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 © Lonely Planet Publications
13

Contents
The Authors 15 Beruwela & Moragalle
Aluthgama, Bentota
117

& Induruwa 118

Kosgoda 121
Getting Started 17 Ambalangoda &
Around 122
Hikkaduwa & Around 123
Itineraries 20
The South 129
Snapshot 26 Galle 130
Around Galle 137
Unawatuna 138
History 28 Unawatuna to Koggala 141
Ahangama &
Midigama 142
The Culture 39 Weligama 143
Mirissa 144
Matara 145
Environment 60 Matara to Tangalla 147
Tangalla 149
Mulkirigala 151
Food & Drink 69 Hambantota 152
Bundala National Park 152
Tissamaharama 153
Colombo 77 Around Tissamaharama 155
History 80 Yala National Park 156
Orientation 80 Kataragama 157
Information 81
Dangers & Annoyances
Sights
87
89
The Hill Country 160
Activities 92 Colombo to Kandy 161
Festivals & Events 93 Kandy 162
Sleeping 93 Around Kandy 188
Eating 97 East of Kandy 193
Drinking 100 Adam’s Peak
(Sri Pada) 194
Entertainment 101 Around Adam’s Peak 196
Shopping 102 Kitulgala 197
Getting There & Away 103 Kandy to Nuwara
Getting Around 104 Eliya 198
Nuwara Eliya 199

West Coast 107 Horton Plains National

Park & World’s End 205
NORTH OF COLOMBO 108 Belihul Oya 208
Wilpattu National Park 109 Haputale 208
Puttalam & Around 110 Bandarawela 211
Puttalam to Negombo 111 Ella 213
Negombo 111 Around Ella 216
Around Negombo 115 Badulla 217
SOUTH OF COLOMBO 116 Wellawaya 219
Kalutara & Wadduwa 117 Embilipitiya 220
© Lonely Planet Publications
14 C O N T E N T S

Uda Walawe Jaffna Peninsula 313

National Park
Sinharaja Forest
220 Jaffna’s Offshore
Islands 316
Glossary 357
Reserve 221
Sinharaja to Ratnapura 223
Ratnapura 223 Directory 318 Behind the Scenes 360
The Ancient Cities 227 Transport 336 Index 367
Matale 229
Nalanda
Dambulla
230
231
Health 344 World Time Zones 374
Sigiriya 233
Polonnaruwa
Around Polonnaruwa
237
244
Language 351 Map Legend 376
National Parks 245
Habarana 245
Ritigala
Aukana
Anuradhapura
246
247
247
Regional Map Contents
Mihintale 255
Yapahuwa 259
Padeniya 260
Panduwasnuwara 260
Ridigama & JAFFNA & THE NORTH
Ridi Vihara 260 p296

Kurunegala 261
Dambadeniya 262

The East 263

Buttala 264 WEST COAST THE ANCIENT CITIES
p108 p228
Around Buttala 265
Monaragala 267
East of Monaragala 268
Pottuvil 269
Arugam Bay 270
South of Arugam Bay 274 COLOMBO
THE HILL COUNTRY THE EAST
p161 p264
Pottuvil to Batticaloa 276 pp78–9

Ampara 276
Around Ampara 278
Batticaloa 281 THE SOUTH
p130
Around Batticoloa 284
Trincomalee 286
Around Trincomalee 290
© Lonely Planet Publications. To make it easier for you to use,
Jaffna & the North 295 access to this chapter is not digitally restricted. In return, we
Vavuniya 298 think it’s fair to ask you to use it for personal, non-commercial
Vavuniya to Mannar 300 purposes only. In other words, please don’t upload this chapter
Mannar 301
Mannar Island 302
to a peer-to-peer site, mass email it to everyone you know, or
Vavuniya to Jaffna 303 resell it. See the terms and conditions on our site for a longer
Jaffna 304 way of saying the above - ‘Do the right thing with our content.’
© Lonely Planet Publications
16 www.lonelyplanet.com 17

Getting Started
While Sri Lanka is arguably the easiest place in which to travel in all of
South Asia, a little advance knowledge and planning will go a long way
towards making your trip more fulfilling, hassle-free and fun.
For the most part you’ll find that larger towns – and even smaller
towns with a highly developed tourism infrastructure – cater to all travel
budgets. In places more off the beaten track, especially those in the Hill
Country and in the North, luxury accommodation and high-standard
dining are relatively hard to find, but the offerings are usually sufficient
for all but the most finicky travellers.
The 12 August 2005 assassination of then foreign minister Lakshman
Kadirgamar by a suspected Tiger sniper heightened political tensions and
security concerns, and violence again broke out in April 2006. Added
caution may therefore be needed when travelling in the North and North-
east; check the situation before leaving.

WHEN TO GO
Climatically speaking, the driest (and best) seasons in Sri Lanka are
from December to March for the west coast, the south coast and the
Hill Country, and from April to September for the ancient cities region
and the east coast.
December through March are also the months when most foreign
tourists visit, the majority of them escaping the European winter. During
See Climate Charts (p322)
the Christmas to New Year holiday season, in particular, accommodation
for more information.
anywhere on the island can be tight due to the huge influx of foreign
visitors.
July/August is the time of the Kandy Esala Perahera, the 10-day fes-
tival honouring the sacred tooth relic of the Buddha, and also the time
for the Kataragama festival in the South. In both towns accommodation
just before, during and immediately after the festivals is very difficult to
come by, and rates usually double or treble. Be sure to book rooms well
in advance.
Sri Lanka’s climate means that it is always the ‘right’ beach season
somewhere on the coast. The weather doesn’t follow strict rules, though –
it often seems to be raining where it should be sunny, and sunny where
it should be raining. Rainfall tends to be emphatic – streets can become
flooded in what seems like only minutes.
Out-of-season travel has its advantages – not only do the crowds go
away but many air fares and accommodation prices drop right down.
Nor does it rain all the time during the low season.

DON’T LEAVE HOME WITHOUT...

„ Packing a light suitcase – clothes can be readily bought in Colombo, Galle and Kandy.
„ Bringing along a windbreaker, parka or jumper for cool nights in the Hill Country.
„ Checking with a Sri Lankan embassy or consulate to see whether you need a visa (p333).
„ Confirming what medicines or inoculations you need (p344).
„ Checking government travel advisories for general security issues (p323).
„ Building up your chilli tolerance.
 © Lonely Planet Publications
18 G E T T I N G S TA R T E D • • C o s t s & M o n e y www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com G E T T I N G S TA R T E D • • T r a v e l L i t e r a t u re 19

TOP FIVES FOREIGNER PRICE

Our Favourite Festivals There’s no way to put this diplomatically: many Sri Lankans try to overcharge tourists for anything
Virtually every week of the calendar there’s a festival somewhere in Sri Lanka. The following from a bus fare to a gemstone necklace. Most hotels have one price for foreigners and another
list is our pick of the ones worth seeking out, but see p326 and throughout the book for other for Sri Lankans, and government departments continue to arbitrarily ramp up foreigners’ entry
festivities and events. fees, which are often 10 or 20 times higher those paid by locals.

„ Navam Perahera, Colombo, February (p93)

„ Vesak Poya, throughout Sri Lanka, May (p326) 450 at a guesthouse, or as little as Rs 100 at a local restaurant. Dinner at
„ Kandy Esala Perahera, Kandy, July/August (p167) the country’s better restaurants costs around Rs 2000 per person.
At national parks, entry fees plus (often mandatory) 4WD hire and
„ Kataragama, Kataragama, July/August (p159)
other extras add up to something between Rs 2000 and 5100.
„ Vel, Colombo and Jaffna, July/August (p93 and p327) Public transport is cheap. Hiring a car (or van) and driver for a day HOW MUCH?
costs Rs 2500 to 4500 depending on the condition of the vehicle. Air-con bus Colombo–
Best National Parks Anuradhapura Rs 210
With over a dozen national parks and forest reserves in Sri Lanka, you could spend months ex- TRAVEL LITERATURE 2nd-class train Ella–
ploring them all. To help you prioritise, here’s our list of favourites based on accessibility, scenic Considering what a colourful and culturally rich destination Sri Lanka Badulla Rs 12
beauty and presence of wildlife. is, it’s surprising that more writers haven’t left a trail of ink chronicling
Lunch packet (fish) Rs 75
„ Yala National Park (p156) „ Sinharaja Forest Reserve (p221) their experiences here.
Running in the Family, by Michael Ondaatje, recounts a return to Sri Cultural Triangle round
„ Uda Walawe National Park (p220) „ Wilpattu National Park (p109)
Lanka in the 1970s after growing up here in the ’40s and ’50s, and cap- ticket Rs 4120
„ Minneriya National Park (p245) tures many of the little oddities that make up life in Sri Lanka. Guesthouse double room
RL Brohier records his travels around Sri Lanka as a British surveyor in (Kandy) Rs 1800
Lie-Back-&-Relax Beaches
the first half of the 20th century in Seeing Ceylon and Discovering Ceylon.
Sri Lanka’s east, south and lower west coasts are lined with bays, coves and beaches. Most See also the Lonely
Both books capture lots of intriguing historical titbits that are hard to find
structures along these coastlines experienced at least some damage during the 2004 tsunami, Planet Index, inside
elsewhere (even if they’re not 100% accurate, on occasion).
and many buildings were completely destroyed. The beaches themselves suffered least of all, front cover.
A Village in the Jungle, by Leonard Woolf, is a rather depressing ac-
although some are still being cleaned of rubble. Here are our favourite sand-and-sea getaways.
count of local life in Hambantota. First published in 1913, it is in the
„ Kalkudah Bay Beach (p284) „ Mirissa (p144) same vein as George Orwell’s Burmese Days.
„ Nilaveli (p292) „ Induruwa (p118) An engaging, insightful story, July, by Karen Roberts, tells of two
neighbours – one Sinhalese, one Tamil – growing up together.
„ Unawatuna (p138)
Elmo Jayawardena picked up literary prizes with Sam’s Story, the tale
of an illiterate village boy working in Colombo. It’s a simple, often light-
Hill Country Scenery hearted read that deftly deals with the wider problems of society.
Sri Lanka’s Hill Country covers a huge chunk of the island and almost all of it could be classed
as ‘scenic’. For truly dramatic views, however, these are the top five. INTERNET RESOURCES
„ Adam’s Peak (p194) „ Knuckles Range (p194) Ever since the World Wide Web grew out of the old US military Arpanet it
„ Ella (p213) „ Haputale (p208)
has become a rich resource for travellers. You can research your trip, hunt
down bargain air fares, book hotels, check weather conditions or chat with
„ Horton Plains National Park (p205) locals and other travellers about the best places to visit (or avoid!).
A good place to start your explorations is the Lonely Planet website
(www.lonelyplanet.com). Here you’ll find everything from the Thorn
COSTS & MONEY Tree Forum, where you can ask questions and dispense advice, to World-
Sri Lanka is more expensive than South Asia or India, but costs are still Guide, which provides useful predeparture information.
reasonable. Double rooms with bathroom, mosquito net and fan cost Other good websites:
about Rs 500 to 1000, while an international-class hotel room may run to Art Sri Lanka (www.artsrilanka.org) A gateway to Sri Lankan high culture, this site covers art
Rs 10,000 or more. Most high-end hotels quote room rates in US dollars history, contemporary art and religious art from various traditions.
but accept either dollars or rupees; some also quote in euros. Crazy Lanka (www.crazylanka.com) A cheerfully silly website with lots of parodies of current
The cost of accommodation in the touristy areas drops considerably out news events. There are lots of in-jokes but some amusing gems nonetheless.
of season. Expect to pay triple the usual accommodation price in Kandy InfoLanka (www.infolanka.com) This has links to recipes, chat lines, news, organisations, nature,
during the Kandy Esala Perahera and in Nuwara Eliya during the April entertainment and more.
high season. Because of the lack of tourism infrastructure following long Sri Lanka Tourist Board (www.srilankatourism.org) The official tourism site, with tons of
years of war, room rates are also much higher than the norm in Jaffna. information. It’s a good starting point.
Local food is reasonably priced, though it’s about three times more Sri Lanka Web Server (www.lanka.net) This has lots of links to Sri Lankan newspaper and
expensive in guesthouses than in local restaurants; it’s around Rs 300 to magazine websites.
 © Lonely Planet Publications
20 www.lonelyplanet.com I T I N E R A R I E S • • C l a s s i c R o u t e s 21

