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of Sciences. All rights reserved.
 A DDING
+ IT
UP
HELPING CHILDREN LEARN MATHEMATICS

Mathematics Learning Study Committee

Jeremy Kilpatrick, Jane Swafford,

and Bradford Findell, editors

Center for Education

Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education
National Research Council

National Academy Press

Washington, DC

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20418

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the
committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for
appropriate balance.

This study was supported by Contract/Grant No. ESI-9816818 between the National Academy of
Sciences and the U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation. Any opinions,
findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and
do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Adding it up : helping children learn mathematics / Jeremy Kilpatrick,

Jane Swafford, and Bradford Findell, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-06995-5 (hardcover)
1. Mathematics—Study and teaching (Elementary)—United States. 2.
Mathematics—Study and teaching (Middle school)—United States. I.
Kilpatrick, Jeremy. II. Swafford, Jane. III. Findell, Bradford.
QA135.5 .A32 2001
372.7—dc21
2001001734

Suggesed citation:
National Research Council. (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. J. Kilpatrick, J.
Swafford, and B. Findell (Eds.). Mathematics Learning Study Committee, Center for Education,
Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Additional copies of this report are available from National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue,
N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington
metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu

Printed in the United States of America.

Copyright 2001 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Institute of Medicine
National Research Council

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of

distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate
that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce
M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National
Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National
Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national
needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of
engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to
secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of
policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsi-
bility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser
to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care,
research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s pur-
poses of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accor-
dance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the prin-
cipal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy
of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and
engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the
Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chairman and vice
chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.
 v

MATHEMATICS LEARNING STUDY COMMITTEE

JEREMY KILPATRICK, Chair, University of Georgia
DEBORAH LOEWENBERG BALL, University of Michigan
HYMAN BASS, University of Michigan
JERE BROPHY, Michigan State University
FELIX BROWDER, Rutgers University
THOMAS P. CARPENTER, University of Wisconsin–Madison
CAROLYN DAY, Dayton Public Schools
KAREN FUSON, Northwestern University
JAMES HIEBERT, University of Delaware
ROGER HOWE, Yale University
CAROLYN KIERAN, University of Quebec, Montreal
RICHARD E. MAYER, University of California, Santa Barbara
KEVIN MILLER, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
CASILDA PARDO, Albuquerque Public Schools
EDGAR ROBINSON, Exxon Mobil Corporation (Retired)
HUNG-HSI WU, University of California, Berkeley

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STAFF

JANE SWAFFORD, Study Director
BRADFORD FINDELL, Program Officer
GAIL PRITCHARD, Program Officer
SONJA ATKINSON, Administrative Assistant

SPECIAL OVERSIGHT COMMISSION FOR

THE MATHEMATICS LEARNING STUDY
RONALD L. GRAHAM, Chair, University of California, San Diego
DEBORAH LOEWENBERG BALL, University of Michigan
IRIS CARL, Houston Independent School District
THOMAS P. CARPENTER, University of Wisconsin–Madison
CHRISTOPHER CROSS, Council for Basic Education
RONALD DOUGLAS, Texas A&M University
ROGER HOWE, Yale University
LYNNE REDER, Carnegie Mellon University
HAROLD STEVENSON, University of Michigan
PHILLIP URI TREISMAN, University of Texas, Austin

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.
 vii

REVIEWERS

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for
their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with proce-
dures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Commit-
tee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical
comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as
sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards
for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The re-
view comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the in-
tegrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individu-
als for their participation in the review of this report:

JOHN ANDERSON, Carnegie Mellon University

RICHARD A. ASKEY, University of Wisconsin–Madison
ARTHUR BAROODY, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
GUNNAR CARLSSON, Stanford University
JERE CONFREY, University of Texas
JOHN DOSSEY, Illinois State University
JEAN-CLAUDE FALMAGNE, University of California, Irvine
HERBERT GINSBURG, Columbia University
KENNETH KOEDINGER, Carnegie Mellon University
CAROLYN MAHER, Rutgers University
ALFRED MANASTER, University of California, San Diego
BETHANY RITTLE-JOHNSON, Carnegie Mellon University

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 viii

MARIA SANTOS, San Francisco Unified School District

PATRICK THOMPSON, Vanderbilt University
ZALMAN USISKIN, University of Chicago

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive

comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions
or recommendations nor did they see the final draft of the report before its
release. The review of this report was overseen by Ronald L. Graham, Uni-
versity of California, San Diego, and Patrick Suppes (NAS), Stanford Univer-
sity. Appointed by the National Research Council, they were responsible for
making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried
out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments
were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report
rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Adding It Up is the product of an 18-month project in which 16 individuals

