BUILDING BLOCKS OF A ROBOT

2.7 Robot Sensors

Sensors are devices for sensing and measuring geometric and physical properties of robots and the
surrounding environment
– Position, orientation, velocity, acceleration
– Distance, size
– Force, moment
– Temperature, luminance, weight

2.7.1 Desirable features of Sensors:

1. Accuracy
Accuracy should be high. How close output to the true value is the accuracy of the
device.
2. Precision
There should not be any variations in the sensed output over a period of time precisionof
the sensor should be high.
3. Operating Range
Sensor should have wide range of operation and should be accurate and precise over this
entire range.
4. Speed of Response
Should be capable of responding to the changes in the sensed variable in minimum time.
5. Calibration
Sensor should be easy to calibrate time and trouble required to calibrate should be
minimum. It should not require frequent recalibration.
6. Reliability
It should have high reliability. Frequent failure should not happen.
7. Cost and Ease of operation
Cost should be as low as possible, installation, operation and maintenance should be
easy and should not required skilled or highly trained persons.

Examples of Sensors:
Potentiometers
Thermocouples, thermistors.
Strain gauge
Load cell
Infrared sensors
LVDT
Pyrometers
Pizeo electric devices
Pressure Transducers
Vision and voice sensors.
 Robotic Sensors

Static Sensors Environmental Sensors

Force, Position, Velocity, Motion,Force,Torque
Acceleration touch,tactile

Contact Sensors Non Contact Sensors

Force, temperature, PH Vision, optical, range,
Chemical

There are generally two categories of sensors used in robotics; these are for internal
purposes, and those for external purposes. Internal sensors are used to monitor and control
the various joints of the robot; they form a feedback control loop with the robot controller.
Examples of internal sensors include potentiometers and optical encoders, while tachometers
of various types can be deployed to control the speed of the robot arm. External sensors are
external to the robot itself, and are used when we wish to controlthe operations of the
robotwith other pieces of equipment in the robotic work cell. External sensors can be relatively
simple devices, such as limit switches that determine whether a part has been positioned
properly, or whether a part is ready to be picked up from an unloading bay.

ROBOTIC SENSORS For certain robot application, the type of workstation control
using interlocks is not adequate the robot must take on more human like senses and
capabilities in order to perform the task in a satisfactory way these senses and capability
includes vision and hand eye coordination, touch, hearing accordingly we will dived the types
of sensors used in robotics into the following three categories.
A number of advanced sensor technologies may also be used; these are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1: Advanced sensor technologies for robotics

Sensor Type Description

Used to determine whether contact is made between sensor and another

object. Two types: touch sensors—which indicate when contact is made, and
Tactile sensors
no more; and force sensors—which indicate the magnitude of the forcewith
the object.

Used to determine how close an object is to the sensor. Also called a range
Proximity sensors
sensor.

Photocells and other photometric devices that are used to detect the presence
Optical sensors or absence of objects. Often used in conjunction to proximity sensors.

Used in robotics for inspection, parts identification, guidance, and other

Machine vision
uses.

Miscellaneous category of sensors may also be used; including devices for

Others measuring: temperature, fluid pressure, fluid flow, electrical voltage,
current, and other physical properties.

2.7.2 Range sensor:

Ranging sensors include sensors that require no physical contact with the object being
detected. They allow a robot to see an obstacle without actually having to come into contact
with it. This can prevent possible entanglement, allow for better obstacle avoidance (over
touch- feedback methods), and possibly allow software to distinguish between obstacles of
different shapes and sizes. There are several methods used to allow a sensor to detect obstacles
from a distance.

Light-based ranging sensors use multiple methods for detecting obstacles and
determining range. The simplest method uses the intensity of the reflected light from an
obstacle to estimate distance. However, this can be significantly affected by the
color/reflectivity of the obstacle and external light sources. A more common method is touse
a beam of light projectedat an angle and a strip of detectors spaced away from the emitter as in
the animation to the right. The pictured Sharp sensor uses this method. This method is less
affected by the color/reflectivity of the object and ambient light.
 LIDAR, a more advanced method of range detection, uses a laser that is swept across
the sensor's field of view. The reflected laser light is usually analyzed one of two ways. Units
with longer ranges sometimes actually determine distance by measuring the time it takes for
the laser pulse to return to the sensor. This requires extremely fast timing circuitry.
Another method uses phase shift detection to determine range by analyzing the incoming
light and comparing it toa reference signal.
Working principle
– Triangulation: Use the triangle formed by the travelling path of the signal to calculate the
distance
Time-of-flight: Use the time of flight of the signals to measure the distance
Typical range sensors
– Infra-red range sensor (triangulation)
– Ultrasonic sensors (time-of-flight)
– Laser range sensor (triangulation)
Ultrasonic Sensors
Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to 20kHz)
– Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is detected.
– Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor
D=v*t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of propagation (340 m/s)
t = elapsed time
Applications:
– Distance Measurement
– Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the proximity of objects surrounding the robot)
Limitations of Ultrasonic Sensors
• Background noises: If there are other ultrasonic sources, the sensor may detect signals emitted
by another source.
• The speed of sound varies with air temperature and pressure – a 16 degree centigrade
temperature change can cause a 30cm error at 10m!
• Cross-talk problem: If a robot has more than one ultrasonic sensor, measurement ranges
intersect, a sensor may receive signals emitted by others.
• Poor surface reflection: Surface materials absorb ultrasonic waves.
• Surface orientation affects the reflection of ultrasonic signals.
2.7.3 Tactile sensor
Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond to contact forces
between itself and other objects within its work volume. Tactile sensors can be divided into
twotypes:
1. Touch sensors
2. Stress sensors
Touch sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact has been made with an
object. A simple micro switch can serve the purpose of a touch sensor. Stress sensors are
used to measure the magnitude of the contact force. Strain gauge devices are typically
employed in force measuring sensors. Potential use of robots with tactile sensing capabilities
would be in assembly and inspection operations. In assembly, the robot could perform
delicate part alignment and joining operations. In inspection, touch sensing would be used
in gaugingoperations and dimensional measuring activities.

