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A Practical Guide to Error-Control
Coding Using MATLAB®
 DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY
The technical descriptions, procedures, and computer programs in this book
have been developed with the greatest of care and they have been useful to the
author in a broad range of applications; however, they are provided as is,
without warranty of any kind. Artech House, Inc. and the authors and editors
of the book titled A Practical Guide to Error-Control Coding Using MATLAB®
make no warranties, expressed or implied, that the equations, programs, and
procedures in this book or its associated software are free of error, or are
consistent with any particular standard of merchantability, or will meet your
requirements for any particular application. They should not be relied upon
for solving a problem whose incorrect solution could result in injury to a
person or loss of property. Any use of the programs or procedures in such
a manner is at the user’s own risk. The editors, author, and publisher dis-
claim all liability for direct, incidental, or consequent damages resulting from
use of the programs or procedures in this book or the associated software.
A Practical Guide to Error-Control
Coding Using MATLAB®

Yuan Jiang

artechhouse.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 13: 978-1-60807-088-6

Cover design by Patrick McCarthy

© 2010 ARTECH HOUSE

685 Canton Street
Norwood, MA 02062

All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of
this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, includ­ing photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service
marks have been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the ac-
curacy of this informa­tion. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as
affecting the validity of any trade­mark or service mark.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents

Preface ix

1 Error Control in Digital Communications

and Storage 1

1.1 Error Control Coding at a Glance 1

1.1.1 Codes for Error Control 1
1.1.2 Important Concepts 5

1.2 Channel Capacity and Shannon’s Theorem 14

1.3 Considerations When Selecting

Coding Schemes 16

References 17
Selected Bibliography 17

2 Brief Introduction to Abstract Algebra 19

2.1 Elementary Algebraic Structures 19

2.1.1 Group 19
2.1.2 Field 22

vi A Practical Guide to Error-Control Coding Using MATLAB®

2.2 Galois Field and Its Arithmetic 25

2.2.1 Galois Field 25
2.2.2 Arithmetic in GF (2m) 33

2.3 Implementation of GF (2m) Arithmetic 36

2.3.1 Arithmetic with Polynomial Representation 36
2.3.2 Arithmetic with Power Representation 39
2.3.3 A Special Case: Inversion 40

Problems 43
References 44
Selected Bibliography 44

3 Binary Block Codes 45

3.1 Linear Block Codes 45

3.1.1 Code Construction and Properties 45
3.1.2 Decoding Methods 51
3.1.3 Performance of Linear Block Codes 60
3.1.4 Encoder and Decoder Designs 65
3.1.5 Hamming Codes 66

3.2 Cyclic Codes 73

3.2.1 Basic Principles 74
3.2.2 Shift Register–Based Encoder and Decoder 81
3.2.3 Shortened Cyclic Codes and CRC 91

3.3 BCH Codes 95

3.3.1 Introduction 97
3.3.2 BCH Bound and Vandermonde Matrix 100
3.3.3 Decoding BCH Codes 101

Problems 110
References 111
Selected Bibliography 112
 Contents vii

4 Reed-Solomon Codes 113

4.1 Introduction to RS Codes 113

4.1.1 Prelude: Nonbinary BCH Codes 113
4.1.2 Reed-Solomon Codes 117

4.2 Decoding of RS Codes 123

4.2.1 General Remarks 123
4.2.2 Determining the Error Location Polynomial 124
4.2.3 Frequency-Domain Decoding 135
4.2.4 Error and Erasure Decoding 140

4.3 RS Decoder: From Algorithm to

Architecture 143
4.3.1 Syndrome Computation Circuit 143
4.3.2 Architectures for Berlekamp-Massey
Algorithm 143
4.3.3 Circuit for Chien Search and Forney’s
Algorithm 149

4.4 Standardized RS Codes 149

Problems 150
References 151

5 Convolutional Codes 153

5.1 Fundamentals of Convolutional Codes 153

5.1.1 Code Generation and Representations 153
5.1.2 Additional Matters 161

5.2 Decoding of Convolutional Codes 165

5.2.1 Optimum Convolutional Decoding
and Viterbi Algorithm 166
5.2.2 Sequential Decoding 179
viii A Practical Guide to Error-Control Coding Using MATLAB®

5.3 Designing Viterbi Decoders 189

5.3.1 Typical Design Issues 189
5.3.2 Design for High Performance 197

5.4 Good Convolutional Codes 201

5.4.1 Catastrophic Error Propagation 202
5.4.2 Some Known Good Convolutional Codes 202

5.5 Punctured Convolutional Codes 202

Problems 210
References 210
Selected Bibliography 212

6 Modern Codes 213

6.1 Turbo Codes 213

6.1.1 Code Concatenation 213
6.1.2 Concatenating Codes in Parallel: Turbo Code 218
6.1.3 Iterative Decoding of Turbo Codes 228
6.1.4 Implementing MAP 250

