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This page intentionally left blank
 THE EMISSION-LINE UNIVERSE

Emission lines provide a powerful tool for studying the physical properties and chemical
compositions of astrophysical objects in the Universe, from the first stars to objects in
our Galaxy. The analysis of emission lines allows us to estimate the star formation rate
and initial mass function of ionizing stellar populations, and the properties of active
galactic nuclei.
This book presents lectures from the eighteenth Winter School of the Canary
Islands Astrophysics Institute (IAC). Written by prestigious researchers and experienced
observers, it covers the formation of emission lines and the different sources that pro-
duce them. It shows how emission lines in different wavelengths, from ultraviolet to near
infrared, can provide essential information on understanding the formation and evolution
of astrophysical objects. It also includes practical tutorials for data reduction, making
this a valuable reference for researchers and graduate students.
 Canary Islands Winter School of Astrophysics

Volume XVIII
Editor in Chief
F. Sánchez, Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias

Previous volumes in this series

I. Solar Physics
II. Physical and Observational Cosmology
III. Star Formation in Stellar Systems
IV. Infrared Astronomy
V. The Formation of Galaxies
VI. The Structure of the Sun
VII. Instrumentation for Large Telescopes: a Course for Astronomers
VIII. Stellar Astrophysics for the Local Group: a First Step to the Universe
IX. Astrophysics with Large Databases in the Internet Age
X. Globular Clusters
XI. Galaxies at High Redshift
XII. Astrophysical Spectropolarimetry
XIII. Cosmochemistry: the Melting Pot of Elements
XIV. Dark Matter and Dark Energy in the Universe
XV. Payload and Mission Definition in Space Sciences
XVI. Extrasolar Planets
XVII. 3D Spectroscopy in Astronomy
Participants of the XVIII Canary Islands Winter School.
THE EMISSION-LINE UNIVERSE
XVIII Canary Islands Winter School of Astrophysics

Edited by
JORDI CEPA
Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Tenerife
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521898867
© Cambridge University Press 2009

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2008

ISBN-13 978-0-511-46356-3 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-89886-7 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

List of contributors page viii

List of participants ix

Preface xi

Acknowledgements xii

1 What can emission lines tell us? 1

G. Stasińska

2 The observer’s perspective: Emission-line surveys 41

M. Giavalisco

3 The astrophysics of early galaxy formation 66

P. Madau

4 Primeval galaxies 106

D. Schaerer

5 Active galactic nuclei 138

B. M. Peterson

6 Chemical evolution 183

F. Matteucci

7 Galactic sources of emission lines 222

S. S. Eikenberry

8 Narrow-band imaging 262

S. Pascual and B. Cedrés

9 Long-slit spectroscopy 274

M. Sánchez-Portal and A. Pérez-Garcı́a

10 Basic principles of tunable filters 283

H. Castañeda and A. Bongiovanni

vii
 Contributors

Grażyna Stasińska, LUTH, Observatoire de Paris-Meudon, France

Mauro Giavalisco, Space Telescope Science Institute, USA
Piero Madau, Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California,
Santa Cruz, California, USA
Daniel Schaerer, Observatoire de Genève, Université de Genève, Sauverny,
Switzerland
Bradley M. Peterson, Department of Astronomy, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio, USA
Francesca Matteucci, Dipartamento di Astronomia, Università di Trieste, Italy
Stephen S. Eikenberry, University of Florida, Florida, USA
Sergio Pascual, Departamento de Astrofı́sica, Facultad de Ciencias Fı́sicas,
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
Bernabé Cedrés, Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Tenerife, Spain
Miguel Sánchez-Portal, European Space Astronomy Centre, Spain
Ana Pérez-Garcı́a, Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Tenerife, Spain
Héctor Castañeda, Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Tenerife, Spain
Angel Bongiovanni, Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Tenerife, Spain

viii
 Participants

Agüero, Ma Paz Universidad de Córdoba (Argentina)

