C lercq , G i j s D ebuyc k , A lison S heets - singer ,
Joeri G erlo , S ti j n R ambour , V eerle S egers
and I ne Van C ae k enberghe

PART IV
Skill acquisition and training 153

14 Technique modifications to create more powerful kicking

actions in experienced players 155
N eal S mith and simon augustus

15 Skill change in elite-level kickers: interdisciplinary

considerations of an applied framework 173
H owie J . C arson , D ave C ollins and P hil Kearney

PART V
Artificial turf 191

16 Critical issues of shock absorbing property and its detection

test of long pile artificial turf in football 193
H iroyu k i N unome
 Contents vii
17 Artificial turf in football: an injury perspective 204
G erda S trut z enberger , L en N o k es and G areth I rwin

18 Artificial turf in football: a performance perspective 222

G erda S trut z enberger , W olfgang P otthast
and G areth I rwin

Epilogue: future research directions 238

Index 240
List of contributors

Katharina Althoff works at the Institute for Sports and Movement Sciences of
the University Duisburg-Essen, Germany. Her main research interests are
soccer shoe development and women soccer.
Takeshi Asai is a Professor of Coaching Science and a manager of the university
football team at Tsukuba University, Japan. He is well known as an expert for
fluid dynamics of soccer ball.
Alexandra Atack is a Lecturer in biomechanics at St Mary’s University, UK, and
completed her PhD in the biomechanics of rugby place kicking. Alexandra is
an active member of the International Society of Biomechanics in Sport
(ISBS), British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) and the
World Rugby Science Network.
Kevin Ball is a Senior Lecturer of the College of Sport and Exercise Science and
the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL) at Victoria
University, Australia. He is currently the Australian junior AFL kicking coach,
the South Sydney Rabbitohs kicking coach and consults to a number of AFL
clubs. He is also on the editorial board of Sports Biomechanics, a director of
the International Society of Biomechanics in Sport, an associate member of
the AFL Sport Science Advisory Group and is a member of the AFL kicking
skill acquisition group.
Neil Bezodis is a Senior Lecturer at Swansea University, UK, and his broad
research focus is the biomechanics of elite sports performance with a focus on
sprinting and rugby union. Neil is an active member of the International
Society of Biomechanics in Sports (ISBS) and was recently invited to join the
Editorial Board of the International Rugby Board (IRB) Rugby Science
Network.
Howie J. Carson is a Researcher in motor control and sports coaching at the
University of Central Lancashire, UK. As a practitioner, Howie holds
‘Advanced’ status as an accredited golf coach with The Professional Golfers’
Association, is an accredited Sport and Exercise Scientist (specialising in skill
development) through the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences
x  List of contributors
and is a Chartered Scientist. His current research addresses the refinement of
already learnt and well-established skills, skill acquisition and motor skill
performance in stressful environments.
Dave Collins is a Professor of Coaching and Performance at the University of
Central Lancashire, UK, and Director of Grey Matters Consultants, UK. He is
a Chartered Psychologist, Registered Supervisor and Associate Fellow of the
British Psychological Society, a registered practitioner with the Health
Professions Council, a Chartered Scientist and a founding fellow of the
Society of Martial Arts. Collins is also a Fellow of the British Association of
Sport and Exercise Sciences and holds High Performance Sport Accreditation
as a Sport Scientist, having worked with over 60 world and Olympic medallists
plus professional performers in a variety of domains. His research interests
focus on the development, evaluation and promotion of expertise in a variety
of essential performance professions.
Gijs Debuyck is a Technical Youth Director in professional soccer at the Ghent
University, Belgium. He was scientific collaborator at Ghent University,
Belgium in a project on the biomechanical interactions between artificial turf,
shoe and athlete.
Dirk De Clercq is a Professor in Biomechanics of Human Movement at the
Department for Movement and Sport Sciences in Ghent University, Belgium.
His research concerns biomechanics of locomotion and sports. He is head of
the Laboratory for Biomechanics of Human Movement in the Sports Science
Laboratory – Jacques Rogge at Ghent University, Belgium.
Eric Eils is a Professor for Performance and Training at Münster University,
Germany. He is also an expert for prevention and rehabilitation of ankle
injuries regarding football.
