Unit 4

Digital Electronics
Introduction

The term digital has become part of our everyday vocabulary because of
the dramatic way that digital techniques have become so widely used in almost
all areas of life: computers, automation, robots, medical science and
technology, transportation, entertainment, space exploration, and so on. Digital
term is derived from the way the circuits perform operations by counting
digits. It can apply to decimal numbers or any number system. Digital systems
are systems that process discrete information. Discrete means distinct or
separate or non-continuous manner.

Numerical Representation

The quantities that are to be measured, monitored, recorded, processed and

controlled may be analog or digital, depending on the type of system used. It is
important that when dealing with various quantities which represent their values
efficiently and accurately. There are basically two ways of representing the
numerical value of quantities:

 Analog representation
 Digital representation

Analog signal

Systems which are capable of processing a continuous range of values varying

with respect to time are called analog systems. A signal which can vary over a
continuous range of values between minimum and maximum is called analog
signal. In analog representation a quantity is represented by a voltage, current or
meter movement that is proportional to the value of that quantity. Fig. 4.1(a) and
fig. 4.1(b) represents analog signals.

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Representation of analog voltage
v

t Triangular Wave
Fig. 4.1(a)

Sinusoidal wave
Fig. 4.1(b)

Digital signal

Systems which process discrete values are called digital systems. A signal
which can have only two distinct values is called digital signal. Digital signals
are generated by using pulse generator. Fig. 4.2 represents a digital signal.

Representation of digital voltage

1
5V

0 Square Wave
0V t

Fig.4.2: Digital Signal

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Importance of Digital Electronics

 Easier to design.
 Information storage is easy.
 Accuracy and precision are greater.
 Operations can be programmed.
 Digital circuits are less affected by noise, as long as the noise is not large
enough to prevent us from distinguishing HIGH from LOW.
 More digital circuitry can be fabricated on IC chips.

Limitations of Digital Techniques

Most physical quantities in real world are analog in nature. These quantities are
often the inputs and outputs that are being monitored, operated on, and controlled
by a system. Thus conversion to digital format and reconversion to analog format
is necessary.

Binary representation

Digital electronics today involves circuits that have exactly two possible states.
A signal having only two states is said to be binary (bi means “two”). The binary
system has two symbols 0 and 1.

The operation of an electronic circuit can be described in terms of its voltage

levels. In the case of digital circuit, there are only two voltage states. Clearly
one voltage is more positive than the other. Typically, the binary 0 and 1 are
represented by two nominal voltage levels.
0 – Low, in terms of voltage it is 0 V
1 – High, in terms of voltage it is 5 V

Many functions of digital circuits follow logic rules. Therefore, they are
called as logic circuits. The logic rules are of two types,
1. Positive logic
2. Negative logic

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Positive logic
High or 1 is represented for higher voltage levels and LOW or 0 is represented
for lower voltage levels. This is called Positive logic. Positive logic is widely
used in all digital application. For example logic 1011 is represented in fig. 8.3.

5V
Ex: A = 1011 A 1 0 1 1
0V
Fig. 4.3
Negative logic
HIGH or 1 represents lower voltage level and logic LOW or 0 represented for
higher voltage level. This is called Negative logic. This logic is rarely used. For
example logic 0100 is represented in fig. 8.4

Ex: A = 0100
5V A 0 1 0 0
0V

Fig.4.4 Negative logic

Number System
A number system is a mathematical system with base n, where n represents
total numbers present in that system.

Radix point: Radix point is a base point used to separate the integer part and
the fractional part of a number.
In general, a number in base-n system is represented as,

Nr = an-1 an-2 . . . . . a1 a0 . a-1, a-2.................a-m

Integer part Radix point Fraction part

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There are three number systems which are widely used in digital electronics.
They are,
1. Decimal number system
2. Binary number system
3. Hexadecimal number system

Need for the study of various number systems

 The decimal system is the most familiar number system to us because it
is a tool that we use every day.
 Unfortunately, the decimal number system is not convenient
to implement in digital systems.
 It is very difficult to design electronic equipment using decimal number
system due to the reason that it works with 10 different numerals.
 On the other hand, it is very easy to design simple accurate electronic
circuits that operate with only two numerals 0 and 1.
 Almost every digital system uses the binary number system as the basic
number system of its operations, although other systems are often used
in conjunction with binary
 Hexadecimal number system is used to express large binary numbers
more concisely.