NEGOMBO & ANCIENT CITIES Two to Three Weeks

Itineraries As the seaside city of Negombo (p111) is closer than Colombo to Bandara-
naike International Airport, it’s easy enough to kick off your trip here and
skip the capital altogether. Whether or not you decide to spend a night
or more in the historic city, Negombo is worth a stop to see the historic
CLASSIC ROUTES remains of the Dutch fort, charming Catholic churches, bustling fish
markets and the rich marshlands of Muthurajawela (p116).
From Negombo head northeast to North Central Province and into
CAPITAL, COAST & HILLS Three to Four Weeks the Cultural Triangle, so-called because it contains three of the country’s
Start with a few days in Colombo (p77), sampling some of Sri Lanka’s most significant historical sites; it’s also a centre for handicrafts. Your
finest cuisine and becoming acquainted with the city’s vibrant Buddhist first stop should be Dambulla (p231), a series of cave shrines painted with
temples. Then hug the coast south, stopping off in Bentota (p118) and vivid Buddhist murals. From here it’s a short jaunt to Sigiriya (p233), a
Hikkaduwa (p123) to relax on palm-lined stretches of sand. Next comes 200m-tall rock outcrop that was once either a palace or a monastery
Galle (p130) and its 17th-century Dutch city-within-a-fort – a must-see (depending on whom you believe) and is truly one of the island’s most
if you’re interested in the island’s colonial history. amazing sights.
From here head inland to Horton Plains National Park (p205). Make a Further northeast the former royal capital of Polonnaruwa (p237) offers
side trip to the 240m-high Bambarakanda Falls (p208), Sri Lanka’s tallest an inspiring collection of Buddhist sculptures and monastery ruins dat-
waterfall, and spend a night or two in the misty ex–colonial hill station ing back nearly a thousand years. In the vicinity, Minneriya National Park
of Nuwara Eliya (p199), which earns another superlative as the island’s (p245) is well worth a visit to view the largest herds of wild elephants in
highest city. Sri Lanka, along with plenty of other wildlife.
Continue north to Kandy, stopping off for a tour and tea tasting at La- Next head northwest to Anuradhapura (p247), an even older ex–royal
bookellie Tea Factory (p198) and, if you haven’t had enough waterfall action, capital with an extensive, well-preserved historical park containing the
Ramboda Falls (p198). Kandy (p162), Sri Lanka’s main cultural centre, will ruins of monasteries, palaces and dagobas (stupas). Stop off in Mihintale
delight you with its mild climate, colonial architecture, frequent festivals (p255), just 13km east of Anuradhapura, to view its small yet impressive
and sumptuous Buddhist temples. From Kandy it’s a relatively easy ride collection of monastic ruins and dagobas, and the remains of an ancient
back to Colombo. Ayurvedic hospital.
This 547km route This 347km trip
takes you through through Sri Lanka’s
Sri Lanka’s high- ancient cities region
lights in under a takes in centuries-
month. Lie on palm- old dagobas (stupas),
fringed beaches, monasteries, sculp-
check out colonial tures and palaces as
architecture and it rolls across hilly
stare at stunning green plains and
Anuradhapura Mihintale
Hill Country views. Minneriya
farming valleys and
Just watch out for National
Park meanders through
the traffic on the Dambulla Sigiriya
Polonnaruwa
arid, East Africa–like
Colombo–Galle topography.
road.
Kandy
Negombo
Labookellie
Ramboda Falls Tea Factory Muthurajawela
Nuwara Eliya Marsh
COLOMBO
Horton Plains
National Park
Bambarakanda
Falls
Bentota

Hikkaduwa
Galle

Capital, Coast & Hills Negombo & Ancient Cities

 22 I T I N E R A R I E S • • R o a d s Le s s T r a v e l l e d www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com I T I N E R A R I E S • • R o a d s Le s s T r a v e l l e d 23

TEA, TREKS & TEMPLES Two to Three Weeks

ROADS LESS TRAVELLED Start your trip across the heart of Sri Lanka in Kitulgala (p197), a gateway
for rafting and canoeing the Kelaniya Ganga (Kelaniya River) as well as
for jungle hikes. From here it’s a relatively short hop to misty Hatton,
EAST BY NORTH Three Weeks Dikoya and Maskeliya (p196), three small towns centred on one of the top
The North and East region feels like a different country. And in some tea-growing regions in Sri Lanka. Aside from getting to taste incredibly
places, controlled by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), it ef- fragrant single-estate teas in arguably the most scenic part of the Hill
fectively is. Just check the security situation before starting the trip. Country, you can bed down in luxurious ex–colonial tea planters’ bun-
Start off in the delightfully laid-back surf beach of Arugam Bay (p270), galows, explore winding, village-to-village trails or make the strenuous
then head to Ampara (p276) to see elephants parade past the Peace Pagoda as predawn climb up Adam’s Peak (Sri Pada).
though timetabled. Having peeked into dramatic Gal Oya National Park (p278) Head across to Ella (p213) and Haputale (p208), on the Hill Country’s
from atop Inginyagala Dam, continue north to the intriguing city of Bat- precipitous eastern side, for more hiking, stupendous views and small-
ticaloa (p281) and have a splash at the deserted beach at Kalkudah (p284). town ambience. If an encounter with Buddhism is on your agenda, head
Get your first taste of Tamil Tiger territory by taking the post bus on northeast to Bibile (p279) and attend a meditation retreat at Nagala Vi-
to Mutur (p286), from where ferries cross Koddiyar Bay into Trincomalee haraya. Then, travel southeast to Monaragala (p267), the jumping-off point
(p286), arguably the world’s finest deep-water harbour. Recover from the for one of Sri Lanka’s most atmospheric ancient Buddhist sites, Maligawila
bumpy trip with an agreeably restorative stay at the beaches of Uppuveli (p266), which is home to an 11m-tall standing Buddha that’s at least a
(p290) or Nilaveli (p292), and do a little diving at Pigeon Island (p292). thousand years old.
Then, cut inland to Vavuniya (p298) to prepare for an eye-opening jour- Cut back west to Wellawaya to take in Buduruwagala (p219), a set of
ney to Jaffna. This takes you through what the locals call Tamil Eelam seven colossal figures – including the tallest Buddha in the country –
(Tamil Precious Land), the unrecognised but de facto country run by the carved into the side of a rock cliff.
Tamil Tigers, complete with its own police force, banks and even a kind of From Wellawaya descend to the coastal plains of Kataragama (p157), the
visa (available at the border). You’ll eventually arrive in Jaffna (p304), an terminus of the Pada Yatra, a pilgrimage that begins at the other end of
intriguing city of contradictions: officially government controlled yet loyal the island. One of Sri Lanka’s oldest and most venerated dagobas can be
to the Tigers, welcoming and friendly but with a heavy military presence, found in nearby Tissamaharama (p153), which is also a convenient entry
lushly comfortable in its suburbs despite a bombed-out centre. point for forays into Yala National Park (p156).
Rumble through Expect hairpin
humid coastal curves and breath-
Jaffna
plains, relax on taking views for
deserted beaches much of this 304km
and transit Tamil outing; hike, taste
Eelam, Sri Lanka’s some of Sri Lanka’s
country-within- Pigeon tea and view
Vavuniya Island
Nilaveli
a-country – this Uppuveli ancient Buddhist
Trincomalee
553km route prom- Mutur sites before drop-
ises a trip that’s as ping down to the
thought-provoking coastal plains.
as it is attractive. Kalkudah

Batticaloa

Ampara

Bibile
Gal Oya Kitulgala
National
Park Arugam Bay Hatton Monaragala
Ella
Dikoya
Maskeliya Maligawila
Haputale
Buduruwagala
Wellawaya
Kataragama Yala
Tissamaharama National
Park

East By North Tea, Treks & Temples

 © Lonely Planet Publications
24 I T I N E R A R I E S • • Ta i l o re d T r i p s www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com I T I N E R A R I E S • • Ta i l o re d T r i p s 25