2.7.4 Proximity sensor

Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close to another object. On a
robot, the proximity sensors would be located n or near the end effectors. This sensing
capability can be engineered by means of optical proximity devices, eddy-current proximity
detectors, magnetic field sensors, or other devices. In robotics, proximity sensorsmight be
used to indicate the presence or absence of a work part or other object. They could also be
helpful in preventing injury to the robots human coworkers in the factory.

2.7.5 Optical or Infrared Light-Based sensors

This is one of the areas that is receiving a lot of attention in robotics research
computerized visions systems will be an important technology in future automated factories.
Robot vision is made possible by means of video camera a sufficient light source and
acomputer programmed to process image data. The camera is mounted either on the robot
or in a fixed position above the robot so that its field of vision includes the robots
work volume. The computer software enables the vision system to sense the presence of an
object and its position and orientation. Vision capability would enable the robot to carry out
the following kinds of operations. Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented on a conveyor
Recognize particular parts which are intermixed with other objects Perform assembly
operations which requirealignment.
Another very popular method uses projected light waves, usually infrared, to detect
obstacles. This system projects a pulse of light and looks for the reflection. Properties of the
reflected light are analyzed to determine characteristics about the object detected. Light has
the advantages of traveling extremely fast, allowing for fast sensor response time, high
resolution, and less error to account for. Light from this type of sensor is often formed into
a narrow beam or many times a laser is used. This provides good resolution over large
distances.

2.7.6 Proximity sensors

The simplest light-based obstacle sensor projects a light and looks for a reflection of
certain strength. If the reflection is strong enough, it can be inferred that an obstacle lies within
a certain range of the sensor. Multiple light sources can be pulsed on in sequence to give some
resolution to the sensor as in the figures.

2.7.7 Voice sensors

Another area of robotics research is voice sensing or voice programming. Voice
programming can be defined as the oral communication of commands to the robot or other
machine. The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition system which analyzes
the voice input and compares it with a set of stored word patterns when a match isfound
between the input and the stored vocabulary word the robot performs some actions which
corresponds to the word. Voice sensors could be useful in robot programming to speed up
the programming procedure just as it does in NC programming. It would also be beneficial
in especially in hazardous working environments for performing unique operations such as
maintenance and repair work. The robot could be placed in hazardous environment and
remotely commanded to perform the repair chores by means of step by step instructions.

Internal sensor
Internal sensors measure the robot's internal state. They are used to measure its position,
velocityand acceleration.
2.7.8 Position sensor

Position sensors measure the position of a joint (the degree to which the joint is extended).
Theyinclude:
 Encoder: a digital optical device that converts motion into a sequence of digital pulses.

 Potentiometer: a variable resistance device that expresses linear or angular displacements

in terms of voltage.

 Linear variable differential transformer: a displacement transducer that provides high

accuracy. It generates an AC signal whose magnitude is a function of the displacement
ofa moving core.

 Synchronous and Resolvers

2.7.9 Velocity Sensor

A velocity or speed sensor measures consecutive position measurements at known

intervals andcomputes the time rate of change in the position values.

2.7.10 Acceleration Sensors:

Accelerometer

An accelerometer measures acceleration (change in speed) of anything that it's

mounted on. How does it work? Inside an accelerator MEMS device are tiny micro- structures
that bend due to momentum and gravity. When it experiences any form of acceleration, these
tiny structures bend by an equivalent amount which can be electrically detected. Today,
accelerometers are easily and cheaply available, making it a very viable sensor for cheap
roboticshobbyists like you and me
 Applications for Accelerometers are very important in the sensor world because they
can sense such a wide range of motion. They're used in the latest Apple Power books (and
other laptops) to detect when the computer's suddenly moved or tipped, so the hard drive can
be lockedup during movement. They're used in cameras, to control image stabilization
functions. They're used in pedometers, gait meters, and other exercise and physical therapy
devices. They're used ingaming controls to generate tilt data. They're used in automobiles, to
control airbag release when there's a sudden stop. There are countless other applications for
them.