with diverse backgrounds, as a committee, reviewed and synthesized relevant
research on mathematics learning from pre-kindergarten through grade 8. We
had the good fortune of working with a number of people outside the com-
mittee who shared our enthusiasm for this project, and we are indebted to
them for the intellectual insights and support that they provided.
At a time when mathematics education issues have reached a critical point,
both publicly and politically, it has become clear that our nation has a respon-
sibility to provide guidance and leadership in answering questions about how
to improve mathematics learning for all students. We would like to thank our
sponsors, the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Edu-
cation, for their foresight in providing a timely opportunity to move the debate
forward. In particular, we thank Janice Earle, from the National Science Foun-
dation; Patricia O’Connell Ross, from the U.S. Department of Education;
and Judy Wurtzel and Linda Rosen, both formerly with the U.S. Department
of Education, for their constant support and interest in this study.
During the information-gathering phase of our work, a number of people
made presentations to the committee on various topics pertaining to math-
ematics learning. We benefited greatly from their stimulating presentations
and extend our thanks to Jo Boaler, Stanford University, School of Education;
Douglas Carnine, University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools
of Educators; Paul Clopton, Mathematically Correct; Megan Franke, Univer-
sity of California, Los Angeles, Graduate School of Education and Information
Studies; and Judith Sowder, San Diego State University, Center for Research
in Mathematics and Science Education. Additionally, we would like to thank

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Steven Stahl and Donna Alvermann, University of Georgia, and Susan Burns,
George Mason University, for providing us with insights about the parallels
between mathematics and reading. And we are grateful to Carne Barnett,
WestEd Regional Education Laboratory; Deborah Schifter, Education
Development Center; Patricia Campbell, University of Maryland, Center for
Mathematics Education; Anne Morris, University of Delaware, School of
Education; and Mary Kay Stein, University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research
and Development Center; for providing information about specific programs
in elementary mathematics or teacher development.
We also wish to acknowledge the people who provided informative com-
missioned papers that expanded and enhanced our collective thinking. In
particular, we appreciate the work of Rolf Blank, Council of Chief State School
Officers; Graham Jones, Cynthia Langrall, and Carol Thornton, Illinois State
University; Gloria Ladson-Billings and Richard Lehrer, University of
Wisconsin–Madison; and Denise Mewborn, University of Georgia. We also
thank Douglas McLeod and Judith Sowder, San Diego State University, and
Les Steffe, University of Georgia, for their assistance with research reviews
for specific topics on which we had questions.
While writing the final draft of this report, we commissioned several chap-
ter reviews that strengthened our research synthesis and focused our prose.
Many thanks to Kathleen Cramer, University of Minnesota; James Kaput,
University of Massachusetts–Dartmouth; Mary Lindquist, Columbus State
University; Thomas Post, University of Minnesota; and Edward Rathmell,
University of Northern Iowa.
While the individuals listed above have provided many constructive com-
ments and suggestions, responsibility for the final content of this report rests
solely with the authoring committee and the National Research Council.
Finally, we would like extend our sincere thanks to several individuals
within the National Research Council and in other places who made signifi-
cant contributions to our work: Rodger Bybee, former Executive Director for
the Center, and Patrice Legro, former Division Director for Special Projects,
for providing the initial impetus for this project and getting it off to a strong
start; Gail Pritchard, Program Officer, for keeping us on the straight and narrow
in complying with the myriad of NRC policies and procedures; Bradford
Findell, Program Officer, for researching, drafting, and editing many sections
of the report; Michael J. Feuer, Executive Director for the Center for Educa-
tion (CFE), for providing key advice; Kirsten Sampson Snyder, Reports Officer
for CFE, for guiding us through the report review process; Steve Olson and
Yvonne Wise, for providing editorial assistance; Sally Stanfield, National

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi

Academy Press, for making our report look so nice; Lynn Geiger and Gooyeon
Kim, doctoral students at the University of Georgia, for assisting the chair in
his work on this report; Mark Hoover, doctoral student at the University of
Michigan, for helping on some early drafts of chapters; and Todd Grundmeier,
graduate student at the University of New Hampshire, for tracking down
most of our references and verifying them for appropriateness and accuracy.
Lastly, we would like to express our appreciation to Sonja Atkinson, Admin-
istrative Assistant, whose agility in managing the complex arrangements, at-
tention to detail, and cheerful attitude made our work much easier and our
time together more enjoyable.

Jeremy Kilpatrick, Chair

Jane Swafford, Study Director
Mathematics Learning Study Committee

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.
 xiii

PREFACE

Public concern about how well U.S. schoolchildren are learning math-
ematics is abundant and growing. The globalization of markets, the spread
of information technologies, and the premium being paid for workforce skills
all emphasize the mounting need for proficiency in mathematics. Media
reports of inadequate teaching, poorly designed curricula, and low test scores
fuel fears that young people are deficient in the mathematical skills demanded
by society.
Such concerns are far from new. Over a century and a half ago, Horace
Mann, secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, was dismayed
to learn that Boston schoolchildren could answer only about a third of the
arithmetic questions they were asked in a survey. “Such a result repels com-
ment,” he said. “No friendly attempt at palliation can make it any better. No
severity of just censure can make it any worse.” In 1919, when part of the
survey was repeated in school districts around the country, the results for
arithmetic were even worse than they had been in 1845. Apparently, there
has never been a time when U.S. students excelled in mathematics, even
when schools enrolled a much smaller, more select portion of the population.
Over the last half-century, however, mathematics achievement has become
entangled in urgent national issues: building military and industrial strength
during the Cold War, maintaining technological and economic advantage when
the Asian tigers roared, and most recently, strengthening public education
against political attacks. How well U.S. students are learning mathematics
and what should be done about it are now matters for every citizen to ponder.
And one hears calls from many quarters for schools, teachers, and students to
boost their performance.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 xiv PREFACE