Unesco World Heritage Sites Outdoors & Wildlife Lush Life Beach Out
LUSH LIFE
TAILORED TRIPS Amanwella (Mawella; p149) This is perhaps the island’s ultimate romantic
beach getaway – you’ll never want to leave your oceanfront suite, with its
private swimming pool and terrace.
UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES Galle Face Regency (Colombo; p95) Stay in the Royal Oceanic Grand
Anuradhapura (p247) The remains of monasteries, palaces and other mon- Spa suite and bubble your troubles away in either of the two Jacuzzis –
uments that belonged to a royal capital that flourished for 1300 years. one inside the mammoth bathroom, the other on the ocean-facing teak
Dambulla Cave Temples (p231) A pilgrimage site for over 2000 years, the veranda.
five caves here contain important Buddhist murals and statuary. Galle Fort Hotel (Galle; p135) Whether or not you overnight in one of the
Galle (p130) Founded by the Portuguese in the 16th century, this is the rooms in the thick-walled former 17th-century Dutch merchant’s home,
most well-preserved example of a fortified colonial city in South Asia. do treat yourself to the stellar Asian-fusion cuisine served here.
Kandy (p162) This city served as the last capital of the Sinhala kings be- Taprobane Island (Weligama; p144) You can’t
fore Sri Lanka’s occupation by the British. The get much more lush than renting your own
Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic (Sri Dalada stunning island, complete with six staff, an
Maligawa) is one of the world’s most famous infinity pool and an open-air, five-bedroom
Buddhist pilgrimage sites. five-bathroom villa that was built by Count de
Polonnaruwa (p237) The compact ruins of Sri Mauny-Talvande in 1922, and later owned by
Anuradhapura
Lanka’s second royal capital include both Bud- writer Paul Bowles.
Sigiriya
dhist and Brahmanic monuments, along with Tea Trails (Dikoya; p197) Live a tea-estate
Dambulla
Polonnaruwa the impressive 12th-century city works created manager’s life – without the accounting prob-
Cave Temples by King Parakramabahu I. lems – in your choice of four colonial bun-
Kandy Sigiriya (p233) The remains of King Kassapa’s galows dating from the late 19th and early
palace (or possibly a monastery) grace the slopes 20th centuries. The house chef cooks perfect Galle Face Tea Trails
Sinharaja
and summit of a 370m granite outcrop. Sri Lankan and Western dishes and, since the Regency

Forest Reserve Sinharaja Forest Reserve (p221) Sri Lanka’s place is owned by the Dilmah tea company, Galle Fort
Hotel
Galle most famous protected area harbours its last you’ll drink nothing but the best teas in the Taprobane Island
Amanwella
major tropical rainforest. Hill Country.

OUTDOORS & WILDLIFE BEACH OUT

Adam’s Peak (Sri Pada; p194) Sacred to Christians, Muslims, Hindus and Aluthgama, Bentota & Induruwa (p118) These great beaches come with lively
Buddhists, this mountain rewards a predawn climb with far-reaching views markets, a turtle hatchery, and the placid waters of the Bentota Ganga.
and a glimpse of the peak’s triangular shadow on the clouds below. Arugam Bay (p270) The island’s surf mecca has a laid-back, friendly vil-
Arugam Bay (p270) The bay and nearby beaches and mangroves provide lage and a mellow party scene.
ample opportunities for surfing, cycling, hiking and nature-watching. Hikkaduwa (p123) Take scuba-diving lessons, body-surf the gentle
Gal Oya National Park (p278) Explore the rolling grasslands and evergreen waves or simply do what most visitors do – wander from one beach café
forests surrounding Senanayake Samudra, a large tank (artificial lake) to the next while the sun sets over the Indian Ocean.
frequented by elephants and other wildlife. Kalkudah Bay (p284) You’ll probably share this long, palm-lined beach
Horton Plains National Park (p205) Precipitous views, mossy stunted for- with only an occasional fishing crew.
ests, unique plant and animal life, and a cool climate guarantee an espe- Midigama (p142) If you brave the coral and rocks, you and your board
cially good romp in the outdoors. will love the powerful left break.
Minneriya National Park (p245) Minneriya is re- Mirissa (p144) If sleepy is what you want,
nowned for its large herds of wild elephants, but Mirissa can oblige, but there’s also excellent
there’s plenty of other wildlife roaming the park snorkelling and surfing.
as well, including toque macaques, sambar deer, Tangalla (p149) The pretty bays and long
cormorants and painted storks. stretches of white sand offer a private corner Nilaveli
Uppuveli
Wilpattu
National Park
Sinharaja Forest Reserve (p221) This Unesco for everyone. Medaketiya Beach is beautiful,
World Heritage Site is home to over half of the but watch the currents. Kalkudah Bay
Minneriya
National Park
island’s endemic species of mammals and but- Unawatuna (p138) The South’s most popu-
Horton Plains
terflies; there’s also a high number of endemic lar beach has it all: good swimming, creamy
National
Park
Gal Oya birds and many rare insects and amphibians. white sands, a dearth of traffic, and laid-back
Adam's Peak
National Park
Arugam Bay
Wilpattu National Park (p109) This park, fam- beach cafés. Arugam
Sinharaja
ous for its jungle, leopards, sloth bears and Uppuveli & Nilaveli ((p290 & p292) Whale- Aluthgama Bay
Yala East Bentota
Forest Reserve National Park birds, reopened in 2003 after years of war. and dolphin-watching tours and dive trips to Induruwa Hikkaduwa
Yala East National Park (p275) This park con- nearby islets are the main activities here, along Unawatuna Tangalla
Midigama Mirissa
tains the Kumana mangrove swamp and bird- with relaxing and frolicking in the turquoise
life in spectacular numbers. waters.
 © Lonely Planet Publications © Lonely Planet Publications
26 www.lonelyplanet.com S N A P S H OT 27

improve the economic circumstances of their families back home. Others

Snapshot serve and clean in the tourist industry. And a few beset the traveller with
‘worthy’ schemes (aka scams) to enhance their meagre earnings.
Like many other countries, Sri Lanka has a range of views on its origi-
When the noted scientist and writer Sir Arthur C Clarke made his home nal people, now known as the Veddahs (p43). Some historical texts de-
in Sri Lanka in 1956, he did so claiming that Sri Lanka was the best place scribe them as spirit people who could morph from human to animal, at
in the world from which to view the universe. Looking out from Sri Lanka will – a ‘useful’ assessment of nonexistence and therefore a nonconcern.
to the universe is a fascinating activity; looking within Sri Lanka, one Today, only few people identify as indigenous. Their actual numbers
finds a universe in itself. are not known but they are certainly diminishing, perhaps because they
Sri Lanka may be tiny but it defies a tiny definition. It is, as the travel have assimilated into the majority groups, perhaps because the struggle
brochures proclaim, a resplendent paradise. It is jungle, green and fertile. for land and identity are just too much.
It is also desert, red and arid. Just as its landscape is diverse, so too are Of all Sri Lankans, Kandyans retain a special status, borne of centuries
its people and its stories – stories overlaid with centuries of varied nar- of resistance to invading powers (p31). Even non-Kandyans can be noble
FAST FACTS rative and meaning. for a day – at many a wedding the bridal party don Kandyan ceremonial
Population: 19.9 million Sri Lankans love their country and have a strong desire for others to garb and drummers in traditional dress beat ancient rhythms.
Population density per love their country as well. They’ll besiege you with talk of Sri Lanka’s Perhaps it’s the peraheras (processions) that best embody the complex-
sq km: Colombo 2500 beauty, history and scenic sites. It’s a delight to hear and is one of the ities of this small nation. Drummers, fire walkers, dancers and elaborately
people, dry zone less quickest ways of gleaning the lowdown on places to see and stay. Mind adorned elephants parade in a fusion of ancient and modern. Like the
than 50. you, the yarn and the reality may be hugely different, but you’ll no doubt nation itself, the perahera is intricate, fragile and contradictory. Where
experience something you’d not intended. Living up to the country’s else will you see a sequin-adorned elephant carrying relics of the Bud-
Life expectancy: female
name (the word serendipity is derived from its earlier title, Serendib), dha along a white cloth that is ceremoniously laid before it, followed by
75, male 70
Sri Lanka is a happy series of unexpected discoveries, whether it’s people a truck with a generator to power the neon sponsorship signs on the
Adult literacy: female or places, old or new. elephant’s back? This is current-day Sri Lanka.
90%, male 95% Relationships and connections are important to Sri Lankans. Men Arthur C Clarke is right, of course. Sri Lanka is a fine place from which
Year women received the will reminisce for hours about the old school tie, the fallout from the to view the universe. For the traveller, making even the smallest sense of
right to vote: 1931 1981 South African cricket tour or the last mass elephant capture in the the universe that is Sri Lanka is indeed a privilege and an adventure – one
1950s. If they weren’t there, they’ve heard the stories and are capable guaranteed to include many serendipitous encounters.
Tsunami 2004: 30,000
of passing them on as if they’d had a prime part in the action. And
lives lost, over 1 million
while recollecting their own schooldays, plans for the next generation’s
people left homeless
schooling are determined with much deliberation. Education is highly
Emigration due to civil regarded in Sri Lanka.
unrest: 1 million people Rice and hoppers (bowl-shaped pancakes) are not just food for feast;
since 1983 they’re also food for thought. According to many, today’s commercial
Internally displaced rice has shrunk in taste and variety – all the more reason to have a paddy
people: Almost 1 million of one’s own.
(362,000 due to civil ‘Peace’ is a catchword here, but in practice it’s never quite caught on.
unrest, 555,000 due to Most Sri Lankans wish for a country where harmony reigns, life is secure
the tsunami) and prosperity flourishes. But the country has a long history of conflict,
GDP per capita: US$4300
and the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamils have been involved in
(USA: US$41,800)
an on-and-off civil war for 25 years (p35). As Norwegian negotiators at-
tempt to bring the parties together in some semblance of a peace process
(p37), old questions repeat themselves. Will there ever be peace? How
and when will it come? Is the cost of compromise too high? Is the cost
of no compromise too high?
Between talk of peace and cricket comes talk of prices – rising too
much and too quickly.
For the moneyed, there’s the problem of servants: the difficulties in
hiring good ones, compounded by the monthly holidays on poya (full
moon) days, when there are no servants at all. And the wealthy still find
the veranda a haven for slow drinks and happy chatter, but this can be
easily disrupted by a guest – perhaps a factory manager – trying to keep
staff in line by yelling directions down his mobile phone.
For the less moneyed, it’s life much as their ancestors knew it. Some
are servants to the wealthy while others cultivate the land or fish the sea.
Some leave the conviviality of the village to toil at the factory, hoping to
© Lonely Planet Publications
14 www.lonelyplanet.com

The Authors
JOE CUMMINGS Coordinating Author, Colombo,
The Hill Country, The Ancient Cities
Born to a military family in New Orleans, Joe was raised in many different
locations. Shortly after earning a master’s degree in South and Southeast Asian
studies, he began updating Lonely Planet’s Asia guides. Joe first travelled to
Sri Lanka in the 1990s to research dagobas (stupas) for Lonely Planet’s Bud-
dhist Stupas in Asia: The Shape of Perfection. When he’s not on the road, Joe
lives next to the ruins of a 15th-century stupa in Chiang Mai.
Joe also wrote the Destination Sri Lanka, Getting Started, Itineraries,
Environment, Directory and Transport chapters for this book.