6.2 Low-Density Parity-Check Codes 252

6.2.1 Codes with Sparse Parity-Check Matrix 254
6.2.2 Decoding and Encoding Algorithms 259
6.2.3 High-Level Architecture Design for
LDPC Decoders 270

Problems 272
References 274
Selected Bibliography 276

About the Author 277

Index 279
Preface

This book attempts to provide a comprehensible and practical introduction

to error control coding. The targeted readers are practicing engineers and
university students who have already set foot in this territory or plan to. To
achieve the goal, this book takes an approach that is somewhat different from
the approaches used by the many excellent textbooks currently available.
First, the book introduces MATLAB as a tool to facilitate the pre-
sentation of key concepts. The DVD that accompanies this book provides
more than 90 MATLAB programs with which readers can experiment. It is
the author’s hope that this fresh attempt does help readers in mastering the
subject.
Second, the book pays attention to the implementation of various de-
coding algorithms. Readers will find that a few practical issues have received
in-depth treatment in the book, such as implementation of Galois field arith-
metic, Viterbi decoder design, RS decoder design, and MAP architecture, to
name a few.
The organization of the book is standard. Readers may notice, however,
that many mathematical proofs and theorems have been omitted. This is
because this book emphasizes concepts and rationales. For those who wish
to explore further, a comprehensive list of references is given at the end of
each chapter. Note that the MATLAB functions marked with asterisks are
provided by the book not by the MATLAB software.

ix
 A Practical Guide to Error-Control Coding Using MATLAB®

It is left to the readers to determine whether the book has served its
purpose. The author welcomes feedback of any kind (ecc.book.comments@
hotmail.com).
Finally the author would like to express his gratitude to editors Mark
Walsh, Lindsey Gendall, and Rebecca Allendorf at Artech House. With-
out their appreciation and help, publication of this book would have been
a lot harder. The author is also indebted to the book reviewer, who remains
anonymous to the author, for his valuable comments and suggestions, which
enlightened the author a great deal.
1
Error Control in Digital Communications
and Storage

The goal of this introductory chapter is to sketch out an overall picture of

error control coding for digital communications and storage, so that, after
completing the chapter, readers will have a rough idea of what the subject is
all about. The emphasis in this chapter is on the concepts and the rationale.

1.1 Error Control Coding at a Glance

1.1.1 Codes for Error Control

1.1.1.1 The Rationale

Digital communications and storage have become part of our daily lives. Ro­
bust data transmission and data storage are taken for granted. People hardly
realize that errors occur from time to time in data transmission/storage sys­
tems, and if it were not for the use of error control techniques, reliable data
transmission/storage would be impossible.
Errors in data transmission/storage systems can come from many differ­
ent sources: random noise, interference, channel fading, or physical defects,
just to name a few. These channel errors must be reduced to an accept­
able level to ensure the quality of data transmission/storage. To combat the


 A Practical Guide to Error-Control Coding Using MATLAB®

errors, we normally use two strategies, either stand-alone or combined. The

first one is the automatic repeat request (ARQ). An ARQ system attempts
to detect the presence of errors in the received data. If any errors are found,
the receiver notifies the transmitter of the existence of errors. The transmitter
then resends the data until they are correctly received.
The second strategy, known as the forward error correction (FEC), not
only detects but also corrects the errors, so that data retransmission can be
avoided. In many practical applications retransmission may be difficult or not
even feasible at all. For example, it is impossible for any receiver in a real-time
broadcasting system to request data to be resent. In this case, FEC is the only
viable solution.
Either way, error control codes (ECC) are used for detecting the pres­
ence of errors and correcting them. To intuitively explain the mechanism
of ECC, let us look at a simple example from our daily lives. You and your
friend are going for a walk. Before you leave, you recall that rain has been
forecast. So you say to your friend, “We should carry an umbrella with us.”
Your friend may hear it as “We should carry a banana with us” and gets
confused. However, if you instead say, “We should carry an umbrella with
us; it’s going to rain,” your friend will know what you said is umbrella not
banana, based on the context of your second sentence. Your second sentence
in this case is redundancy that facilitates detection and correction of the error.
ECC does exactly the same thing. It first adds redundancy to the message to
be sent; this process is called encoding and is carried out at the transmitter.
It then corrects errors based on the redundancy in a process called decoding
that is performed at the receiver. The output of the encoding process is a
codeword that contains both the message and the redundancy (explicitly or
implicitly). The redundancy is referred to as the parity check, or simply the
parity. Figure 1.1 shows a typical communications system equipped with er­
ror control functionality.