Atek, Hakim Institute d’Astrophysique de Paris (France)
Barro Calvo, Guillermo Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain)
Barway, Sudhanshu Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (India)
Casebeer, Darrin A. University of Oklahoma (USA)
Colavitti, Edoardo Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste (Italy)
Cottis, Christopher University of Leicester (UK)
Delgado Inglada, Gloria INAOE (Mexico)
Dı́az Santos, Tanio CSIC (Spain)
Fernández Lorenzo, Miriam Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias (Spain)
González Pérez, Violeta IEEC/CSIC (Spain)
Hayes, Matthew AlbaNova University Centre (Sweden)
Hernández Fernández, Jonathan Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Andalucı́a (Spain)
David
Hurley, Rossa Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden)
Ilić, Dragana University of Belgrade (Serbia)
Izquierdo Gómez, Jaime Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain)
Köhler, Ralf Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial
Physics (Germany)
Kovačević, Jelena University of Belgrade (Serbia)
Koziel, Dorota Jagiellonian University (Poland)
Kusterer, Daniel-Jens Universität Tübingen (Germany)
Lara López, Maritza Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias (Spain)
Lazarova, Mariana University of California, Riverside (USA)
Lee, Janice University of Arizona (USA)
Marcon Uchida, Monica Midori Universidade de São Paulo (Brazil)
Mazzalay, Ximena Córdoba Astronomical Observatory (Argentina)
Montero Dorta, Antonio David Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Andalucı́a (Spain)
Muñoz Marı́n, Victor Manuel Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Andalucı́a (Spain)
Nava Bencheikh, Aida H. University of Oklahoma, Norman (USA)
Ovalasen, Jan-Erik University of Oslo (Norway)
Padilla Torres, Carmen Pilar Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias (Spain)
Planelles Mira, Susana Universidad de Valencia (Spain)
Pović, Mirjana Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias (Spain)
Prescott, Moire University of Arizona (USA)
Raiter, Anna Nicolaus Copernicus University (Poland)
Ramos Almeida, Cristina Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias (Spain)
Ruiz Fernández, Nieves Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Andalucı́a (Spain)
Sampson, Leda University of Cambridge (UK)
Sánchez, Juan Andrés Universidad Central de Venezuela (Venezuela)
Simón Dı́az, Sergio Observatoire de Paris-Meudon (LUTH) (France)
Somero, Auni University of Helsinki (Finland)
Stoklasová, Ivana Charles University (Czech Republic)

ix
x Participants
Toloba, Elisa Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain)
Vale Asari, Natalia Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (Brazil)
Vavilkin, Tatiana Stony Brook University (USA)
Villar, Victor Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain)
Wehres, Nadine Leiden Observatory/Universiteit Groningen
(The Netherlands)
Yan, Huirong Canadian Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics
(Canada)
 Preface

Emission lines are powerful means to detect faint objects and to study their composition
and physical properties. Detecting and studying objects ranging from galactic sources to
the most distant galaxies is made possible by using these lines. The aim of the XVIII
Winter School is to give a thorough introduction to this emission-line Universe from both
theoretical and observational points of view. For this reason, the Winter School contents
include not only classical lectures, but also tutorials on data reduction and analysis. This
structure enables young researchers to participate actively in current and future research
projects, while serving also as a reference book for experienced researchers.
The subject of this School was motivated by the upcoming advent of a new gener-
ation of wide-field instruments for large telescopes, specifically optimized for observing
emission-line objects in two dimensions. These instruments will boost the study of these
kinds of objects by providing large amounts of data, whose digestion will require a the-
oretical basis as well as specific data-reduction techniques. These powerful facilities will
enable the study of very faint emission lines of nearby objects, or conspicuous lines of
very distant targets. The former will provide finer details on the chemical composition
and characteristics of the gas, while the latter will furnish insight on structure formation
and its evolution via scanning of large proper volumes of Universe.
Most cosmological surveys have been based on the continuum emission of the objects
of the Universe via broadband imaging and their spectroscopic follow-up. Although only
a fraction of the targets will shine in emission, this “emission-line” Universe, which has
thus far remained relatively unexplored, will provide information about both the bright
and the faint ends of the luminosity function, nicely providing essential pieces of scien-
tific information and complementing the results obtained from classical continuum-based
surveys.
The XVIII Winter School includes an introduction to the insight that UV, optical and
near-infrared lines can provide on emission-line objects considering physical emission
mechanisms, line diagnostics and codes, and then focuses on various types of emission-
line galactic objects, identification techniques and applications. A review of characteris-
tics, advantages and disadvantages of emission-line surveys at various wavelengths, both
wide and deep, will serve as a starting point to study active galactic nuclei, QSOs, pri-
maeval galaxies, extragalactic star formation and the evolution of the metal content of
galaxies. All these topics are tackled considering their cosmic evolution and astrophysical
implications. Finally, this Winter School includes hands-on tutorials presenting practical
examples of data reduction and analysis of a variety of emission-line objects using diverse
observational techniques.