My Favourite Trip
I’m happiest wandering around the Hill Country, talking to tea-factory
managers about the local teas, and hiking in the hills around Dikoya
(p196) and Hatton (p196). When driving from Colombo I’ll stop off in
Kitulgala (p197) for a swim in the Kelaniya Ganga (Kelaniya River) and
lunch at Plantation Hotel. For another perspective on the local geog-
raphy I’ll hop on a train from Nanu Oya, the train station for Nuwara Dikoya;
Hatton Nuwara
Eliya (p199), to Badulla (p217), with a side trip to Ella (p213) or Haputale Eliya
Kitulgala Badulla
(p208), my favourite towns for kicking back and catching up on some Ella
reading. If I have enough time I’ll make a longer detour from Ella to Haputale

indulge my passion for Buddhist art at the undervisited Budurwagala Buduruwagala

(p219), where Sri Lanka’s tallest Buddha was carved into solid rock over
a thousand years ago.

MARK ELLIOTT The East, Jaffna & the North

When Mark first visited Sri Lanka in 1987, the country was racked by violence:
a bus station had been bombed and the JVP was running amok. However,
meditation retreats, cycling through tea estates, and the ever-welcoming
population created a contrasting sense of calm. Fascinated ever since by this
troubled paradise, Mark jumped at the chance to visit the ‘other Ceylon’ – the
Tamil and Muslim areas that had been effectively off limits for decades.
Between researching travel guides on places that range from Iran to Indo-
nesia to Greenland, Mark lives in blissfully quiet suburban Belgium with his
beloved wife Danielle, who found him at a Turkmenistan camel market.

Authors Favourite Trip

 © Lonely Planet Publications
16 T H E A U T H O R S www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com 17

RYAN VER BERKMOES West Coast, The South

Ryan was first beguiled by Sri Lanka when he read Paul Theroux’ The Great
Railway Bazaar as a teenager. Visiting after the tsunami he was overwhelmed
by the devastation, even after a long career covering wars, disasters and other
calamities. Ryan was happy to return to Sri Lanka to research this book as it
allowed him to catch up with many people he’d met months earlier.
Born in the beach town of Santa Cruz, California, Ryan worked as journalist
for many years before turning his attentions to Lonely Planet. He’s written
scores of guidebooks on places ranging from the Arctic to the equator. He
definitely prefers sand between his toes to ice.

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
Teresa Cannon had been stuck for too many years in a suffocating bureaucracy when she felt com-
pelled to escape to the rarefied environment of the Himalayas. There she trekked within century-old
rhododendron forests and traversed the peaks and passes of the western moonscape region. She suc-
cumbed to the gentle and continuing welcome of ‘Namaste’, which flowed like a mantra throughout
the landscape. She wanted to stay. But visas run out and bank balances diminish.
Her love of travel led her overseas several times, especially to Asia. She has written numerous non-
fiction works about Sri Lanka, and this is her sixth project for Lonely Planet. For this book she wrote
the Snapshot, History, Culture and Food & Drink chapters.

Dr Trish Batchelor is a general practitioner and travel medicine specialist who works at the CIWEC Clinic
in Kathmandu, Nepal, as well as being a Medical Advisor to the Travel Doctor New Zealand clinics.
Trish teaches travel medicine through the University of Otago, and is interested in underwater and
high-altitude medicine, and in the impact of tourism on host countries. She has travelled extensively
through Southeast and East Asia and particularly loves high-altitude trekking in the Himalayas.

© Lonely Planet Publications. To make it easier for you to use, access to this chapter is not digitally
restricted. In return, we think it’s fair to ask you to use it for personal, non-commercial purposes
only. In other words, please don’t upload this chapter to a peer-to-peer site, mass email it to
everyone you know, or resell it. See the terms and conditions on our site for a longer way of saying
the above - ‘Do the right thing with our content.’
 © Lonely Planet Publications
28 www.lonelyplanet.com H I S T O R Y • • T h e R i s e & Fa l l o f A n u r a d h a p u r a 29

Buddha and (as accounts would have it) came to land on the west coast

History of Sri Lanka on the very day that the Buddha attained enlightenment.
Vijaya and his men settled around Anuradhapura, forming the basis of
a Sinhalese kingdom that developed there in the 4th century BC. Later, The bodhi tree in Anurad-
hapura has a 2000-year
PREHISTORY the Sinhalese kingdom of Ruhunu was established in the southwest but
history of human care
Legend and history are deeply intertwined in the early accounts of Sri Anuradhapura remained the stronger kingdom. Early settlement took
and custody, making it
Lanka: did the Buddha leave his footprint on Adam’s Peak (Sri Pada) place mainly along rivers, as the aridity of the north was not conducive to
the world’s oldest tree of
while visiting the island that lay halfway to paradise? Or was it Adam who human settlement and the cultivation of crops. No doubt banishment and
this kind.
left his footprint embedded in the rock while taking a last look at Eden? the need for survival can be great motivators: Vijaya and his descendants
Was the chain of islands linking Sri Lanka to India the same chain that demonstrated impressive resourcefulness. To overcome the challenges of
Rama crossed to rescue his wife Sita from the clutches of Rawana, king climate they constructed water channels and reservoirs (known locally as
of Lanka, in the epic Ramayana? tanks) – great feats of engineering and mathematics. Such inventiveness
It is probable that the Ramayana has some fragile basis in reality, for Sri enabled the early settlements to develop and prosper.
Lanka’s history recounts many invasions from southern India. Perhaps In the 3rd century BC the Indian emperor Ashoka sent his son Ma-
some early invasion provided the elements of the story of Rama and Sita, hinda and his daughter Sangamitta to the island to spread the Buddha’s
recounted throughout Asia. teachings. Mahinda soon converted the Anuradhapuran king Devan-
Whatever the legends, the reality is that Sri Lanka’s original inhabitants, ampiya Tissa, an event that is tremendously significant to the Sinhalese
the Veddahs (Wanniyala-aetto), were hunter-gatherers who subsisted on as it deeply influenced their customs, created a sense of national identity
the island’s natural bounty. Much about their origins is unclear. However, and, by developing scriptures and commentary, instituted a literary trad-
The early Sinhalese anthropologists generally believe that Sri Lanka’s original inhabitants are ition. The mountain at Mihintale (p255) marks the spot where the con-
are credited with the descendants from the people of the late Stone Age and may have existed version is said to have occurred. Today 1840 steps lead up the mountain
invention of the pit valve, on the island since 16,000 BC. The first Sinhalese, originally from North to the site – it’s a popular pilgrimage place, especially on the June poya
an ingenious irrigation India, arrived in Sri Lanka around the 5th or 6th century BC. Traders and (full moon), the reputed anniversary of the king’s conversion.
device that contributed fisherfolk from South India who visited Sri Lanka during the late centuries Sangamitta brought to Sri Lanka a cutting of the Bodhi Tree under
to their successful early BC also made the island their permanent home. The intermingling of the which the Buddha attained enlightenment. She planted this in Anurad-
settlement in Sri Lanka. new arrivals produced a harmonious multicultural society – a state that, hapura, where it still survives today, garlanded with prayer flags and lights
unfortunately, did not continue in the centuries that followed. (p250). Other bodhi trees, grown from cuttings of the Anuradhapuran
tree, now spread their branches beside many of the island’s temples.
THE RISE & FALL OF ANURADHAPURA With the conversion of the king to Buddhism strong ties were estab-
According to Sinhalese accounts it was crime and banishment that led lished between Sri Lankan royalty and Buddhist religious orders. Later,
to their settlement in Sri Lanka in the 5th or 6th century BC. Vijaya, these ties strengthened as kings, grateful for monastic support, provided
son of a North Indian king, was ousted from his title and kingdom due living quarters, tanks and produce to the monasteries. A symbiotic pol-
to his acts of assault and robbery. With a contingent of 700 men, the itical economy between religion and state became consolidated. When
sinha (lion) prince was set adrift on the high seas in dilapidated ships, the Sinhalese king Valagambahu fled from South Indian invaders he
www.lankalibrary.com
to face his destiny – punishment by death. But destiny took a different was given safe haven by monks who resided in the cave structures at
is broad in scope but
turn and as they travelled south, Vijaya and his men were blessed by the Dambulla. When he regained his position in about 90 BC he expressed
sometimes short on facts!
his gratitude by developing a huge cave-temple complex (p231). Since
Read it in conjunction
that time it has been a centre of Buddhist practice.
WHAT’S IN A NAME? Buddhism underwent a major development when the teachings, previ- with other material to
form your own view on
Changing the country’s name from Ceylon to Sri Lanka in 1972 caused considerable confusion for ously conveyed orally, were documented in writing. Sri Lankan monks
anything Sri Lankan.
foreigners. However, for the Sinhalese it has always been known as Lanka and, for the Tamils as played a significant role in the documentation process, when, at the Alu-
Ilankai; the Ramayana, too, describes the abduction of Sita by the king of Lanka. But the island vihara monastery (p229) in the 1st century BC, they began in-depth com-
has been known by many other names. The Romans knew the island as Taprobane and Muslim mentaries on the teachings. Their work forms the major part of the classical
traders talked of Serendib, which means ‘Island of Jewels’. The word Serendib became the root literature of the Theravada (doctrine of the elders) school of Buddhism
of the word ‘serendipity’ – the art of making happy and unexpected discoveries. The Portuguese (p44). It was in Sri Lanka that the Theravada school developed, later
somehow twisted Sinhala-dvipa (Island of the Sinhalese) into Ceilão. In turn, the Dutch altered spreading to Buddhist countries in Southeast Asia. Even today, Buddhists
this to Ceylan and the British to Ceylon. In 1972 ‘Lanka’ was restored, with the addition of ‘Sri’, of the Theravada school in Myanmar, Thailand and other countries look to
a respectful title. In the 1980s pedants pushed for the spelling of ‘Shri Lanka’, but ‘Sri Lanka’ Sri Lanka for spiritual leadership and interpretation of the scriptures.
now seems entrenched. Another event that served to intensify Buddhism in Sri Lanka was the
arrival of the tooth relic (of the Buddha) at Anuradhapura in AD 371 (see