Weight or place value: Each position in a number has definite value called
Place value or weight

Base or radix: The number of distinct symbols used in a number system is

called base or radix of the number system.

Decimal Number System

 The number system with base 10 is the decimal number system. It uses
10 distinct numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
 In general, decimal number is the sum of the products of each digit value
and its positional value. The following table indicates positional values as
power of 10.

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 10n-1 ….. 10 102 101 100 . 10-1 10-2 10-3 …… 10-m
3

↑ ↑ ↑
Most significant digit Decimal point Least significant digit
Consider an example – Decimal number 427.89 is equal to,
(427.89)10 = (4x102) + (2x101) + (7x100) + (8x10-1) + (9x10-2)

Binary Number System

A number system that uses only two numerals 0 and 1 is called Binary
Number System.

In general, binary number is the sum of the products of each bit value and its
positional value. The following table indicates positional values as power of two.

2n-1 ….. 23 22 21 20 . 2-1 2-2 2-3 …… 2-m

↑ ↑ ↑
Most significant bit Binary point Least significant bit
Consider an example – Binary number (101.01)2

(101.01)2 = (1x22) + (0x21) + (1x20) + (0x2-1) + (1x2-

2)

Most significant bit – The left most bit of a binary number which has the
highest place value is called most significant bit.

Least significant bit – The right most bit of a binary number which has the
least place value is called least significant bit.

Important terms in binary number system

Bit – A binary digit is called a bit. (Bit is the abbreviation of Binary digit).
Example: 0 or 1.

Nibble – A group of four bits is called a

Nibble. Example: 0110, 1110, etc.

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Byte – A group of eight bits is called a Byte.
Example: 0110 1010, 1110 0101, etc.

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Memory representation using bytes: Memory is the part of the digital system
that stores information in binary form. Generally memory is expressed in bytes.

Size of the memory = (Number of bytes at each location) x (Number of memory

location)

1 K byte memory = 210 = 1024 bytes

1 M byte memory = 220 bytes
1 G byte memory = 230 bytes
1 T byte memory = 240 bytes
Hexadecimal Number System

A number system that uses sixteen distinct symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

A, B, C, D, E and F is called hexadecimal Number System. The base of
hexadecimal number is 16. In this system A, B, C, D, E and F represents
decimal numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively.
The following table indicates positional value of hexadecimal number system.

16n-1 ….. 16 162 161 160 . 16-1 16-2 16-3 16-4 …… 16-m
3

↑ ↑ ↑
Most significant digit Hexadecimal point Least significant digit
Consider an example – Hexadecimal number (3B9.A2)16

(3B9.A2)16 = (3x162) + (Bx161) + (9x160) + (Ax16-1) + (2x16-

2)

= (3x256) + (11x16) + (9x1) + (10x0.0625) + (2x0.003906)

Purpose of using Hexadecimal number system

In digital system, when long binary numbers are used, it is difficult to

read and write. Thus machine language is initially programmed using
hexadecimal number system. Therefore hexadecimal number system is used to
express large binary numbers more concisely.

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Table representing decimal, hexadecimal and binary number

Decimal Hexadecimal Binary

number Number number
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
13 D 1101
14 E 1110
15 F 1111

Conversion from one number system to another

A number is a symbolic representation of a quantity. Therefore any quantity

that can be represented in one number system can also be represented in
another number system.

Binary to Decimal conversion

Any binary number can be converted to its decimal equivalent by summing

together the product of each bit and its weight. The weights assigned to each bit
position is given below.

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Binary weight …..
2n-1 24 23 22 21 20
Each bit
2n-1 ….. 16 8 4 2 1
positional value
↑ (MSB) (LSB) ↑
Illustration 1: Convert the binary number (1111)2 to decimal number.