Jordi Cepa
Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias

xi
 Acknowledgements

I want to express my warmest gratitude to the lecturers for their efforts in preparing
their lectures and the manuscripts, making them pedagogical and challenging. I also
wish to thank our efficient secretaries Nieves Villoslada and Lourdes González for their
care in the preparation and organization of the School. Their experience and support
have been essential for its success. Also, I am indebted to Ramón Castro for the design
and production of the poster, to the technicians of the Servicios Informáticos Comunes
for the installation and maintenance of the hardware and communications network, to
Carmen del Puerto for her lively Winter School electronic bulletin, to Terry Mahoney for
sorting out the subtleties of manuscript production and to Jesús Burgos for his efforts
at trying to raise funds from the Ministry of Education (however, I do not thank the
Ministry since they gave us nothing at all). I acknowledge Anna Fagan for preparing the
final version of this book for Cambridge University Press.
I also wish to thank the Cabildo of the island of Tenerife and the personnel of the
Salón de Congresos del Parque Taoro (I am afraid I cannot recall all their names) for
their generous support and help.
Finally I wish to thank all participants for the excellent atmosphere of collaboration,
enjoyment and learning that they created throughout the School. I will always remember
the gift of excellent local wines from the students: not ora et labora but bibere et discere.
Açúcar!

xii
 1. What can emission lines tell us?
GRAŻYNA STASIŃSKA

1.1. Introduction
Emission lines are observed almost everywhere in the Universe, from the Earth’s atmo-
sphere (see Wyse & Gilmore 1992 for a summary) to the most-distant objects known
(quasars and galaxies), on all scales and at all wavelengths, from the radio domain (e.g.
Lobanov 2005) to gamma rays (e.g. Diehl et al. 2006). They provide very efficient tools to
explore the Universe, measure the chemical composition of celestial bodies and determine
the physical conditions prevailing in the regions where they are emitted.
The subject is extremely vast. Here, we will restrict ourselves in wavelength, being
mostly concerned with the optical domain, with some excursions to the infrared and
ultraviolet domains and, occasionally, to the X-ray region.
We will mainly deal with the mechanisms of line production and with the interpretation
of line intensities in various astrophysical contexts. We will discuss neither quasars and
Seyfert galaxies, since those are the subject of Chapter 5, nor Lyman-α galaxies, which
are extensively covered in Chapter 4 of this book. However, we will discuss diagnostic
diagrams used to distinguish active galaxies from other emission-line galaxies and will
mention some topics linked with H Lyα. Most of our examples will be taken from recent
literature on planetary nebulae, H ii regions and emission-line galaxies. Emission-line
stars are briefly described in Chapter 7 and a more detailed presentation is given in the
book The Astrophysics of Emission Line Stars by Kogure & Leung (2007).
The vast subject of molecular emission lines has been left aside. The proceedings of the
symposium Astrochemistry: Recent Successes and Current Challenges (Lis et al. 2006)
give a fair introduction to this rapidly expanding field.
In the present text, we will not go into the question of Doppler shifts or line profiles,
which tell us about radial velocities and thus about dynamics. This is of course a very
important use of emission lines, which would deserve a book of its own. For example, for
such objects as planetary nebulae and supernova remnants, emission-line profiles allow
one to measure expansion velocities and thus investigate their dynamics. Determining
the distribution of radial velocities of planetary nebulae in galactic haloes is a way to
probe their kinematics and infer the dark-matter content of galaxies (Romanowsky 2006).
Redshift surveys to map the three-dimensional distribution of galaxies in the Universe
strongly rely on the use of emission lines (e.g. Lilly et al. 2007), which is the most-reliable
way to measure redshifts.
We will, however, mention the great opportunity offered by integral-field spectroscopy
at high spectral resolution, which provides line intensities and profiles at every location
in a given field of view. With appropriate techniques, this allows one to recover the
three-dimensional (3D) geometry of a nebula.
The purpose here is not to review all the literature on ionized nebulae, but rather to
give clues for understanding the information given by emission lines, to provide some tools
for interpreting one’s own data, and to argue for the importance of physical arguments
and common sense at each step of the interpretation process. Therefore, we will review
methods rather than objects and papers. This complements in some sense the text entitled
“Abundance determinations in H ii regions and planetary nebulae” (Stasińska 2004), to