TIMELINE Pr ior to 6th century BC 6th–5th century BC 4th century BC Late centur ies BC
Island is inhabited by the Veddahs (Wanniyala-aetto) Sinhalese come from northern India to settle in Sri Lanka The kingdom of Anuradhapura is formed South Indians make Sri Lanka their permanent home
 30 H I S T O R Y • • T h e K i n g d o m o f P o l o n n a r u w a www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com H I S T O R Y • • E a r l y M u s l i m L i n k s 31

p166). It gained prominence not only as a religious symbol but also as With the decline of the Sinhalese northern capitals and the ensuing
a symbol of sovereignty – it was believed that whoever held custody of Sinhalese migration south, a wide jungle buffer zone separated the north-
the relic had the right to rule the island. Modern-day presidents, prime ern, mostly coastal Tamil settlements and the southern, interior Sinhalese
ministers and governments see it as their duty to protect the relic and settlements. This jungle zone, called the Vanni, was sparsely inhabited by
the rituals that surround it. It now lies in the Temple of the Sacred Tooth mixed Tamil-Sinhalese clans called the Vanniyars.
For a controversial
Relic (Sri Dalada Maligawa) in Kandy. Initially the ‘rulers’ of Jaffna were possibly diplomatic missions from
account of Sigiriya, see
In AD 473, King Kasyapa assumed the throne by engineering the death the early South Indian kingdoms. At other times Jaffna came under the
former archaeologist Raja
of his father and the exile of his elder brother, Mugalan. Kasyapa’s skills sovereignty of the major South Indian centres of Madurai and Thanjavur.
De Silva’s Sigiriya and its
were not limited to eliminating relatives – he also recognised a good piece However, developing rivalry between Indian empires allowed Jaffna to
Significance, which argues
of real estate and was a dab hand at property development. His reign saw gain autonomy. It became a trade centre, especially in spices and ele-
against earlier views
the construction of the spectacular rock fortress of Sigiriya (p233), with phants from the Vanni region, and established weaving, dyeing and pearl-
about the site.
its intricate water systems, ornate gardens and frescoed palaces. However, fishing industries. An important centre for art and literature developed at
the exiled Mugalan, incensed by his ousting, returned to Sri Lanka with Nallur (near Jaffna) in the 15th century, and studies combining astrology
an army of Indian mercenaries. Mugalan defeated Kasyapa and reclaimed and medicine provided health services to the population. But things
the throne, but he established a perilous precedent. To retain power, future changed with the arrival of the Portuguese in 1505.
Sinhalese kings found themselves beholden to Indian mercenaries. Cen-
turies of interference and disorder followed with repeated invasions and EARLY MUSLIM LINKS
takeovers of Anuradhapura by South Indian kingdoms, and self-defeating Muslim settlement in Sri Lanka developed from centuries of Arab trade.
entanglements in South Indian affairs by Anuradhapura’s rulers. In Arabic the island was called Serendib, from seren (jewel) and dwip
Anuradhapura was pummelled many times but rebuilding was pos- (island). Gems were a valued item of commerce, as were cinnamon, ivory
sible through rajakariya, the system of free labour for the king. This free and elephants. With the advent of Islam in the 7th century AD Arab trad-
labour provided the resources to restore buildings, tanks and irrigation ers arrived with their new faith. Some stayed and settled on the island
systems, as well as to plant, cultivate and harvest crops. and many Sri Lankan Muslims are proud that their ancestry can be dated
Finally in 11th century AD, Vijayabahu I, weary of the continual cycle from the time of the Prophet.
of conflict, destruction and renovation, abandoned Anuradhapura to Muslim traders found favour with Sri Lankan kings, and relations were
make Polonnaruwa, further southeast, his capital. generally cordial. Early Muslim settlements took hold in the north at
Jaffna and southwest at Galle, as well as on the eastern side of the island.
THE KINGDOM OF POLONNARUWA However, with the arrival of the Portuguese many Muslims fled inland
Polonnaruwa (p237) survived as a Sinhalese capital for more than two cen- to flee persecution.
turies – a period that provided a further two kings of note. Parakramabahu
I (r 1153–86), nephew of Vijayabahu I, was not content simply to expel the THE PORTUGUESE PERIOD
South Indian Tamil Chola empire from Sri Lanka, but carried the fight to After Polonnaruwa, the centre of Sinhalese power shifted to the south-
South India and even made a raid on Myanmar. Domestically he indulged in west of the island, and between 1253 and 1400 there were five differ-
an orgy of building in the capital, and constructed many new tanks around ent Sinhalese capitals. During this period Sri Lanka suffered attacks by
the country. But his warring and architectural extravagances wore down the Chinese and Malayans, as well as periodic incursions from South India.
country’s resources, and probably shortened Polonnaruwa’s lifespan. Finally, the Portuguese arrived in 1505. Want to understand more
His successor, Nissanka Malla (r 1187–96), was the last king of Po- By this time Sri Lanka had three main kingdoms: the Tamil kingdom about people’s names in
lonnaruwa to show interest in the wellbeing of the people and in the of Jaffna, and Sinhalese kingdoms in Kandy and Kotte (near Colombo). Sri Lanka? It’s all revealed
construction and maintenance of buildings and irrigation systems. Of the two Sinhalese kingdoms, Kotte was the more powerful. When at http://asiarecipe.com
He was followed by a series of weak rulers who allowed the city to fall Portuguese Lorenço de Almeida arrived in Colombo, he established /srinames.html.
into disrepair. With the decay of the irrigation system, disease spread and, friendly relations with King Bhuvanekabahu of Kotte and gained a Por-
like Anuradhapura before it, Polonnaruwa was abandoned. The jungle tuguese monopoly on the spice trade, which soon became very important
reclaimed it within a few decades. in Europe.
Tamil-Portuguese relations were less cordial, especially when the co-
TAMIL KINGDOMS lonial missionaries attempted to convert the local population to Catholi-
During Polonnaruwa’s decline the first Tamil kingdom established itself cism. Infuriated by this, the Tamil king Sangily organised a massacre of
in Jaffna. Movements of people between India and Sri Lanka had been the missionaries and their converts.
happening for centuries but from the 5th and 6th centuries AD resurgent The different responses to the Portuguese – alliance from Kotte and
Hindu Tamil empires such as the Chola, Pallava and Pandya repeatedly hostility from Jaffna – made no difference to the end result: Portugal
threatened the Buddhist Sinhalese rulers. took over the entire coastal belt. However, the Portuguese were unable to

3rd century BC 4th century AD 5th century AD 7th century AD

Buddhism arrives in Sri Lanka The tooth relic of the Buddha arrives in Sri Lanka King Kasyapa constructs the fortress of Sigiriya Muslim traders begin to settle in Sri Lanka
 32 H I S T O R Y • • T h e D u t c h Pe r i o d www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com H I S T O R Y • • I n d e p e n d e n c e 33

conquer the central highlands, and the kingdom at Kandy resisted several In 1832 sweeping changes in property laws opened the doors to British
later Portuguese attempts at capture. settlers – at the expense of the Sinhalese, who in the eyes of the British
With the Portuguese came religious orders such as the Dominicans did not have title to the land. Coffee was the main cash crop but when
and Jesuits. Many of the Karava fishing communities on the west coast leaf blight virtually wiped it out in the 1870s the plantations were quickly
converted, but reluctance to assume the new faith was often met with switched over to tea or rubber.
massacres and the destruction of local temples. Buddhist priests and The British, unable to persuade the Sinhalese to labour on the planta-
others fled to Kandy, whose role as a stronghold and haven endowed it tions, imported large numbers of Tamil workers from South India. Today
with a special status on the island – one that was consolidated by later these workers’ descendants, totalling about 850,000 people (5% of the
colonial failures to capture it. This status is still cherished today by many population), form the larger of the two main Tamil communities. About Sir James Emerson
Sri Lankans, especially those from the high country. 700,000 of them still live and work on the estates. Tennent’s affable nature
The Portuguese tried to entice their compatriots to settle in Sri Lanka. The British influence lingers: the elite private schools with cricket shines through in his
Some did, intermarrying with locals, and their descendants form part grounds, the army cantonments and train stations, and the tea-estate honest and descriptive
of the small group known as European Burghers. The Portuguese also bungalows, not to mention the English language. English was demoted writing about 19th-
brought slaves from Africa who are today almost totally assimilated. from being the official language after independence, but the requirements century Sri Lanka, now
Known as the Kaffirs, their contribution to Sri Lankan culture is evident of a globalised economy have helped bring it back into vogue. serialised at www.lanka
in the bailas – folk tunes based on African rhythms. web.com/news/features
INDEPENDENCE /ceylon.html.
THE DUTCH PERIOD In the wake of Indian independence, Sri Lanka, or Ceylon as it was then
In 1602 the first Dutch ships arrived in Sri Lanka. Like the Arabs and known, became an independent member of the British Commonwealth
Portuguese, the Dutch were keen to acquire trade, and they vied with the in February 1948. The first independent government was formed by
Portuguese for the lucrative Indian Ocean spices. For the Kandyan king, the United National Party (UNP), led by DS Senanayake. His main
Rajasinha II, the Dutch presence provided an opportunity to rid Sri Lanka opponents were the northern and plantation Tamil parties, and the
of the Portuguese. A treaty was duly signed, giving the Dutch a monopoly communists.
on the spice trade in return for Sri Lankan autonomy. This, however, only At first everything went smoothly. The economy remained strong and
succeeded in substituting one European power for another. By 1658, 153 the government concentrated on strengthening social services and weak-
years after the first Portuguese contact, the Dutch had taken control of the ening the opposition. It certainly achieved the latter, as it disenfranchised
coastal areas of the island. During their 140-year rule, the Dutch, like the the Hill Country Tamils by depriving them of citizenship. Eventually,
Portuguese, made repeated unsuccessful attempts to bring Kandy under deals in the 1960s and 1980s between Sri Lanka and India allowed some
their control. And, just as the Portuguese had done, the Dutch encouraged of the Hill Country Tamils to be ‘repatriated’ to India, while others were
their fellow citizens to reside in Sri Lanka. Their descendants, the Dutch granted Sri Lankan citizenship.
Burghers, comprise a minority group in Sri Lanka today. DS Senanayake died in 1952 and was succeeded by his son, Dudley.
The Dutch were much more interested in trade and profits than were An attempt a year later to raise the price of rice led to mass riots and
the Portuguese, and developed a canal system along the west coast to Dudley’s resignation. Sir John Kotelawala, his uncle, replaced him, and
transport cinnamon and other crops. Roman-Dutch law, the legal system the UNP earned the nickname ‘Uncle Nephew Party’. The UNP was easily
of the Dutch era, still forms part of Sri Lanka’s legal canon. defeated in the 1956 general election by the Mahajana Eksath Peramuna
coalition, led by SWRD Bandaranaike.
THE BRITISH PERIOD
The British, concerned that they may be defeated in conflicts with the THE BANDARANAIKES
French in South India, and requiring a safe port in the area, began to con- The Bandaranaikes were a family of noble Kandyan descent who had
During the British admin- sider the eastern Sri Lankan harbour of Trincomalee. The British ejected converted to Anglicanism for a time in the 19th century, but who had
istration, Major Thomas the Dutch in 1796, and in 1802 Sri Lanka became a crown colony. In returned to the Buddhist fold. The 1956 election coincided with the
Rogers is reputed to have 1815 the British won control of Kandy, thus becoming the first European 2500th anniversary of the Buddha’s enlightenment and an upsurge in
killed 1400 elephants. power to rule the whole island. Three years later a unified administration Sinhalese pride, and SWRD Bandaranaike defeated the UNP primarily
for the island was set up. on nationalistic issues.
The British conquest deeply unsettled many Sinhalese, who had long Nearly 10 years after independence, English remained the national
held the view that only the tooth relic custodians had the right to rule language and the country continued to be ruled by an English-speaking,
the land. Their apprehension was somewhat relieved when a senior mainly Christian, elite. Many Sinhalese thought the elevation of their lan-
monk removed the tooth relic from the Temple of the Sacred Tooth guage to ‘official’ status would increase their power and job prospects.
Relic (p166), thereby securing it (and the island’s symbolic sovereignty) Caught in the middle of this disagreement (English versus Sinhala,
for the Sinhalese people. and Christian versus Buddhist) were the Tamils, whose mother tongue is