Possible uses for accelerometers in robotics:

 Self balancing robots
 Tilt-mode game controllers
 Model airplane auto pilot
 Alarm systems
 Collision detection
 Human motion monitoring
 Leveling sensor, inclinometer
 Vibration Detectors for Vibration Isolators
 G-Force Detectors

Axis of acceleration

The tiny micro-structures can only measure force in a single direction, or axis of
acceleration. This means with a single axis measured, you can only know the force in either
the X, Y, or Z directions, but not all. So if say your X-axis accelerometer endowed robot was
running around and ran into a wall (in the X direction). Your robot could detect this
collision.But if say another robot rammed into it from the side (the Y direction), your robot
would be oblivious to it. There are many other situations where a single axis would not be
enough. It is always a good idea to have at least 2 axes (more than one axis).
Gravity

Gravity is acceleration. Your accelerometer will always be subject to a -9.81 m/s^2

acceleration (negative means towards the ground). Because of this, your robot can detect what
angle it is in respect to gravity. If your robot is a biped, and you want it to always remain
balanced and standing up, just simply use a 2-axis accelerometer. As long as the X and Y axes
detect zero acceleration, this means your robot device is perfectly level and balanced.

Accelerometers, Rated G When you buy your accelerometer, you will notice it saying
something like 'rated at 2g' or '3g accelerometer.' This is the maximum g force your sensor
can report. Gravity accelerates objects at 1g, or 9.81 m/s^2. For example, if your robot is
moving at 1g upwards, then that means you sensor will detect 2g. For most robotics
applications a 2g rating will be fine. So why not just get the highest rating possible? The lower
the rating, the more sensitive it will be to changes in motion. You will always have a finer
tuned sensor the lower the rating. But then again, more sensitive sensors are more affected by
vibration interference.
Chances are you would have no need to measure the force, but if you reverse the
equation youcan calculate the angle by knowing the angleAvailability and cost.
The MEMS IC's are easily available and very affordable. However they all require
support circuitry and come as surface mounts. I highly discourage buying an IC and doing
your own wiring. However there are many already setup accelerometer packages you can buy.
For example, Dimension Engineering has a great plug and play dual axis accelerometerwhich
requires no additional support circuitry. There are several other great sensors out there, some
as a3-axis, and now some even with built in rotation sensor.

Wiring Requirements Any accelerometer package will have a power and ground
line, anda single output analog pin for each axis of acceleration. Some of the sensors come
with additional features/pins, read their datasheets. Additional Tips and Uses Placing an
accelerometer on a mobile robot that experiences bumps can trigger the accelerometer
unintentionally. Use a capacitor to smooth out output over several hundred milliseconds
(testing required) to prevent this. Also, read the interpret sensor data tutorial to enhance your
accelerator sensor accuracy.

2.7.11 Touch, Force, Torque:

A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from physical interaction
with its environment. Tactile sensors are generally modeled after the biological sense of
coetaneous touch which is capable of detecting stimuli resulting from mechanical stimulation,
temperature, and pain (although pain sensing is not common in
 artificial tactile sensors). Tactile sensors are used in robotics, computer hardware and security
systems. A common application of tactile sensors is in touch screen devices on mobile phones
and computing.
Tactile sensors may be of different types including piezoresistive, piezoelectric,
capacitive and elasto-resistive sensors
Force Sensors (Force Transducers) There are many types of force sensors, usually
referred to as torque cells (to measure torque) and load cells (to measure force).

Force transducers are devices useful in directly measuring torques and forces within your
mechanical system. In order to get the most benefit from a force transducer, you must have
a basic understanding of the technology, construction, and operation of this unique device.
Forces can be measured by measuring the deflection of an elastic element.
Strain gauges: Most common sensing elements of force. It converts the deformation to the change of
its resistance. Gauge resistance varies from 30 to 3K, corresponding to deformation from 30µm to 100 µm.
Shaft torque is measured with strain gauges mounted on a shaft with specially designed cross-
section.
2.7.12 Position Measurement
• An optical encoder is to measure the rotational angle of a motor shaft.
• It consists of a light beam, a light detector, and a rotating disc with a radial grating on its surface.
• The grating consists of black lines separated by clear spaces. The widths of the lines and spaces are the
same.
– Line: cut the beam and hence a low signal output
– Space: allow the beam to pass and hence a high signal output
• A train of pulses is generated with rotation of the disc.
By counting the pulses, it is possible to know the rotational angle.