During the new math era of the mid-1950s to mid-1970s, reformers

emphasized changes in the mathematics curriculum; today’s reformers want
changes in mathematics teaching and assessment as well. In the mathemati-
cian E.G. Begle’s laconic formulation, the problem is no longer so much teach-
ing better mathematics as it is teaching mathematics better. Almost every-
one today agrees that elementary and middle school mathematics should not
be confined to arithmetic but should also include elements from other domains
of mathematics, such as algebra, geometry, and statistics. There is much less
consensus, however, on how these elements should be organized and taught.
Different people urge that school mathematics be taken in different directions.
A claim used to advocate movement in one direction is that mathematics
is bound by history and culture, that students learn by creating mathematics
through their own investigations of problematic situations, and that teachers
should set up situations and then step aside so that students can learn. A
countervailing claim is that mathematics is universal and eternal, that stu-
dents learn by absorbing clearly presented ideas and remembering them, and
that teachers should offer careful explanations followed by organized oppor-
tunities for students to connect, rehearse, and review what they have learned.
The trouble with these claims is not that one is true and the other false; it is
that both are incomplete. They fail to capture the complexity of mathematics,
of learning, and of teaching.
Mathematics is at the same time inside and beyond culture; it is both
timely and timeless. The theorem attributed to Pythagoras was known in
various forms in the civilizations of ancient Babylon and China, and it is still
true the world over today even though systems of geometry now exist in which
it does not hold. Mathematics is invented, and it is discovered as well. Stu-
dents learn it on their own, and they learn it from others, most especially
their teachers. If students are to become proficient in mathematics, teaching
must create learning opportunities both constrained and open. Mathematics
teaching is a difficult task under any circumstances. It is made even more
complicated and challenging when teachers are paying attention simulta-
neously, as they should, to the manifold paths mathematics learning can take
and to the multifaceted nature of mathematics itself.
In this report, we have attempted to address the conflicts in current pro-
posals for changing school mathematics by giving a more rounded portrayal
of the mathematics children need to learn, how they learn it, and how it might
be taught to them effectively. In coming up with that portrayal, we have
drawn on the research literature as well as our experience and judgment.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 PREFACE xv

Early on, we decided to concentrate primarily on the mathematics of num-

bers and their operations—for reasons spelled out in chapter 1. We wanted
readers to understand that we were using the topic to illustrate what might be
done throughout the curriculum. Nonetheless, we recognize the ease with
which some may conclude that attention equals advocacy, that we think arith-
metic must constitute the mathematics curriculum from pre-kindergarten to
eighth grade. Such a conclusion would be wrong: The emphasis on numbers
and operations in the research literature and the even greater emphasis in
this report say nothing about what the emphasis should be in school. We
support a comprehensive curriculum that draws on many domains of math-
ematics.
The mathematician George Pólya, poking fun at the new math textbooks
being assembled by platoons of mathematicians and teachers, once proposed
a mock word problem something like the following: If one person can write a
book in 12 months, how many months will 30 people need? Producing the
present book in 18 months demanded something other than proportional rea-
soning; it took a superb committee of talented, dedicated people. The com-
mittee members were truly diverse, with different sorts of expertise. None
of us knew all the others before we began. We brought many views, some
opposing, on the issues before us. Yet we set to work immediately to develop
a report we could all support, eventually meeting eight times from January
1999 to June 2000. Small groups of two or three met occasionally between
committee meetings to draft sections of the report, and we engaged in count-
less e-mail exchanges to work out thorny details. The process worked because
each of us valued the others’ opinions, we listened to one another thoughtfully
and respectfully, and we worked hard together to reach our common goal.
No matter how many months more or less than 18 it might have taken,
none of us could have written this report alone. Whatever merits it has lie not
only in the messages it contains but also in how it was produced. We offer the
report in the hope that it will enable others to address the problems of school
mathematics in a more balanced, informed way than is common today and in
the same spirit we had of cooperation and mutual regard.

Jeremy Kilpatrick, Chair

Mathematics Learning Study Committee

of Sciences. All rights reserved.

of Sciences. All rights reserved.
 xvii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary 1

1 Looking at Mathematics and Learning 15

2 The State of School Mathematics in the United States 31

3 Number: What Is There to Know? 71

4 The Strands of Mathematical Proficiency 115

5 The Mathematical Knowledge Children Bring to School 157

6 Developing Proficiency with Whole Numbers 181

7 Developing Proficiency with Other Numbers 231

8 Developing Mathematical Proficiency Beyond Number 255

9 Teaching for Mathematical Proficiency 313

10 Developing Proficiency in Teaching Mathematics 369

11 Conclusions and Recommendations 407

Biographical Sketches 433

Index 441

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 A DDING
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UP

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