AFRICAN JOURNAL OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS Open Access

https://doi.org/10.58460/ajnd.v4i01.147

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Sociodemographic and Dietary Determinants of Oral Health Among the

Elderly: A Cross-Sectional Study in Batouri District, Cameroon
Claude EUGÈNE EBEH1,2,3*, Chantal BAYA NGONDONG4, François ETOTOGO4,5, Gustave MABIAMA2,4,5,6

Authors’ Affiliation
To read this paper
1 Agro-Environmental Analysis Laboratory, Doctoral Training online, please scan
Unit in Engineering Sciences, Doctoral School, University of the QR code below:
Ebolowa, Cameroon. Article History
2 Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Higher Teachers
Training College for Technical Education, University of Submitted: 9th April 2025
Ebolowa, Cameroon.
3 Department of Food Science and Nutrition (FSN), University Accepted: 31st July 2025
of Ngaoundéré, Cameroon. Published Online: 9th August 2025
4 Department of Social and Family Economics, Advanced
Teachers Training College for Technical Education Normal
School of Technical Education, University of Douala,
Cameroon.
5 Process Engineering Laboratory, Doctoral Training Unit in
Engineering Sciences, Doctoral School of Fundamental and
Applied Sciences, University of Douala, Cameroon.
6 Unit of Physiology and Medicine of Physical and Sports
Activities (UPM-APS+), University of Douala, Cameroon.

*Corresponding Author: ebehrodrigue53gmail.com / ebehrodrigue431gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Global aging brings physiological and psychological changes that often result in poor oral health. Common conditions
among the elderly, such as caries, gingivitis, and edentulism, impair chewing and increase the risk of malnutrition. In
Batouri, Cameroon, these problems are further aggravated by socio-demographic factors and dietary habits. This study
aimed to investigate the association between dietary habits, socio-demographic determinants, and oral health among
older adults in this region. A community-based cross-sectional study was carried out from February 22 to June 22, 2020,
involving 410 individuals aged 60 and above. Data collection combined a structured questionnaire covering demographic
characteristics, dietary habits, and oral health status with oral examinations and interviews. Additionally, the Food
Diversity Score (FDS), an indicator of food variety, was assessed. Statistical analysis employed the chi-square test with a
significance threshold of p = 0.05. The results revealed that age, gender, and education significantly influenced oral health
outcomes (p = 0.001). Specifically, gingivitis was most frequent among participants aged 66–70 (19.5%), while caries was
more prevalent in the 71–75 (9.3%) and 81+ (15.9%) age groups. Edentulism peaked at 15.9% in individuals aged 81 and
over. Gender differences were evident, with women exhibiting higher rates of gingivitis (36.6%) and caries (16.1%),
whereas men showed more cases of edentulism (17.6%). Moreover, uneducated individuals were disproportionately
affected by gingivitis (39.5%) and caries (13.7%). A low FDS correlated with a higher prevalence of gingivitis (40%), and
caries was common (45.9%) among those consuming sweet products three times per week. These findings underscore a
strong link between oral health, dietary patterns, and socio-demographic factors in the elderly population of Batouri.
Consequently, targeted community-based oral health programs that address local dietary habits and socio-demographic
profiles are recommended, emphasizing nutrition education, improved access to dental care, and culturally sensitive
preventive measures.
Keywords: Demographics, Dietary Habits, Oral Health, Batouri, Elderly

How to Cite this paper: EBEH, C. E., NGONDONG, C. B., MABIAMA, G., & ETOTOGO, F. (2025). Links Between Demographic
Parameters, Eating Habits, and Oral Health Among Elderly People: A Cross-Sectional Descriptive Study in the Batouri District,
Cameroon. African Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics, 4(01). https://doi.org/10.58460/ajnd.v4i01.147