10th century AD 1505 1658 1796

A Tamil kingdom is established in Jaffna, and the Sinhalese capital Portuguese colonial period begins Dutch colonial period begins The British take over Sri Lanka’s rule from the Dutch
moves to Polonnaruwa
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Tamil. When Bandaranaike enacted the ‘Sinhala only’ law, Tamil protests Unrest grew among northern Tamils, and a state of emergency was im-
were followed by violence and deaths on both sides. posed on their home regions for several years from 1971. The police and
The contemporary Sinhalese-Tamil difficulties date from this time. army that enforced the state of emergency included few Tamils (partly
From the mid-1950s, when the economy slowed, competition for wealth because of the ‘Sinhala only’ law) and therefore came to be seen by the
William McGowan’s Only and work – intensified by the expectations created by Sri Lanka’s fine Tamils as an enemy force.
Man is Vile is an incisive, education system – exacerbated Sinhalese-Tamil jealousies. The main In the mid-1970s some young Tamils began fighting for an independ-
unrelenting account of political parties, particularly when in opposition, played on the Sinhalese ent Tamil state called Eelam (Precious Land). They included Vellupillai
ethnic violence in Sri paranoia that their religion, language and culture could be swamped by Prabhakaran, who founded and still leads the Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Lanka, penetrating deeply Indians, who were thought to be the natural allies of the Tamils in Sri Eelam (LTTE), often referred to as the Tamil Tigers.
into its complexities. Lanka. The Tamils began to see themselves as a threatened minority, and
pressed for a federal system of government with greater local autonomy OPEN ECONOMY
in the North and the East, the main Tamil-populated areas. Elected in 1977, the new UNP prime minister, JR Jayawardene, made an
Despite coming to power on Sinhalese chauvinism, Bandaranaike later all-out effort to lure back foreign investment. He attempted to emulate
began negotiating with Tamil leaders for a kind of federation – a decision Singapore’s successful ‘open economy’, and his policies yielded some
that resulted in his assassination by a Buddhist monk in 1959. Despite successes: unemployment was halved by 1983, Sri Lanka became self-
this, Bandaranaike is still seen by many as a national hero who brought sufficient in rice production in 1985, and expat Sri Lankans and tourists
the government back to the common people. began bringing in foreign currency.
In the 1960 general election the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), led Jayawardene introduced a new constitution – Sri Lanka’s third – in
by SWRD Bandaranaike’s widow, Sirimavo, swept to power. She was the 1978, which conferred greatest power on the new post of president, to
first female prime minister in the world. Sirimavo pressed on with her which he was elected by parliament.
husband’s nationalisation policies, souring relations with the USA by In 1982 he was re-elected president in national polls (after amending
taking over the Sri Lankan oil companies. Most of the remaining British his own constitution to bring the voting forward by two years) and then,
tea planters left during this time. The economy weakened, and in the in the same year, won a referendum to bypass the 1983 general election
1965 election Dudley Senanayake and the UNP scraped back into power. and leave the existing parliament in office until 1989. As usual there were
However, Senanyake’s reluctance to turn back the clock on the SLFP’s allegations of electoral skulduggery.
nationalisation program lost him much support and the UNP was mas-
sively defeated by the SLFP in the 1970 elections. ETHNIC VIOLENCE
Soon after, Sirimavo Bandaranaike took the reins for the second time, Jayawardene promoted Tamil to the status of ‘national language’ for of-
a wave of unrest swept the Sinhalese heartland, feeding on a population ficial work, but only in Tamil-majority areas. Clashes between Tamils and
boom and a generation of disaffected young men facing unemployment. security forces developed into a pattern of killings, reprisals, reprisals for Not an easy read but an
In 1971 a Sinhalese Marxist insurrection broke out, led by a dropout from reprisals and so on. All too often the victims were civilians. The powder important one, When
Moscow’s Lumumba University, Rohana Wijeweera, under the banner keg finally exploded in 1983, when an army patrol in the Jaffna region was Memory Dies, by A
of the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP; People’s Liberation Army). Its ambushed and massacred by militant Tamils. For several days after, mobs Sivanandan, is a tale of
members, mostly students and young men, were quickly and ruthlessly of enraged Sinhalese set about killing Tamils and destroying their property. the ethnic crisis and its
eradicated by the army. Around 25,000 people died, but the JVP was Between 400 and 2000 Tamils were killed and some areas with large Tamil impact on one family
later to regroup. populations – such as Colombo’s Pettah district – were virtually levelled. over three generations.
The revolt allowed the government to make sweeping changes, write The government, the police and the army were either unable or unwill-
a new constitution and create a new name for the country – Sri Lanka. ing to stop the violence. There had been small-scale ethnic riots in 1958,
The bureaucracy became politicised, and some say corruption became 1977 and 1981, but this was the worst and for many it marked the point
entrenched. Meanwhile, the economy continued to deteriorate and in of no return. Tens of thousands of Tamils fled to safer, Tamil-majority
the 1977 elections Sirimavo Bandaranaike and the SLFP (in its new guise areas, while others left the country altogether; many Sinhalese moved
as the United Left Front) went down in a stunning defeat at the hands from Jaffna and other Tamil-dominated areas.
of the UNP. Revenge and counter-revenge attacks grew into atrocities and large-
scale massacres. The government was condemned for disappearances
TAMIL UNREST and acts of torture.
Meanwhile, two pieces of legislation increased Tamil concern. The first The area claimed by the Tamil militants for the independent state of
piece, passed in 1970, cut Tamil numbers in universities; previously, Tamils Eelam covered Sri Lanka’s Northern and Eastern Provinces – equal to
had won a relatively high proportion of university places. The second was about one-third of Sri Lanka’s land area. Tamils comprised the majority
the constitutional declaration that Buddhism had ‘foremost place’ in Sri in the Northern Province, but in eastern Sri Lanka Muslims, Sinhalese
Lanka and that it was the state’s duty to ‘protect and foster’ Buddhism. and Tamils were nearly equal in numbers.

1815 1948 1956 1970s

The British conquer Kandy, the first European colonial power to Sri Lanka becomes an independent nation Protests and conflict break out after the ‘Sinhala only’ language Formation of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
do so law is passed
 36 H I S T O R Y • • I n d i a n I n t e r v e n t i o n www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com H I S T O R Y • • E l u s i v e Pe a c e 37

The violence cost the economy dearly. Tourism slumped, the govern- assassinated at a May Day rally in 1993; the LTTE was suspected, but
ment spent crippling amounts on the defence forces, and foreign and never claimed responsibility.
local investment dried up. The following year, the People’s Alliance (PA), a coalition of the main
opposition SLFP and smaller parties, won the parliamentary elections. Its At least one million land
INDIAN INTERVENTION leader, Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga, the daughter of former mines were laid during
In 1987 government forces pushed the LTTE back into Jaffna. In an leader Sirimavo Bandaranaike, won the presidential election and ap- 1990s Sri Lankan hostili-
attempt to disarm the Tamil rebels and keep the peace in northern and pointed her mother prime minister. ties. Efforts to clear the
eastern Sri Lanka, Jayawardene struck a deal with India for an Indian Although the PA had promised to end the civil war, the conflict con- mines have meant that
Peace Keeping Force (IPKF). A single provincial council would be elected tinued in earnest, and Kumaratunga was targeted by a suicide bomber thousands of displaced
to govern the region with substantial autonomy for a trial period. just days before the December 1999 presidential election. She was injured, people have been
Soon it became clear that the deal suited no-one. The LTTE complied losing sight in her right eye, but won the election. Curiously enough, the resettled.
initially before the Indians tried to isolate it by promoting and arming other economy was showing signs of life during this period. Garment exports
Tamil rebel groups. Opposition to the Indians also came from the Sinhalese, grew, growth ticked along at 5% to 6% a year between 1995 and 2000, and
the reviving JVP (below) and sections of the Sangha (the community of the ongoing war partly solved unemployment in the rural south.
Buddhist monks). This led to sometimes-violent demonstrations. In the October 2000 parliamentary elections President Kumaratun-
Jayawardene was replaced as leader of the UNP by Ranasinghe Prema- ga’s PA won a narrow victory. Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the president’s
dasa, the first leader from a common background. He promised to re- mother and three-time prime minister of Sri Lanka, died shortly after
move the Indian peacekeepers; when they withdrew in March 1990, they casting her vote.
had lost more than 1000 lives in just three years. In June, however, the
war between the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government began again. By ELUSIVE PEACE
the end of 1990, the LTTE held Jaffna and much of the North, although In 2000 a Norwegian peace mission, led by Erik Solheim, brought the
the East was largely back under government control. LTTE and the government to the negotiating table, but a cease-fire had
to wait until after the elections of December 2001 – won by the UNP after
RETURN OF THE JVP the collapse of the short-lived PA government.
The presence of the IPKF pushed the mood of young Sinhalese past boil- Ranil Wickremasinghe became prime minister. He and President Ku-
ing point. In 1987 the JVP launched its revolution with political murders maratunga (both from different parties) circled each other warily. Under
and strikes, which were enforced through the use of death threats. With Wickremasinghe economic growth was strong at 6% per annum and
16 years to study the failed 1971 revolt, the JVP, still led by Rohana peace talks appeared to progress. But in late 2003, while Wickremasinghe
John Richardson applies
Wijeweera, had prepared brilliantly. They were tightly organised, with was in Washington meeting with George W Bush, Kumaratunga dis-
his long experience in
recruits from students, monks, the unemployed, the police and the solved parliament (although it had a mandate to govern until 2007) and
international resources
army. It attempted a Khmer Rouge–style takeover, aiming to capture called for elections. By combining with the JVP, Kumaratunga formed a
Anil’s Ghost, by Booker and relationships to
the countryside and then isolate and pick off the cities. new party, the United People’s Freedom Alliance, and in the subsequent
Prize–winner Michael produce his huge tome
By late 1988 the country was terrorised, the economy crippled and the elections defeated Wickremasinghe and his UNP.
Ondaatje, is a haunting Paradise Poisoned.
government paralysed. The army struck back with a ruthless counter- Peace talks stumbled. Time and talk passed, and the situation became
novel about turmoil and Important and timely, it
insurgency campaign that still scars the country. Shadowy militias and ever more fraught. Accusations of bias and injustice were hurled from
disappearances of late- investigates terrorism in
army groups matched the JVP’s underground warfare in brutality. They all sides. In October 2003, the US listed the LTTE as a Foreign Terrorist
20th-century Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka, with recom-
tracked down the JVP leadership one by one until Rohana Wijeweera was Organisation (FTO). Some believed this to be a positive move; others saw
The book has received mendations that can be
killed in November 1989. The rebellion subsided, but 30,000 to 60,000 it as an action that would isolate the LTTE, thereby causing further strain
much international applied globally.
people had died in the three-year insurrection. and conflict. In early 2004 a split in LTTE ranks pitched a new dynamic
commendation and some
Within a few years a new leadership brought the JVP into the political into the mix. Among killings, insecurity, accusations and ambiguities,
local condemnation.
mainstream, and it now has seats in parliament and supports the current the Norwegians went home in September 2004.
government and the president, Mahinda Rajapaske. Almost all of Sri Lanka, including most of the Jaffna Peninsula, is now
controlled by the Sri Lankan government. The LTTE controls a small area
WAR IN THE 1990s south of the peninsula and pockets in the east, but it still has claims on land
In May 1991 Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by an LTTE suicide bomber. in the Jaffna Peninsula and in the northwest and northeast of the island.
It was generally assumed that Gandhi’s assassination was in retaliation
for his consent to Jayawardene’s 1987 request for the IPKF. Soon after TSUNAMI & BEYOND
this, war between the Tamils and the Sinhalese intensified. An event beyond all predictions struck the island on 26 December 2004,
Although a high proportion of Tamils and Sinhalese longed for peace, affecting not only the peace process but the entire social fabric of Sri
extremists on both sides pressed on with war. President Premadasa was Lanka. As people celebrated the monthly poya festivities, the mighty