Example 1.1
We send a message bit of 1 to the receiver. Due to the channel error, when
the bit passes the channel and arrives at the receiver it becomes a 0. Unfor-
tunately there is no indication whatsoever whether the received bit is correct
or not.
Now, instead of sending the raw message bit, we send a codeword c formed
by repeating the message bit three times. The codeword corresponding to a
message bit of 0 is c0 = (000), and the codeword for a message bit of 1 is c1 =
(111). The redundancy here is the two duplicates of the message bit.
 Error Control in Digital Communications and Storage 

Transmitter
Information
Encoding Modulation
source

Channel
Receiver
Information
Decoding Demodulation
destination

Figure 1.1 A typical communications system with ECC.

Suppose that the received word is r = (011), which has an error in its
first position. We immediately know that r is in error, because all three bits
are supposed to be identical but they are not.
Notice that r differs from c0 by two bits and differs from c1 by one bit. It
is logical to think that the received word is more likely to be r if c1 is sent.
So we can quite confidently conclude that the codeword transmitted is c1 =
(111) and the original message is 1. The two redundant bits have helped us
make correct decoding.
This trivial repetition code provides both error detection and error cor-
rection capability.

Figure 1.2 illustrates a typical bit error rate (BER) versus signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) curve for coded and uncoded systems.
The use of error correction, however, is not free. The redundancy acts
as overhead and it “costs” transmission resources (e.g., channel bandwidth
or transmission power). Therefore, we want the redundancy to be as small
as possible. To give the redundancy a quantitative measure, the coding rate
R is defined as the ratio of the message length to the codeword length. For
example, if a coding scheme generates a codeword of length n from a message
of length k, the coding rate is:
R = kn (1.1)

The maximum value of the coding rate is 1 when no redundancy is

added (i.e., when the message is uncoded). Coding performance and cod­
ing rate are two opposing factors. As more redundancy is added, the error
  A Practical Guide to Error-Control Coding Using MATLAB®

−1
10

−2
10

Uncoded performance
BER

−3
10

−4 Coded performance
10

−5
10
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SNR (dB)

Figure 1.2 Typical BER performance of coded system.

correction capability is strengthened, but the coding rate drops. A good code
should maximize the error correction performance while keeping the coding
rate close to 1.

1.1.1.2 A Second Look at ECC

From the preceding introduction, it seems that we are definitely better off
using error control coding because errors indeed get corrected (as seen in the
example). A closer examination of the coding principle, however, shows that
this may not be always true, despite the error correction capability provided.
As we have just said, the redundancy costs resources. To see if coding is really
beneficial, we need to compare coded systems and uncoded systems under the
condition of equal resource usage.
Now, say, we use 1 watt of power to transmit the raw message bit in the
preceding example. With coding, the transmit power of each bit in the code­
word is reduced to 1/3 watt (the total power is kept to 1 watt). Consequently,
the probability of errors will increase. We see, on one hand, that coding cor­
 Error Control in Digital Communications and Storage 

rects channel errors and brings down the error probability; on the other hand,
reduced power per bit causes the error probability to go higher. So we will be
better off only if the coding increases the performance enough to make up
for the signal power reduction caused by the redundancy and produces a net
gain. Let us reexamine Figure 1.2. We observe that the BER performance of
the coded system is actually worse than that of the coded system in the low
SNR range (£3.5 dB in the figure). This is because the coding in that SNR
range is not able to offer enough performance improvement to cover the sig­
nal power loss due to the redundancy.
As a conclusion, codes must be designed to offer a net performance
gain.

1.1.2 Important Concepts

1.1.2.1 Types of Codes

Depending on how redundancy is added, there are two families of codes.
One is called the block codes. Block coding encodes and decodes data on
a block-by-block basis. Data blocks in this case are independent from each
other. Consequently block coding is a memoryless operation and can be im­
plemented using combinational logic. The code in Example 1.1 is a block
code because the coding is completely determined by the current data block.
In contrast, another family of codes, namely, the convolutional codes, works
on a continuous data stream, and its encoding and decoding operations de­
pend not only on the current data but also on the previous data. As such,
convolutional coding contains memory and has to be implemented using
sequential logic.

1.1.2.2 Systematic Versus Nonsystematic Codes

A complete codeword comprises the message and the redundancy. If the re­
dundancy is implicitly embedded in the codeword, the code is said to be
nonsystematic. On the other hand, if the redundancy is explicitly appended
to the message, the code is systematic (see Figure 1.3). Systematic codes are
always preferred in practice, because the message and the parity are separated
so the receiver can directly extract the message from the decoded codeword.

1.1.2.3 Digital Modulation

After error control encoding, we have a sequence of coded digital symbols,
which is to be converted to an analog signal (called the carrier) before it can
be transmitted over a physical channel (copper wire, optical fiber, or air).
 A Practical Guide to Error-Control Coding Using MATLAB®

Figure 1.3 Structure of systematic code.