The Emission-Line Universe, ed. J. Cepa. Published by Cambridge University Press.

C Cambridge University Press 2009.

1
2 G. Stasińska
which the reader is referred. In order to save space, the topics that have been treated
extensively there will not be repeated, unless we wish to present a different approach or
add important new material.
In the following, we will assume that the reader is familiar with the first three sections
of Stasińska (2004). We also recommend reading Ferland’s outstanding (2003) review
“Quantitative spectroscopy of photoionized clouds”. Those wishing for a more-complete
description of the main physical processes occurring in ionized nebulae should consult
the textbooks Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium by Spitzer (1978), Physics
of Thermal Gaseous Nebulae by Aller (1984), Astrophysics of the Diffuse Universe by
Dopita & Sutherland (2003) and Astrophysics of Gaseous Nebulae and Active Galactic
Nuclei by Osterbrock & Ferland (2006). For a recent update on X-ray astrophysics, a
field that is developing rapidly, one may consult the AIP Conference Proceedings on
X-ray Diagnostics of Astrophysical Plasmas: Theory, Experiment, and Observation
(Smith 2005).

1.2. Generalities
1.2.1 Line-production mechanisms
Emission lines arise in diffuse matter. They are produced whenever an excited atom (or
ion) returns to lower-lying levels by emitting discrete photons. There are three main
mechanisms that produce atoms (ions) in excited levels: recombination, collisional exci-
tation and photoexcitation.

1.2.1.1 Recombination
Roughly two thirds of the recombinations of an ion occur onto excited states from which
de-excitation proceeds by cascades down to the ground state. The resulting emission lines
are called recombination lines and are labelled with the name of the recombined ion,
although their intensities are proportional to the abundance of the recombining species.
The most-famous (and most commonly detected) ones are H i lines (from the Balmer,
Paschen, etc. series), which arise from recombination of H+ ions; He i lines (λ5876, . . . ),
which arise from recombination of He+ ; and He ii lines (λ4686, . . . ), which arise from
recombination of He++ ions. Recombination lines from heavier elements are detected as
well (e.g. C ii λ4267, O ii λ4651, . . . ), but they are weaker than recombination lines of
hydrogen by several orders of magnitude, due to the much lower abundances of those
elements.
The energy eijl emitted per unit time in a line l due to the recombination of the ion j
of an element Xi can be written as

eijl = ne n(Xji )e0ijl Te−α , (1.1)

where e0ijl is a constant and the exponent α is of the order of 1. Thus, recombination line
intensities increase with decreasing temperature, as might be expected.

1.2.1.2 Collisional excitation

Collisions with thermal electrons lead to excitation onto levels that are low enough to
be attained. Because the lowest-lying level of hydrogen is at 10.2 eV, collisional excitation
of hydrogen lines is effective only at electron temperatures Te larger than ∼ 2 × 104 K.
On the other hand, heavy elements such as nitrogen, oxygen and neon have low-lying
levels that correspond to fine-structure splitting of the ground level. Those can be excited
at any temperature that can be encountered in a nebula, giving rise to infrared lines.
 What can emission lines tell us? 3
At “typical” nebular temperatures of 8000−12 000 K, levels with excitation energies of a
few eV can also be excited, giving rise to optical lines. Slightly higher temperatures are
needed to excite levels corresponding to ultraviolet lines.
In the simple two-level approximation, when each excitation is followed by a radiative
de-excitation, the energy eijl emitted per unit time in a line l due to collisional excitation
of an ion j of an element Xi can be written as