Joeri Gerlo is a staff member at the laboratory for Biomechanics and Motor
Control of human movement at Ghent University, Belgium.
Sungchan Hong is a Researcher in the field of Sports Aerodynamics at Tsukuba
University, Japan. In particular he has researched the effect of the panel shape
of the soccer ball on its flight characteristics and fluid dynamics of soccer ball.
He recently published a paper regarding the topic in Scientific Report.
Koichiro Inoue is a Lecturer in sport biomechanics at Yamagata University,
Japan. His research interest is the dynamics of kicking motion. He won New
Investigator Award in the congress of Japanese Society of Biomechanics. He
is an executive board member of the Japanese Society of Science and Football.
Gareth Irwin is a Professor and Head of Biomechanics and Laboratory Director
at Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK. He recently organized a FIFA research
project based at the Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK. He is the president
of the International Society of Biomechanics in Sports (ISBS).
 List of contributors xi
Phil Kearney is a currently a Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Psychology
at the University of Chichester, UK, specialising in skill acquisition. His cur-
rent research interests centre on technique refinement, movement pattern vari-
ability, and players’/coaches’ understanding and application of core principles
of skill acquisition.
Len Nokes is a Professor of Clinical Biomechanics at Cardiff University, UK,
and has been involved as a FIFA consultant in coordinating a number of
research programs investigating player/surface interaction.
Wolfgang Potthast is a Professor of Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics
at Köln Sports University, Germany. He is well known as an expert for foot-
wear biomechanics and artificial turf. Recently, he was invited to join a FIFA
research team and collaborated with FIFA to establish new FIFA standard for
artificial turfs.
Stijn Rambour is a scientific collaborator at ERCAT, the artificial turf research
and testing centre at the Centre for Textile Science and Engineering of Ghent
University, Belgium.
Veerle Segers is a Sport Technical Director of the Flemish Basketball Federation
and is a voluntary postdoctoral collaborator at Ghent University, Belgium.
Alison Sheets-Singer (PhD, Nike Inc., USA) is a Senior Researcher in the Nike
Sport Research Lab in Portland, OR, USA. The goal of her research is to use
biomechanical knowledge to enhance athlete performance through the crea-
tion innovative products and services. Prior to joining Nike, Inc. in 2012, Dr.
Sheets-Singer was an Assistant Professor at Ohio State University, and a
Postdoctoral Researcher at Stanford University. She obtained her BS from
Cornell University, and PhD from University of CA, Davis in Mechanical
Engineering. Sheets-Singer is a recipient of the Andrzej Komor New
Investigator Award from the International Society of Biomechanics, Technical
Group on Computer Simulation for her work related to optimizing gymnastics
performance.
Hironari Shinkai is an Associate Professor of Sports Biomechanics at Tokyo
Gakugei University, Japan. He is an executive board member of the Japanese
Society of Science and Football and Editor in Chief of International online
Journal Football Science.
Thorsten Sterzing is a Senior Consultant to the R&D Innovation Centre of Xtep
Co Ltd, China, and heads their Sports Science and Engineering Laboratory.
Thorsten has lectured on a wide range of the core disciplines of Sports and
Human Movement Sciences at the University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany,
and at Chemnitz University of Technology, Germany. He previously held the
post of a Sports Science Research Manager at Li Ning Co Ltd, China, and is
a patent holder in his field.
xii  List of contributors
Gerda Strutzenberger is a Senior Scientist at the University of Salzburg, and was
involved in a FIFA research project based at the Cardiff Metropolitan
University, UK (2013–2014). Her research focuses on clinical biomechanics
(sports injury, activities of daily Living) and sports performance biomechanics
(sprint, cycling and football).
Ine Van Caekenberghe is a Research Associate in Biomechanics at Manchester
Metropolitan University, UK, Technical Race Skills Analyst at GB Para-
Swimming, UK, and voluntary postdoctoral collaborator at Ghent University,
Belgium.
Stacy Winter is the Programme Director of the MSc in Applied Sport Psychology
at St Mary’s University, UK, and her research examines professionalism, prac-
tice, and process in applied sport psychology. Stacy is a British Psychological
Society (BPS) Chartered Psychologist and a British Association of Sport and
Exercise Sciences (BASES) Accredited Practitioner/Chartered Scientist.
Preface