1983 1987 1987–90 2000

Conflict and riots between Sinhalese and Tamils intensify Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) attempts to establish stability Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) creates a rebellion in which Norwegian peace mission initiates peace talks between the
30,000 to 60,000 people die government and the LTTE
 © Lonely Planet Publications
38 H I S T O R Y • • Ts u n a m i & B e y o n d www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com 39

waves of the tsunami cast their fury, killing 30,000 people and leaving
many more injured, homeless and orphaned. Initially there was optimism
that the nation would come together in the face of catastrophe, but the
optimism soon faded into argument over aid distribution, reconstruc-
tion, and land tenure and ownership.
Meanwhile Kumaratunga, seeking to extend her presidential term,
sought to have the constitution altered. However, her plans were thwarted
by a Supreme Court ruling, which directed that presidential elections
A candidate for the 2005
occur in 2005. Among the numerous contenders, two candidates were the
presidential elections
most likely victors – the then prime minister, Mahinda Rajapaske, and
sought to impress the
the opposition leader, Ranil Wickremasinghe. With an LTTE boycott on
electorate with a promise
voting, Rajapaske, supported by the JVP and the Jathika Hela Urumaya (a
to import Indian cows to
party of Buddhist monks), won by a narrow margin. The LTTE’s motives
Sri Lanka.
for the boycott were unclear but their actions cost Wickremasinghe an
expected 180,000 votes and the presidency, and, perhaps, the country a
better chance at peace.
As president, Rajapaske pledged to replace the Norwegian peace nego-
tiators with those from the UN and India; to renegotiate a cease-fire with
the LTTE; to reject Tamil autonomy; and to refuse to share tsunami aid
with the LTTE. Such policies did not auger well for future peace. Mean-
while, LTTE leader Prabhakaran insisted on a political settlement during
2006, and threatened to ‘intensify’ action if this did not occur. Within
days of coming to power, Rajapaske reneged on his first undertaking
and invited the Norwegians to continue their negotiations. But tensions
were high and once again Sri Lanka was perched on a precipice. Kill-
ings, assaults, kidnappings and disappearances occurred on both sides,
and commentators predicted the worst. As the first anniversary of the
tsunami approached, world leaders, aid agencies and the global com-
munity pleaded with the government and the LTTE to stop the violence
and return to the peace talks. Both parties agreed, and in February 2006
the Norwegians were able to help negotiate a statement that included
commitments to a cease-fire and to further talks.
Tensions eased, and the country returned to the intricate process of
creating peace. Yet in April 2006, interethnic violence once again threw
Sri Lanka’s future into doubt. For the sake of the island, its peoples and
cultures, one hopes that the peace process can continue.

2002 2004
Cease-fire begins The waves of a tsunami hit Sri Lanka, taking 30,000 lives and
leaving many more homeless
© Lonely Planet Publications
38 www.lonelyplanet.com 39

The Culture
THE NATIONAL PSYCHE
Visitors to Sri Lanka notice first the gentleness of the land and people.
Life is leisurely. Time moves at a different pace. Rivers make an unhurried
journey to the coast. And at the coast, waves gently lap the sands. Inland,
white-domed dagobas (stupas) send their slim spires high into the skies.
Wattle-and-daub homes and large mansions settle easily within the nat-
ural environment. People wander with flowers to temples. And through-
Culture Shock! Sri Lanka
out the island, people greet visitors with warmth and hospitality.
by Robert Barlas and
Markets may bustle. Bus stations may hustle. Yet the sway of sarong,
Nanda P Wanasundera
sari or skirt preserves a pace that is slower and more refined. And the
gives travellers a
heat and humidity insist upon it.
confidence boost by
Every so often, things are less gentle. Rivers swell, inundating the land
offering a glimpse
and snatching lives. Tides rise, destroying everything in their path. Ethnic
into the unknown and
violence engulfs the people and more lives are lost and shattered.
unfamiliar.
Yet somehow Sri Lankans continue to overlay this chaos with gentle-
ness. They exude a charismatic charm that is immediately alluring. For
the visitor there is still the warmth of welcome. There is the waiter, bare-
foot and composed, delivering the king coconut to the traveller by the
pool. There is the hand of assistance up the steep steps of Adam’s Peak
(Sri Pada) or Sigiriya. There is the invitation to share home-prepared rice
and curry, or to attend a relative’s monastic initiation.
This island nation has welcomed those from afar for millennia. Differ-
ent faiths and ethnicities have mixed and married, yet clear distinctions
exist. Each is proud, and rightly so, of its heritage. Yet in a nation where a
single statement about an ancient event can shatter the harmony, history
can have an electrifying currency.
Poverty exists beside luxury here, where servants tend their masters
as they have done for centuries. The modern exists beside the ancient as
the young park their 4WDs near rickshaw drivers, whose transport may
be their only home.
But gentleness, especially for the visitor, persists.

LIFESTYLE
Daily life for Sri Lankans depends very much on their position in society.
Monks rise early to chant or meditate. Devotees make an early morning
visit to the temple. Other Sri Lankans walk on the Galle Face Green or visit
the gym. Tea pickers don their colourful clothes and hurry to the leaves.
Spice exports from Sri
Servants prepare breakfast for the family. Stockbrokers and engineers are
Lanka create Rs 5700
chauffeured to the office, farmers cultivate their land and stall holders
million (US$56 million)
arrange their kadé (street-side huts) with fruit and goodies.
in revenue annually.
Sri Lankan Life
Traditional life in Sri Lanka centred on the gamma (village). This was
a highly organised hub of activity, where each knew their role and how
to fulfil it. Agriculture was the mainstay, with rice paddies dotting the
landscape around the village. Buffalo, a source of rich curd, wallowed
in ponds while poultry strutted their stuff beneath jackfruit, mango,
banana and papaya trees. Some villages focused on particular products
such as pots or masks, and still today you’ll pass ‘car-tyre-gamma’ and
‘cane-furniture-gamma’, as well as delicious Cadjugama (Cashew-Nut
Village), where you’ll be hard pressed to resist the cashew sellers.
 40 T H E C U LT U R E • • L i fe s t y l e www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com T H E C U LT U R E • • L i fe s t y l e 41