eijl = ne n(Xji )qijl hνl

= 8.63 × 10−6 ne n(Xji )Ωijl /(ωijl Te−0.5 e(χijl/kTe ) hνl ), (1.2)
where Ωijl is the collision strength, ωijl is the statistical weight of the upper level and
χijl is the excitation energy.
Collisionally excited lines (CELs) are traditionally separated into forbidden, semi-
forbidden and permitted lines, according to the type of electronic transition involved.
Observable forbidden lines have transition probabilities of the order of 10−2 s−1 (or less
for infrared lines), semi-forbidden lines have probabilities of the order of 102 s−1 , and
permitted lines have probabilities of the order of 108 s−1 . This means that the critical
density (i.e. the density at which the collisional and radiative de-excitation rates are
equal) of forbidden lines is much smaller than those of intercombination lines and of
permitted lines. Table 2 of Rubin (1989) lists critical densities for optical and infrared
lines. Table 1 of Hamman et al. (2001) gives critical densities for ultraviolet lines.
Resonance lines are special cases of permitted lines: they are the longest-wavelength
lines arising from ground levels. Examples of resonance lines are H Lyα and C iv λ1550.

1.2.1.3 Fluorescent excitation

Permitted lines can also be produced by photoexcitation due to stellar light or to
nebular recombination lines. The Bowen lines (Bowen 1934) are a particular case of
fluorescence, where O iii is excited by the He ii Lyα line and returns to the ground level
by cascades giving rise to O iii λ3133, 3444 as well as to the line O iii λ304, which in
turn excites a term of N iii.
The interpretation of fluorescence lines is complex, and such lines are not often used for
diagnostics of the nebulae or their ionizing radiation. On the other hand, it is important
to know which lines can be affected by fluorescence, in order to avoid improper diagnos-
tics assuming pure recombination (see Escalante & Morisset 2005). Order-of-magnitude
estimates can be made with the simple approach of Grandi (1976).
Quantitative analysis of fluorescence lines requires heavy modelling. It can be used to
probe the He ii radiation field in nebulae (Kastner & Bhatia 1990). The X-ray-fluorescence
iron line has been used to probe accretion flows very close to massive black holes (Fabian
et al. 2000).

1.2.1.4 Some hints

Each line can be produced by several processes, but usually there is one that domi-
nates. There are, however, cases in which secondary processes may not be ignored. For
example, the contribution of collisional excitation to H Lyα is far from negligible at tem-
peratures of the order of 2 × 104 K. The contribution of recombination to the intensities
of [O ii] λλ7320, 7330 is quite important at low temperatures (below, say, 5000 K) and
becomes dominant at the lowest temperatures expected in H ii regions (see Stasińska
2005).
In the appendix, we give tables of forbidden, semi-forbidden and resonance lines for ions
of C, N, O, Ne, S, Cl and Ar that can be observed in H ii regions and planetary nebulae.
4 G. Stasińska
These are extracted from the atomic-line list maintained by Peter van Hoof, which is
available at http://www.pa.uky.edu/˜peter/atomic. This database contains identification
of about one million allowed, intercombination and forbidden atomic transitions with
wavelengths in the range from 0.5 Å to 1000 µm.
W. C. Martin and W. L. Wiese produced a very useful atomic physics “compendium
of basic ideas, data, notations and formulae” that is available at: http://www.physics.
nist.gov/Pubs/AtSpec/index.html.