This open access article is published by MJ&M Biolabs, Kenya © 2025 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a
Creative Commons Attribution (CC- BY-NC-SA) license.
 Vol. 4 No. 01 (2025): African Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics (AJND)
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INTRODUCTION In view of the above, this study aimed to

examine the association between dietary habits,
Population aging is a global phenomenon that
sociodemographic determinants, and oral
leads to physiological, psychological, and social
health(gingivitis, dental caries, edentulism)
changes. According to the World Health
among older adults in the Batouri district,
Organization (WHO), a person is considered
Cameroon.
elderly from the age of 60 onwards (Bréchat et al.,
2008). With the increase in life expectancy, the
threshold for advanced age has been raised to 60– METHODS
65 years in Cameroon (Mabiama, 2022). Although
aging is a natural process, it impairs physiological Study Design
and psychological functions, thereby affecting This study was designed as a descriptive cross-
functional capacities (Mabiama, 2022). This sectional survey. It aimed to assess the
process is influenced by various factors, including association between dietary habits, socio-
nutrition, but also physiological factors demographic factors, and oral health status
(deterioration of bodily functions), psychological among older adults.
factors (cognitive or emotional disorders), and
social factors (isolation, loss of status), which Study Setting
interact and affect overall aging (Mabiama, 2022 ;
Bréchat et al., 2008). Oral health among older The research was conducted in the Batouri
adults is of particular concern due to its direct district, located in the East region of Cameroon.
impact on nutrition. Oral pathologies such as This predominantly rural area includes several
dental caries, gingivitis, and edentulism impair villages and neighborhoods such as Pana-Selo,
chewing function and may lead to swallowing Yoko, Vallé, Tassongo, Taparé, Nyabi, Njira II,
difficulties, loss of appetite, and an increased risk Nguemo I and II, and Ngoura II. Batouri was
of malnutrition (Chauva, 2021). With age, reduced selected based on its accessibility and the
salivation, the use of dental prostheses, and absence of recent data on the oral health of its
gingival inflammation exacerbate these problems elderly population. Data were collected over a
(Chauva, 2021). four-month period, from February 22 to June
22, 2020 (Pereira et al., 2023).
Oral diseases are a major global public health issue,
affecting around 3.5 billion people (Kassebaum et Study Population
al.,2017), 75% of whom live in low-income and The target population consisted of individuals
developing countries reference. Caries affects 60% aged 60 years and above, living at home in the
to 90% of children and 90% to 92% of adults, while Batouri district. Eligible participants were those
periodontitis affects 5% to 20% of the global capable of understanding the questions and
population(Kassebaum et al., 2017). In Africa, the providing informed consent.
number of people affected has increased
significantly, reaching 480 million, which is about Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
55% of the continent’s population (Williams et al., Inclusion criteria were: (i) age ≥ 60 years, (ii)
2021; Kassebaum et al., 2017). In Cameroon, the residence in one of the selected villages, (iii)
prevalence of dental caries and periodontal diseases ability to respond to the questionnaire, and (iv)
is estimated at 29.90% and 39.20%, respectively provision of informed consent. Exclusion
(Dieng et al., 2016 ; Boukeng et al., 2024). criteria included institutionalized individuals,
those with significant cognitive impairments,
Nutrition plays a key role in maintaining health and those unable to participate in the survey.
throughout life, especially in older adults. Age-
related physiological changes, such as reduced
appetite and decreased senses of taste and smell,
Sample Size Determination
often lead to poor dietary intake (Alhousseny et al., The minimum sample size was calculated using
2024). These issues are exacerbated by oral health the following formula:
problems, contributing to malnutrition and
increased morbidity and mortality (Bert & N=(Z1−α/2√p(1−P)/d)²
Bodineau-Mobarak, 2010). In Cameroon, the Where:
prevalence of malnutrition among older adults is i. Z (1−α/2) =1.96 (95 % confidence level),
estimated at 19.70% (Mabiama, 2022). In this ii. p = 0.5916, representing the prevalence of
context, it is crucial to examine the relationship dental caries reported by Boukeng et al., (2024),
between oral health and dietary habits of older in a comparable rural population in Benin ;
adults, particularly in specific regions such as the iii. 𝑑 = 0.05, acceptable margin of error.
Batouri district, where available data are extremely In the absence of recent local data, this
limited or even nonexistent. This knowledge gap prevalence was retained as a reference. An
prevents a thorough understanding of the local increase of 10 % was applied to anticipate
factors influencing oral health and complicates the refusals, dropouts, or missing data, resulting in a
implementation of appropriate prevention and final sample size of 410 participants. No finite
intervention strategies. population correction was applied.
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Sampling Method RESULTS