This job is done by modulation. According to the symbols, the modulation

process instantaneously alters the amplitude, phase, frequency (or a combina­
tion thereof ) of the carrier to convey the information to be transmitted. A
modulation scheme of particular interest is binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
for binary symbols (i.e., bits). BPSK assigns to the carrier 0 phase shift when
the bit is a 0, and p phase shift when the bit is a 1. From a baseband point
of view, the BPSK modulation is a mapping process: 0 ® 1 and 1 ® –1.
Figure 1.4 shows the waveform of a BPSK modulated signal. At the receiver,
the received signal is demodulated back to digital symbols.

Figure 1.4 BPSK modulated signal.

 Error Control in Digital Communications and Storage 

Extending BPSK to the nonbinary case, let us say that the symbol
consists of two bits. Then the symbol has four possible combinations: (00),
(01), (11), and (10). Assigning to the carrier four corresponding phase shifts
p/4, 3p/4, 5p/4, and 7p/4, we form so-called quadrature phase-shift keying
(QPSK). QPSK maps the symbol as (00) ® 1 + j, (01) ® -1 + j, (11) ® -1 -
j, (10) ® 1 - j. The signal space constellations of BPSK and QPSK are de­
picted in Figure 1.5.

MATLAB Experiment 1.1

The Communications Toolbox in MATLAB provides a pair of func­tions,
modmap and demodmap, to map a digital signal to and from an analog signal
for a given modulation scheme, respectively. Typing in modmap(‘psk’,2)
and modmap(‘psk’,4) generate the BPSK and QPSK constellations, as
shown in Figure 1.5.

BPSK

(1) (0)

−1 +1

QPSK
Q
+1
(01) (00)

I
−1 +1

(11) (01)
−1

Figure 1.5 Signal constellation of BPSK and QPSK.

 A Practical Guide to Error-Control Coding Using MATLAB®

1.1.2.4 Channel and Channel Errors

The most common transmission errors are caused by additive white Gauss­
ian noise (AWGN). Because this type of noise is totally random, the AWGN
errors are independent from each other; that is, they are memoryless. Such a
transmission channel is called an AWGN channel. Most error control codes
tackle memoryless errors.
However, in some scenarios channel errors occur in bursts. The bursty
channel involves memory, therefore the errors are correlated. Wireless fading
channels and defects on the surface of a compact disc are two examples of the
channel.
Classical coding theory often views the modulation, channel, and de­
modulation in Figure 1.2 as being combined as a discrete composite channel.
The input to the composite channel consists of binary bits. If the demodulation
also outputs binary bits, we may neglect all details inside the composite channel
and simply model it as a binary symmetric channel (BSC) (see Figure 1.6) char­
acterized by the crossover probability px. The crossover probability is defined
as the probability of a bit error. For the particular case of AWGN “internal”
channel and BPSK signaling, px can be computed as follows:

æ ö
px = Q ç 2 Eb N ÷ (1.2)
è 0ø

∞
( 2p ) ∫x
y 2 /2
where Q ( x ) � 1 ⋅ e dy is called the Q -function and Eb/N0 is
the bit SNR. Like an AWGN channel, the BSC is also memoryless.

MATLAB Experiment 1.2

The AWGN channel is modeled in MATLAB by awgn. The function
adds AWGN noise to transmitted data at a specified SNR.
The companion DVD provides a BSC model bsc*, which introduces
random bit errors to a binary sequence based on a crossover probability.

. Eb denotes the bit energy, and N0 denotes the AWGN power spectral density.
 Error Control in Digital Communications and Storage 

Transmit Receive
1− px
0 0

px Crossover
px probability

1− px
1 1

Figure 1.6 Binary symmetric channel.

MATLAB Experiment 1.3

The DVD also includes a simple script qfunc* to compute the Q-func­
tion. To calculate the crossover probability at Eb/N0 = 0 dB, we type in the
following command:
>> eb_n0 = 0; % dB
>> eb_n0 = 10^(eb_n0/10); % convert to linear scale
>> px = qfunc(sqrt(2*eb_n0)) % crossover prob.
px =
0.0786

1.1.2.5 Optimal Decoding Principles

Recall that in the previous example, we take c1 as the decoded output, because
the received vector is more likely to be r if c1 is sent. Decoding based on this
principle is called maximum-likelihood decoding, or simply ML decoding.
Mathematically ML decoding can be expressed as follows:

ìc0 , if P (r | c0 ) ³ P (r | c1 )
c� = í (1.3)
î c1, if P (r | c0 ) < P (r | c1 )

where c˜ denotes the decoded word and P(r |c0) [or P(r |c1)] is the prob­
ability that the word r is received given the condition that the codeword

. For the sake of simplicity, we assume two codewords in total. The principle remains the
same for cases with more codewords.
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