During a football match, we sometimes witness magnificent performances by top

footballers. For example, the soccer ball changes its flight path to bend around an
opponent player’s wall or to unpredictably move right and left, or up and down
like a butterfly in flight. People in the stadium or those in front of a TV might
question whether the players used some magic or if they are even free from the
laws of physics. From the viewpoint of sports biomechanics the answer,
however, is ‘No’. Evidently, they are not inhabitants of a magic world, even
though they are great practitioners of the laws of physics, whether they know it
or not.
Sports biomechanics is a quantitative-based sport science discipline, playing
an important role in the scientific application to the football field. In this subfield
of biomechanics, the laws of physics are applied in order to gain an understanding
of athletic performances through motion capture, mathematical modelling,
computer simulation and other methods of measurement, using advanced
technology. We are certain that the application of sports biomechanics in football,
known as Football Biomechanics, will open your eyes to the underlying
mechanics of high-level football performances.
This volume of Football Biomechanics includes the latest biomechanical
knowledge covering football actions (Part I), direct free kicks (Part II), footwear
(Part III), skill acquisition and training (Part IV), and artificial turf (Part V).
Inside this volume, readers will find a unique variety of the styles of presentation
including the chapters that represent adaptations of original scientific studies, and
those which represent a synthesis and position statement of the current findings
in that area.
Part I outlines the latest biomechanical findings about definitive actions in
football. This includes four chapters covering the kicking actions of three
different football codes: soccer, rugby and Australian rules, and one chapter on
the action of the soccer throw-in.
Part II features the direct free kick in soccer. In this section, one chapter
focuses on the aerodynamics of the ball and two chapters illustrate technical
feature of special free kick (non-spinning knuckle shots), dissect the unique
knuckle shot technique of two world top players, and demonstrate the application
to training for achieving this technique.
xiv  Preface
Part III highlights the most important equipment used in football: footwear.
One chapter describes the design, which may help to improve kicking accuracy,
and the remaining three chapters provide an in-depth insight into the influence of
different football shoe–surfaces and the foot–shoe interactions of the players.
Part IV explores new aspects of football biomechanics. This section includes
one chapter providing a good example of evidence-based technical modification
of kicking, and another chapter describing a practical framework to refine well-
established kicking skills.
Part V provides useful information regarding artificial turf. This section
consists of one chapter focusing on the essential property of shock absorbency,
and two review chapters outlining the influence of artificial turf on injuries and
performance perspectives.
Finally, we are grateful to the researchers who generously provided their latest
research findings, thereby making this publication possible. We would like to
thanks to the following contributors: Katharina Althoff, Takeshi Asai, Alexandra
Atack, Kevin Ball, Neil Bezodis, Howie Carson, Dave Collins, Gijs Debuyck,
Dirk De Clercq, Eric Eils, Joeri Gerlo, Koichiro Inoue, Gareth Irwin, Philip
Kearney, Len Nokes, Wolfgang Potthast, Stijn Rambour, Veerle Segers, Alison
Sheets-Singer, Hironari Shinkai, Thorsten Sterzing, Gerda Strulzenberger
Sungchan Hong, Ine Van Caekenberghe, and Stacy Winter. We hope this book
will stimulate further biomechanical research in the football field and encourages
researchers to put theory into practice.
Part I

Football actions
1 Does biomechanical evidence
support coaching cues of
kicking?
Hiroyuki Nunome

1. Introduction
As the name explains, “Football” originally referred to a variety of games that
involve kicking a ball with foot to score a goal. Nowadays, we can see a diversity
of footballs (association football; rugby union; rugby league; Australian rules;
Gaelic football and gridiron football), all of which are known as football codes.
Among these different football codes, association football (soccer) is the one that
uses kicking the ball most frequently in the match. Thus, kicking is the defining
action of soccer (Lees, Asai, Andersen, Nunome & Sterzing, 2010) and it is also
the kicking technique that has been most widely studied from a biomechanical
perspective.
Without doubt, to improve kicking performance, we want to make players kick
a ball with more power. That has been the challenge for most soccer coaches.
A number of practical coaching cues do exist on how to kick the ball faster,
however, it seems that these coaching cues are sometimes not consistent with the
scientific knowledge contained in the literature. This might confuse both
researchers and coaches and thus create a gap between scientific knowledge and
practical coaching cues.
While there have been many studies on the biomechanics of kicking, there are
still a number of novel aspects of this skill to be explored. Recent advances in
technology also helped to widen our interest to consider several new aspects of
soccer kicking action, in particular actions just before and during ball impact. Our
research group has made a series of novel research attempts that focused on
soccer kicking. Through these studies, we obtained several unique and unex-
pected results, some of which support the coaching cues while others are not
consistent with practical instructions.
This chapter, therefore, aims not only to give an overview of recent findings of
soccer kicking biomechanics but also to shed some light on the veracity of some
practical coaching instructions from a biomechanical perspective.