Systematic sampling was applied in the selected Demographic Characteristics of Study
villages. A door-to-door approach was used,
starting from the residence of the neighborhood Participants
chief (Messiah et al., 2014), following WHO- The socio-demographic characteristics analyzed
recommended community-based protocols. If a included age, sex, and level of education. Table 1
household was unavailable or declined summarizes the associations between these
participation, the next eligible household was demographic factors and oral pathological
approached. The overall response rate was conditions (gingivitis, dental caries, and
estimated at 90%. edentulism) among the study participants. Age
was highly significantly associated with oral
Data Collection Tools and Pretest health status (p = 0.001). Gingivitis was most
frequent among individuals aged 66–70 years
Data collection relied on a validated structured (19.51%), followed by those aged 60–65 (18.55%)
questionnaire, pretested on 20 elderly individuals and 76–80 (12.94%), while it was absent in older
from the village of Vallé. The pretest assessed the age brackets. Edentulism increased sharply after
clarity and consistency of questions and led to the age of 70, reaching 5.37% in the 71–75 age
minor adjustments. This number was considered group and 15.85% among participants aged 81
sufficient according to methodological guidelines and older. Dental caries followed an irregular
(Frégeau, 2023). pattern, peaking in the 71–75 (9.27%) and 81+
(15.85%) groups. These patterns indicate that
The questionnaire covered demographic aging is strongly linked to deteriorating oral
characteristics, dietary habits, and oral health health, particularly in the form of edentulism.
status. A clinical oral examination was performed
by a qualified dentist with over ten years of Sex was also significantly associated with oral
community experience, using the method described health (p = 0.001). Women showed a higher
by Bert & Bodineau-Mobarak, (2010) to identify prevalence of gingivitis (36.59%) and dental
dental caries, gingivitis, and tooth loss. caries (16.10%) compared to men (14.38% and
4.88%, respectively). In contrast, men were more
A 24-hour dietary recall was also conducted affected by edentulism (17.56%) than women
following FAO recommendations to calculate the (10.49%). These differences may reflect sex-
Food Diversity Score (FDS). According to Diarra specific behaviors, hormonal variations, or
(2023), the FDS was categorized as: disparities in access to oral care.
i. Low: ≤ 3 food groups
ii. Medium: 4–5 food groups Educational level had a strong association with
iii. High: ≥ 6 food groups oral pathologies (p = 0.001). Participants
without formal education experienced the
Data Analysis highest rates of gingivitis (39.50%) and dental
Data were entered into Excel 2016 and analyzed caries (13.68%), while those with primary or
using SPSS version 20. Descriptive statistics secondary education had substantially lower
summarized the variables. Chi-square tests were levels of oral diseases. Individuals with higher
used to assess associations between qualitative education showed the lowest prevalence of
variables, with significance set at p < 0.05. No gingivitis (8.30%) and dental caries (3.21%),
multivariate analysis was conducted. although their edentulism rate remained
moderate (8.28%). These findings highlight the
Ethical Considerations protective influence of education, likely through
Ethical clearance was obtained from the improved health literacy and healthcare access.
Institutional Ethics Committee for Research on
Human Health of the University of Douala
(approval number 1668CEI-UDo/02/2020/T, dated
February 2, 2020). Written informed consent was
obtained from all participants. For illiterate
individuals, verbal consent was given in the
presence of a witness. Anonymity and
confidentiality were ensured. Participants received
oral health feedback following the examination.