1.2.1.5 Atomic data

In the interpretation of emission lines, atomic data play a crucial role. Enormous
progress has been made in atomic physics during recent years, but not all relevant data
are available yet or known with sufficient accuracy. The review by Kallman & Palmeri
(2007) is the most-recent critical compilation of atomic data for emission-line analysis
and photoionization modelling of X-ray plasmas. A recent assessment of atomic data for
planetary nebulae is given by Bautista (2006).
Many atomic databases are available on the Internet.
r A compilation of databases for atomic and plasma physics: http://plasma-
gate.weizmann.ac.il/DBfAPP.html.
r Reference data: http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/˜physical.
r Ultraviolet and X-ray radiation at: http://www.arcetri.astro.it/science/chianti/
chianti.html.
r Atomic data for astrophysics (but only up to 2000): http://www.pa.uky.edu/˜verner/
atom.html.
r Atomic data from the Opacity Project: http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/topbase/
topbase.html.
r Atomic data from the IRON project: http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/tipbase/
home.html.

1.2.2 The transfer of radiation

This section is not to provide a detailed description of radiative-transfer techniques, but
simply to mention the problems and the reliability of the methods that are used.

1.2.2.1 The transfer of Lyman-continuum photons emitted by the ionizing source

The photons emitted by a source of radiation experience geometrical dilution as they
leave the source. They may be absorbed on their way by gas particles, predominantly by
hydrogen and helium. The first photons to be absorbed are those which have energies
slightly above the ionization threshold, due to the strong dependence of the photoion-
ization cross section on frequency (roughly proportional to ν −3 ). This gives rise to a
“hardening” of the radiation field as one approaches the outer edge of an ionized nebula.
Photons may also be absorbed (and scattered) by dust grains.

1.2.2.2 The transfer of the ionizing photons produced by the nebula

Recombination produces photons that can in turn ionize the nebular gas. These pho-
tons are emitted in all directions, so their transfer is not simple. Authors have developed
several kinds of approximation to deal with this.
The “on-the-spot approximation” (or OTS) assumes that all the photons recombining
to the ground state are reabsorbed immediately and at the locus of emission. This is
approximately true far from the ionizing source, where the population of neutral species
is sufficiently large to ensure immediate reabsorption. However, in the zones of high
 What can emission lines tell us? 5
ionization (or high “excitation” as is often improperly said), this is not true. Compu-
tationally, the OTS assumption allows one simply to discount all the recombinations to
the excited levels. This creates a spurious temperature structure in the nebula, with the
temperature being overestimated in the high-excitation zone, due to the fact that the
stellar ionizing radiation field is “harder” than the combined stellar plus recombination
radiation field. The effect is not negligible, about 1000–2000 K in nebulae of solar chem-
ical composition. Because of this, for some kinds of problems it might be preferable to
use a simple one-dimensional (1D) photoionization code with reasonable treatment of
the diffuse radiation rather than a 3D code using the OTS approximation.
The OTS approximation, however, has its utility in dynamical simulations incorporat-
ing radiation transfer, because it significantly decreases the computational time.
Note that the OTS approximation is valid on a global scale. In the integrated volume
of a Strömgren sphere, the total number of ionizing photons of the source is exactly
balanced by the total number of recombinations to excited levels. This is a useful property
for analytic estimations, since it implies that the total Hα luminosity of a nebula that
absorbs all the ionizing photons (and is devoid of dust) is simply proportional to QH , the
total number of ionizing hydrogen photons.†
In increasing order of accuracy (and complexity), then comes the “outward-only
approximation”, which was first proposed in 1967 by Tarter in his thesis, very early
in the era of photoionization codes (see Tarter et al. (1969) for a brief description). Here,
the ionizing radiation produced in the nebula is computed at every step, but artificially
concentrated in the outward-directed hemisphere, where it is distributed isotropically.
This gives a relatively accurate description of the nebular ionizing radiation field, since
photons that are emitted inwards tend to travel without being absorbed until they reach
the symmetrical point relative to the central source. The great advantage of this approx-
imation is that it allows the computation of a model without having to iterate over the
entire volume of the nebula. The code photo, used by Stasińska, and the code NEBU,
used by Péquignot and by Morisset, are based on this approximation. The code CLOUDY,
by Ferland, uses the outward-only approximation in a radial-only mode. It appears, from
comparisons of benchmark models (e.g. Péquignot et al. 2001), that the global results
of models constructed with codes that treat the transfer of diffuse radiation completely
(e.g. the code NEBULA by Rubin) are quite similar. Note that the full outward-only
approximation allows one to compute the ionizing radiation field in the shadows from
optically thick clumps by artificially suppressing the stellar radiation field blocked by the
clump.
Codes treating the transfer of ionizing continuum photons exactly, iterating over the
entire nebula, interestingly appeared also at the beginning of the era of photoionization
codes (Harrington 1968, Rubin 1968). At that time, computers were slow and had lit-
tle memory, and only spherical or plane-parallel geometries could be treated by such
codes.
With the present computational capacities, one can do much better and treat the
transfer problem accurately for any geometry, by using Monte Carlo methods. The first
such code is MOCASSIN, by Ercolano (see Ercolano et al. 2003). One advantage of Monte
Carlo methods is that they allow one to treat the transfer accurately also in extremely
dusty nebulae (Ercolano et al. 2005), while the outward-only approximation breaks down
in such cases.