Modern Sri Lanka, on the other hand, is a fusion of old and new. Twin The caste system has traditionally played an important role for Sri
towers – tributes to trade – soar above shanty huts. Computers record Lankans, but it now has minimal influence. Although Buddhism discour-
stock-market results and machines cultivate land and cut timber. Yet, ages distinctions based on caste, a caste system operates among Sinhalese.
in some areas, only 3% of homes have water on tap and only half have About 50% of Sinhalese belong to the highest caste, the Govigama (de-
Each year the 800,000 electricity. Many people still live the traditional village life, albeit with a scendants of landowners and cultivators). Traditionally Govigama were
Sri Lankans who work TV or motorbike. royal dignitaries and aristocracy. Today they are still the people of power –
overseas (mainly in the The belief that Sri Lanka would become another Singapore has not politicians and corporate flyers. Lower down the scale come the Karava
Middle East) boost the eventuated. Modern buildings emerge, but their construction on marsh- (fisherfolk), Hakurus (makers of jaggery sweets), Berawaya (drummers),
economy by sending land has the inevitable consequences of sewage blockages, flooding, and Paduvua (palanquin bearers), Radhu (washerfolk) and the Rodiya (beggars For gay information
home US$1 billion. transport and pollution problems. and itinerant entertainers). Today, these distinctions are virtually irrelevant and contacts, visit the
(indeed, the one place it has any influence is in the marriage market, par- promising www.sricon
Employment ticularly in partner-seeking advertisements, where caste is still one of the nection.net, or the more
Aid organisations advise potential volunteers that the Sri Lankan work many desirable ‘qualities’), and you’re more likely to hear tut-tutting about accessible www.utopia
ethic is different – it is unhurried. Yet this belies the fact that most Sri Kandyans and low-country Sinhalese (depending on the speaker). -asia.com/spec/sripride
Lankans work long, hard hours. For Hindus, caste has been more important. The Brahmin (priests) is .htm. For lesbians, there’s
Villagers traditionally had a strong sense of duty to family, community, the highest caste, and other high castes include the Vellalas (landlords www.wsglanka.com.
monarch and monk. The rajakariya (labour for the king) ensured the akin to the Govigama), Karaiya (fisherfolk, similar to Karava) and Chetti
achievement of massive projects such as temple building and tank con- (involved in commerce). Artisans and labourers come next, followed by
There is no minimum
struction. When a task was vast, such as harvesting the crops or threshing those involved with butchery and cleaning. The lowest castes, tradition-
wage in Sri Lanka.
rice, it became a community task. Some people had agricultural or home ally known as Untouchables, were once forbidden to enter temples and
Instead, 38 boards
duties, while others had more specific roles, such as astrologer, medicine own land. The Jaffna Tamils, mainly of the Vellala caste, used education
determine basic wages
man or toddy tapper. No doubt if astrological or medical counsel failed and employment in prestigious positions to increase their influence
for each industry.
the toddy tapper came in handy! This idea of working for the common throughout the last century. However, the Hill Country Tamils, who
good persisted well into the 20th century, and even now public servants pick the tea, mainly come from lower castes. Some caste customs are still
talk of performing rajakariya (although they do get paid). practised and social problems caused by caste inequity persist. However,
Today graduates and teachers earning between Rs 3000 and 5000 per legislation and equality-based social welfare are causing caste distinctions
month bemoan the fact that garment workers may earn more than them, to fade and many people go about their daily lives happily ignoring caste
but at Rs 114 per day, garment workers need to work long hours to achieve and the disparities it may bring.
such an income. Sri Lanka’s strong jewellery trade and the high profits
associated with it mean that jewellery cutters and polishers can receive Ritual & Ceremony
from Rs 6000 to 10,000 per month. Traditionally, rites of passage, often celebrated with elaborate rituals,
It’s clear that improved economic conditions have mostly benefited brought families and villagers together. These connections were sealed with
20% of the population, who tend to reside around Colombo. The remain- beliefs that linked nature with the supernatural; the land, rivers, trees and
ing 80% have seen little benefit, and income inequality is increasing. sky were all seen as life-givers and therefore land was tilled with respect and
Almost 25% of Sri Lankans live below the poverty line and, while unem- its produce was received with gratitude and ceremony. Every village had a
ployment is estimated at 8%, it is generally agreed that many workers, protector deity (or several), usually associated with aspects of nature.
even those working long hours, do not earn a liveable wage. Tradition still has an important role at times of life transition. A newborn
The divorce rate in Sri
The minimum age for employment is 14 unless the child is working child may be named according to an auspicious time and letters, indicated
Lanka is one of the
for a parent. In 2002 over 200,000 children were working and not attend- by the astrologers. The child’s first solid food is kiri bath (coconut-milk rice),
lowest in the world, with
Although bonded labour ing school. Also, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) recruits the traditional food of ritual and celebration. It’s common for children to
just over one divorce per
is illegal in Sri Lanka, children as young as 13 into its army. receive a pancha uda (necklace of five weapons), containing small charms of
10,000 people per year.
some children are bonded a sword, bow, arrow, conch and trident – all symbols of protection.
as servants to pay off Society & Attitudes A custom still practised by some families, especially in villages, is the
family debts. While Sri Lanka may seem to be a conservative society, it displays, as it daughter’s coming-of-age. During her first period she is separated, usu-
has for centuries, a range of attitudes and behaviours. ally in a room of her own. Female family members keep her company
Traditionally, marriages in Sri Lanka were arranged. Although young and feed her special foods. At a time determined by the astrologer, she is
people may now choose their own partners, horoscopes, caste and par- bathed and later celebrated with gifts of jewellery and clothes.
ental approval are still important factors. The wedding ceremony depends on the religion of the couple, although
Homosexuality is illegal, although the law is rarely enforced. That said, it’s usual for mixed-faith couples to marry with customs from both re-
discretion is advised – it’s probably best to avoid a 12-year jail term. Cen- ligions. Buddhist weddings usually take place on a poruwa (square plat-
sors are strict – the play Bed of Nettles, by Gratiaen Prize–winner Visakesa form) decorated with flowers. Religious stanzas are chanted in Sinhala
Chandrasekaram, was banned because of its homosexual themes. However, and Pali (a dialect of Sanskrit), and the bride and groom pass betel leaves
the gay community is becoming ever more vocal. to their parents as an expression of thanks. The bride’s little finger on her
The eldery are respected in Sri Lanka, and old age brings increased right hand is tied with thread to the little finger of the groom’s left hand,
security. Elders usually remain an integral part of the extended family. the end of the thread is lit and, as it burns towards their hands, water is
 42 T H E C U LT U R E • • P o p u l a t i o n www.lonelyplanet.com www.lonelyplanet.com T H E C U LT U R E • • P o p u l a t i o n 43

poured, extinguishing the light and symbolising their union. The couple Tamils
cut the kiri bath, sign the register and join the feast. The Tamils constitute 18% of the population, are predominantly Hindu
Hindu weddings are religious affairs that occur in the temple. The and speak Tamil. About 60 million more Tamils live across the Palk Strait
Hindu wedding takes place around a fire that symbolises Brahman, in India. While connections exist between Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils,
the supreme being. As with most new ventures, prayers are offered to especially for religious rituals and pilgrimages, they generally see each
Ganesh, the elephant-headed deity. Sacred texts are recited and the end other as discrete racial groups.
of the bride’s sari is tied to outer clothing of the groom. They circle the There are two distinct groups of Tamils in Sri Lanka, separated by
fire seven times, a symbol of commitment and union. After exchanging geography, history and caste. The Jaffna Tamils are descendants of the
rings they are usually showered with rice and flowers. South Indians who settled in northern Sri Lanka during the late centuries
The nikaah (Muslim marriage) is usually a simple affair. There is no BC. Most still live in the North and some reside with communities of
religious ceremony, just an agreement by the couple. Celebrations and Sinhalese and Muslims along the northeast coast.
gift-giving depend upon the orthodoxy of the couple – the greater the The other Tamils are the ‘Hill Country’ or ‘plantation’ Tamils. Their
orthodoxy, the simpler the event. ancestors were brought by the British from India in the 19th century to
At funerals mourners invariably wear white, and white flags are strung work on tea plantations.
Computer literacy in Sri
along fences, providing a guided path to the place of cremation.
Lanka ranges from 3% in
Muslims
some rural areas to 20%
in the Colombo area.
POPULATION About 9% of the population is Muslim. Most are the so-called Sri Lanka
Unlike other countries, Sri Lankans have not made a marked exodus Moors, who are the descendants of Arab or Indian traders, and whose
from country to city. Twenty-five percent of the population lives in the presence goes back at least 1000 years. Escaping persecution from the
city and many of these city dwellers retain close attachments to village Portuguese, many moved into the hilly interior, and you’ll still come across
life through family and continued land ownership. enclaves of Muslims as you travel around the hill towns. They are also scat-
Now with a population of 19.9 million, Sri Lanka’s population doubled tered all over the island, perhaps more thinly in the South and North.
from seven million in the 30 years following the departure of the Brit- Muslims have largely steered clear of the Sinhalese-Tamil troubles,
ish in 1948, somewhat giving credence to the old adage, ‘No sex please, though there has been some conflict in the East.
we’re British’. The Malays are a smaller group of Muslims; their ancestors came with
The social policies of most governments since independence have the Dutch from Java. They still speak Malay and mostly live around
given Sri Lanka a creditable literacy and health record. Sinhala and Tamil Hambantota. Another small group, the ‘Indian Moors’, are more recent
are both national languages, with English described as a link language. arrivals from India and Pakistan.
For an interesting and Most Sri Lankans are bilingual, even trilingual. See p351 for useful words
humorous read see The and phrases. Veddahs
Postcolonial Identity of Sri Lanka’s ethnic groups have formed around language and religion. The Veddahs (Hunters), also called the Wanniyala-aetto (People of the
Sri Lankan English by Throughout history, relations among the groups been marked by integra- Forest), are the original inhabitants of the country. Like so many other
English scholar Manique tion and cooperation, as well as tension and conflict. indigenous groups, the Veddahs have fared badly. Each wave of migra-
For an absorbing
Gunesekera. Then you’ll tion seized more land, leaving the Veddahs with less forest on which to
insight into historical
know what’s happening if Sinhalese subsist. Today their numbers are highly disputed, with estimates ranging
and contemporary
you’re called a bittaree! The Sinhalese constitute about 74% of the population, speak Sinhala and from 200 to thousands. Some people contest Veddah existence, claiming
Veddah life and customs
are predominantly Buddhist. Their forebears came from northern India they long ago integrated into the majority cultures. Only a small (and
see the comprehensive
in about the 6th century BC. diminishing) number of people identify themselves as Veddah and retain
website http://vedda
Sinhalese sometimes divide themselves into ‘low country’ or ‘high a semblance of their old culture, which emphasised a hunting lifestyle
.org/index.htm.
country’ (ie Kandyan). The Kandyan Sinhalese are famously proud, with close relationships to nature and their ancestors.
stemming from the time when the Hill Country was the last bastion of When the Dutch arrived in Sri Lanka there were Veddah communities
Sinhalese rule. Today, for Sinhalese Buddhists, Kandy is the spiritual as far north as Jaffna. Today there are two groups: Kele Weddo (jungle-
capital of the island. dwelling Veddahs) and Can Weddo (village-dwelling Veddahs), living
mainly in the area between Badulla, Batticaloa and Polonnaruwa.
While Sinhalese legends claim the Veddahs were descended from evil
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT spirits (a view that has certain political uses), it seems they are related
‘But that’s a case of koheeda yannee mallee pol, no?’ to the Vedas of Kerala, India. Like some traditional Keralan groups, they
This is actually a case of Singlish – a combination of Sinhala/Tamil and English. Some Sri Lankans have a matrilineal society.
bemoan this development, claiming it is a breakdown of their home culture or an abuse of the Central to the issues of Veddah identity and land rights are the trad-
English language. Radio broadcasters have even been criticised over the inclusion of English words itional hunting grounds of the Veddah in the Maduru Oya National
in their programmes. Yet it continues – not usually in print, but certainly in speech. Park, which was created in 1983 as a refuge for wildlife displaced by
And what does the above statement mean? the Mahaweli irrigation scheme. Sri Lankan law prohibits hunting and
It means ‘[But that’s a case of]...they got the wrong end of the stick.’ gathering in national parks and Veddahs have been arrested for such
Phrase quoted from The Postcolonial Identity of Sri Lankan English by Manique Gunesekera. activities. As they continue to work for the right to follow their customs,
the official line may be softening – due, perhaps, to UN support for the
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