Table 1:
Associations Between Demographic Characteristics and Oral Pathological Conditions
Gingivitis Dental caries Edentulism Total
Variables / Modalities P-values
(%) (%) (%) (n)
Ages (years) [60-65] 18.55% 8.78% 3.16% 125

] 66-70] 19.51% 0.00% 2.44% 90

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249

] 71-75] 0.00% 9.27% 5.37% 60

] 76-80] 12.94% 0.00% 4.09% 70

0,001
81 and older 0.00% 15.85% 0.06% 65

Total 50.98% 33.90% 15.12% 410

Sex Female 36.59% 16.10% 10.49% 260

Male 14.38% 4.88% 17.56% 150 0,001

Total 50.97% 20.98% 28.05% 410

Level of No
education 39.50% 13.68% 8.56% 253
education

Primary 5.76% 5.38% 1.54% 52

0,001
Secondary 3.86% 1.53% 0.40% 24

Higher 8.30% 3.21% 8.28% 81

Total 57.42% 23.80% 18.78% 410

Source: Field survey, Batouri, 2020.

Eating habits
The variables analyzed in Table 2 include the Food However, caries prevalence sharply increased
Diversity Score (FDS) and the frequency of with frequent sweet product consumption,
sweetened product consumption per week. Both reaching 45.85% among individuals consuming
variables showed statistically significant sweets three times per week. Edentulism was also
associations with oral pathological conditions (p- highest (48.05%) in this group, suggesting a
value = 0.001 < 0.05). Gingivitis appeared more strong association between high sweet intake
frequently in individuals with low FDS (40.00%) and poor oral health. Similarly, edentulism was
and high FDS (38.53%), suggesting that both higher in individuals with medium and high FDS
dietary insufficiency and excessive dietary variety, (5.00%) and was particularly elevated in those
possibly linked to the consumption of processed with high sweet intake. These findings highlight
foods, may be associated with poor oral hygiene. the dual impact of diet quality and sugar
Dental caries were relatively rare across all Food consumption on oral health, emphasizing the
Diversity Score (FDS) groups, ranging from 2.00% role of nutritional education and hygiene
to 3.09%. interventions.
Table 2:
Associations Between Food Diversity Score, Sweet Product Consumption, and Oral Pathological
Conditions
Gingivitis Dental Edentulism
Variables / Modalities Total (n) P-values
(%) caries (%) (%)
FDS Low FDS 40.00% 2.00% 0.00% 173

Medium FDS 3.38% 3.00 % 5.00% 46

0,001
High FDS 38.53% 3.09 % 5.00% 191

Total 81.91% 8.09 % 10.00% 410

Frequency of 1 time (F)/week

consumption 0.00% 0.00% 1.46% 6
(S)
of sweet
products 2 times/week (S) 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0

3 times/week (S) 0.00% 45.85% 48.00% 385 0,001

More than 3
1.46% 1.23% 1.95% 19
times/week (S)

Total 1.46% 47.08% 51.46% 410

Source: Field survey, Batouri, 2020.
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250