†
This property is formally true only for a pure-hydrogen nebula, but it so happens that
absorption by helium and subsequent recombination produces line photons that ionize hydrogen
and compensate rather well for the photons absorbed by helium.
6 G. Stasińska
The transfer of resonance-line radiation produced in the nebula is the most difficult
to treat accurately, at least in classical approaches to the transfer. This is because it is
generally treated in the “escape-probability” approximation. The effect of line transfer
is crucial in optically thick X-ray plasmas such as the central regions of active galactic
nuclei (AGNs). The code TITAN by Dumont treats the transfer of line radiation in an
“exact” manner, using the “accelerated lambda iteration” method (Dumont et al. 2003).

1.2.2.3 The non-ionizing lines emitted by the nebula

In general, non-ionizing photons in dust-free nebulae escape as soon as they have been
emitted (except perhaps in AGNs, where column densities are higher). Resonance lines
constitute an exception: they may be trapped a long time in the nebula, due to multiple
scattering by atoms that, under nebular conditions, are predominantly in their ground
levels.
In dusty objects, line photons suffer absorption and scattering by dust grains on their
path out of the nebula. Resonance lines, whose path length can be multiplied by enormous
factors due to atomic scattering, are then preferentially affected by dust extinction. Their
observed luminosities then represent only a lower limit to the total energy produced by
these lines.
Another case where the diagnostic potential is expected to be reduced due to transfer
effects is that of infrared fine-structure lines of abundant ions, such as [O iii] λ88, 52 µm,
which can become optically thick in massive H ii regions (Rubin 1978). However, due to a
combination of independent reasons, this appears not to be the case even in the extreme
situations explored by Abel et al. (2003).

1.3. Empirical diagnostics based on emission lines

1.3.1 Electron temperature and density
It is well known, and mentioned in all textbooks, that some line ratios (e.g. the ratios of
the lines labelled A1 and N2 in Table 1.11 in the appendix) are strongly dependent on
the temperature, since they have different excitation energies. If the critical densities for
collisional de-excitations are larger than the density in the medium under study, these
line ratios depend only on the temperature and are ideal temperature indicators. The
most frequently used is the [O iii] λ4363/5007 ratio.
On the other hand, in collisionally excited lines that arise from levels of similar excita-
tion energies, their ratios depend only on the density. The commonest density indicator in
the optical is the [S ii] λ6716/6731 ratio. Other ones can easily be found by browsing
in Table 1.11. Rubin (1989) gives a convenient list of optical and infrared line-density
indicators showing the density range where each of them is useful.
Similar plasma diagnostics are now available in the X-ray region (Porquet & Dubau
2000, Delahaye et al. 2006, see also Porter & Ferland 2006).

1.3.2 Ionic and elemental abundances

There are basically four methods to derive the chemical composition of ionized nebulae.
The first one, generally thought to be the “royal way”, is through tailored photoionization
modelling. The second is by comparison of given objects with a grid of models. These
two methods will be discussed in the next section. In this section, which deals with
purely empirical methods, we will discuss the other two: direct methods, which obtain an
abundance using information directly from the spectra, and statistical methods, which
use relations obtained from families of objects.
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