2. Impact phase kinematics

Leg swing kinematics at or just before ball contact during kicking are important
for determining the resultant ball velocity, because there is a robust relationship
4   Hiroyuki Nunome
that exists between the final foot velocity and the resultant ball velocity (Asami
& Nolte, 1983; Barfield, 1995; Levanon & Dapena, 1998; Nunome, Lake,
Georgakis, & Stergioulas, 2006). It is logical to assume that to achieve maximal
ball velocity, the foot velocity should not decline before ball impact, but must be
maximized until the moment the foot makes contact with the ball. However, in
the literature or even in current text books of biomechanics, it has been shown
that the lower leg final linear or angular velocity levels off prior to ball impact
and then slightly declined towards ball impact.
Until recently, studies that have documented kicking kinematics have typically
captured limb movements at rates between 100 and 400 Hz (Andersen, Dörge &
Thomsen, 1999; Barfield, 1995; Dörge, Andersen, Sørensen & Simonsen, 2002;
Isokawa & Lees, 1988; Lees, 1996; Lees & Nolan, 1998; Levanon & Dapena,
1998; Nunome, Asai, Ikegami & Sakurai, 2002; Rodano & Tavana, 1993;
Teixeira, 1999) and then filtered the displacement data with a cut-off frequency
of 6–18 Hz (Andersen et al., 1999; Dörge et al., 2002; Nunome et al., 2002;
Teixeira, 1999). Although these procedures were appropriate for illustrating the
swing phase kinematics, it is unclear whether they can adequately capture and
describe movement characteristics around ball impact transient. This nature of
the leg swing formed our conventional understanding of the kicking leg motion.
Conversely, coaches often advise players to “kick through the ball” (LA84
Foundation, 1995; National Soccer Coaches Association of America, 2012)
which likely suggests that coaches encourage players to increase foot velocity
until the moment of ball impact.
To address this conflict, soccer full instep kicking kinematics were captured
using more advanced technology, which included a high-speed motion capture
(1000 Hz) and a new filtering procedure (time-frequency filtering), which allowed
changing of the cut-off frequency along the time-series (Nunome et al., 2006).
Key results from nine male amateur footballers are shown in Figure 1.1. The
change represents shank angular velocity just before, during and just after ball
impact. In the left panel shows the change using the high sampling frequency and
the novel filtering, and the right panel shows the change processed using a conven-
tional (re-sampled to 250 Hz and smoothed using a conventional filter with a low,
constant cut-off frequency of 10 Hz) procedure used in the literature.
In fact, as the raw change (narrow solid line) illustrates, the shank is still angu-
larly accelerating towards ball impact and the novel data treatment succeeded in
demonstrating a more representative change without noisy oscillations on the
baseline. In contrast, the conventional data treatment created a descending nature
of the shank angular velocity which apparently strayed out of the raw change.
This is a very important finding as this was the very pattern generally seen in the
previous studies, but when a more appropriate computing procedure is employed,
this pattern did not exist. From biomechanical perspective, it can be assumed that
sudden deceleration caused by ball impact would produce errors in its derivative
parameters in the last few frames before ball impact and this would be amplified
if smoothing was attempted through impact. This was a primary source of
misleading ball kicking biomechanics. However, most ball kicking studies have
 Biomechanical evidence and coaching of kicking 5

Figure 1.1 C
 omparison of shank angular velocity changes just before, during and after
ball impact from two different filtering and sampling procedures. In the left
panel, high-speed sampled data (1000 Hz) smoothed by a time-frequency
filter is shown. In the right panel, raw data was re-sampled (250 Hz) and then
smoothed by a conventional filter at 10 Hz cut-off frequency is shown (modi-
fied from Nunome et al. (2006) in Journal of Sports Sciences)

failed to acknowledge this type of potential error, and it is often unclear how
displacement coordinates were smoothed (Isokawa & Lees, 1988; Rodano &
Tavana, 1993; Lees, 1996; Lees & Nolan, 1998).
This work was the first to provide evidence that strongly supports the above
practical advice of kicking by revealing a ‘more representative’ shank motion
around ball impact. The coaching perspective of “kicking through the ball” would
indeed be a cue that has direct application to actual kicking performance.

3. Ball impact dynamics

There are several instructions for kicking the ball with power, in which the impor-
tance of a good follow through has been frequently stressed (O’Challagan, 2010).
Barfield (2000) suggested that one primary objective of the follow through is to
keep the foot in touch with the ball as long as possible. Coaches, players and even
researchers believe that skilled players are capable of pushing the ball longer than
less skilled players, thereby increasing the resultant ball velocity. This coaching
cue has a sound theoretical underpinning because the final momentum of the ball
is determined by the amount of impulse applied to the ball (impulse-momentum
theorem). If players can apply more impulse to the ball by lengthening ball
contact time, the ball will gain more momentum, namely a “faster” resultant ball
velocity to be achieved.
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