DISCUSSION (demonstrating that higher education promotes

Our results show that age, sex, education level, better oral hygiene and greater dental care
and dietary habits significantly influence oral utilization. Interestingly, individuals with
primary education have a low prevalence of
health in the elderly population studied. These gingivitis (5.76%) but moderate caries prevalence
findings largely align with existing literature, while (5.38%), which may reflect partial access to
also revealing local specificities that warrant dental care, allowing treatment of some but not
further analysis. all conditions.
The age-stratified analysis reveals a progressive Oral health also appears linked to dietary
decrease in gingivitis prevalence with increasing diversity. Gingivitis prevalence is high in both
age: 18.55% among 60-65 years, 19.51% among low Food Diversity Score (FDS) groups (40%)
66-70 years, then dropping to 0% among 71-75 and high FDS groups (38.53%), while very low
years and those 81 and older (p = 0.001). This in medium FDS individuals (3.38%) (p = 0.001).
trend is consistent with Petersen & Yamamoto, This pattern suggests that both limited and
(2005), who explain the decrease by progressive excessive dietary variety may be associated with
tooth loss in older individuals, making gingivitis gingivitis risk through different mechanisms:
less observable. Additionally, edentulism micronutrient deficiencies on one side and high
prevalence increases after age 70, peaking at intake of cariogenic foods on the other (Diarra,
2023 ; Henricsson et al., 2024). Edentulism is
5.37% among 71-75 years and remaining high in more frequent in medium (5%) and high (5%)
the 76-80 years group (4.09%) (p = 0.001). These FDS groups, aligning with Peres et al., (2019)
figures confirm the cumulative impact of who emphasize the role of an unbalanced diet in
periodontal diseases and untreated caries on tooth tooth loss. Caries prevalence, however, does not
loss with advancing age. significantly vary by FDS, consistent with
Moynihan & Petersen, (2004), who indicate that
A noteworthy point is the distribution of dental sugar exposure frequency and quantity are more
caries: while literature (Thomson & Locker, 2000) critical in caries risk.
generally reports a decline in caries among older
adults due to tooth loss, our data indicate an Indeed, frequent consumption of sugary
increase in caries among 71–75-year-olds (9.27%) products is strongly associated with increased
and especially in those 81 and older (15.85%). This caries, with 45.85% caries prevalence among
discrepancy may be explained by limited access to those consuming sweets three times per week (p
dental care or cariogenic dietary habits in our = 0.001). This association is well documented
population. This contrast highlights the (Bernabé et al., 2014 ; Sheiham & James, 2015)
and highlights the importance of dietary habits
importance of studying local contexts to better in prevention. Regarding gingivitis, the effect of
understand disease dynamics. sugar consumption is less clear: it is almost
absent among consumers of sweets three times
Regarding sex differences, gingivitis prevalence is per week (0%) but slightly present among those
significantly higher in women (36.59%) than men consuming once or more than three times weekly
(14.38%) (p = 0.001), as is caries prevalence (1.46%). This aligns with Eke et al., (2012) and
(16.10% vs. 4.88%). These results align with Henricsson et al., (2024), who show gingivitis is
Thomson & Locker, (2000), attributing the female more related to oral hygiene and plaque
predominance to hormonal factors (pregnancy, formation than sugar intake per se.
menopause) and certain dietary behaviors
favoring caries formation. Conversely, unlike Eke Finally, a slight increase in edentulism is
et al., (2012), who found higher edentulism observed in heavy sugar consumers (>3
prevalence among women, our study observes times/week: 1.95%), supporting Peres et al.,
higher edentulism in men (17.56%) compared to (2019) and Hujoel & Lingström, (2017)
women (10.49%) with significant difference (p = conclusions on the link between excessive free
sugar consumption, irreversible dental lesions,
0.001). This discrepancy might be due to and extraction risk.
sociocultural specifics and differential access to
dental care in our setting, highlighting the role of This study highlights the impact of age, sex,
social and behavioral determinants. education, and diet on oral health, revealing
local patterns such as unusual caries distribution
Our results clearly show education level as a in the elderly and gender differences in
protective factor. Individuals without formal edentulism. These may stem from factors like
education exhibit the highest rates of gingivitis diet quality, fluoride exposure, and limited
39.50%) and caries (13.68%), whereas those with dental care. The findings call for targeted
secondary education show the lowest rates (3.86% prevention strategies focused on hygiene
gingivitis and 1.53% caries) (p = 0.001). These education, reduced sugar intake, and better
findings concur with Peres et al., (2019) and access to care for vulnerable groups.
Sanders & Spencer, (2004),
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251

Conclusion Conflict of Interest

The results show that age, gender, and level of Authors declare no conflict of interest.
education significantly influence oral health.
Edentulism increases with age, while gingivitis is
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