Solution:
(1111)2 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 1 x 8 + 1 x 4+ 1 x 2 + 1 x 1
= (15)10
(1111)2 = (15)10
Illustration 2: Convert the binary number 1100112 to decimal number.
Solution:
(110011)2 = 1 x 25 + 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 1 x 32 + 1 x 16 + 0 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 1
(110011)2 = (51)10

Hexadecimal to Decimal conversion

Any hexadecimal number can be converted to its decimal equivalent by

summing together the product of each bit and its weight. The weights assigned
to each bit position is given below,

Hexadecimal
16n-1 … 163 162 161 160
weight
Each bit position
16n-1 … 4096 256 16 1
value
↑ (MSB) (LSB) ↑

Illustration: Convert the Hexadecimal number (F09)16 to decimal number.

NOTE: A = 10
Solution: (FO9)16 = F x 162 + 0 x 161 + 9 x 160 B = 11
= 15 x 256 + 0 x 16 + 9 x 1 C = 12
= 3840 + 0 + 9 D = 13
(F09)16 = (3849)10 E = 14
F = 15

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Decimal to Binary Conversion

 When converting from decimal number to binary number the given

decimal number is divided by 2. The result has a quotient and a remainder.
The quotient is again divided by 2. The process is continued until the
quotient becomes less than 2.

 The remainder after each division is noted. The equivalent binary number is
obtained by writing the remainders in reverse order (Bottom to Top).

Illustration 1: Convert the decimal number (26)10 to binary number.

Solution: Given – Decimal integer = 26

26 2 = 13 with remainder 0→LSB

13 2 = 6 with remainder 1
6 2 = 3 with remainder 0
3 2 = 1 with remainder 1
1 2 = 0 with remainder 1→MSB

(26) 10 =
Illustration 2: Convert the decimal number (13)10 to binary number.
Solution:
2 13
2 6-1 → LSB (Top)
2 3-0
2 1-1
0–1 → MSB (Bottom)

(13)10 = (1101)2

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Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
 When converting from decimal number to hexadecimal number the given
decimal number is divided by 16. The result has a quotient and a
remainder. The quotient is again divided by 16. The process is continued
until the quotient becomes less than 16.
 The remainder after each division is noted. The equivalent hexadecimal
number is obtained by writing the remainders in reverse order (Bottom to
Top).

Illustration 1: Convert the decimal number (2922)10 to hexadecimal number.

Solution: Given – Decimal number = 2922

Remainder
16 2922 ↓
16 182 - A → LSD (Top)
16 11 - 6
0 -B → MSD (Bottom)

(2922)10 = (B6A)16
Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion:

 The binary digits are grouped into groups of four bits starting from LSB.
Zeros may be added to the left of a number to complete last group of four
bits.
 Then each group of four bits is converted to its hexadecimal equivalent.

Illustration 1: Convert the binary number (11101101)2 to Hexadecimal number.

Solution: Given binary number is 11101101

Groups of Four → 1110 1101
↓ ↓
Check for 4- bit → 1110 1101
↓ ↓
Hexadecimal number → E D
(11101101)2 = (ED)16

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Illustration 2: Convert the binary number (1010101100)2 to hexadecimal
number.

Solution: Given binary number is 1010101100

4-bit grouping → 0010 1010 1100

↓ ↓ ↓
Hexadecimal number → 2 A C

(1010101100)2 = (2AC)
Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

While converting hexadecimal to binary each digit is converted into its four-bit
binary equivalent.

Illustration 1: Convert the hexadecimal number (DAC) 16 to binary

number. Solution: Given hexadecimal number is DAC

Given hexadecimal number → D A C

↓ ↓ ↓
Each digit decimal equivalent → 13 10 12
↓ ↓ ↓
4 bit binary equivalent → 1101 1010 1100

(DAC) 16 = (1101 1010 1100)2

Binary Arithmetic

Binary arithmetic is essential in all digital computer and many other

types of digital systems. The arithmetical operations are addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.

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Binary Addition
The rules to perform binary addition are

0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 0 with a carry 1

Example: Perform the binary addition for the numbers 1110 and 1101.

CARRY 1 1
1 1 1 0 Augend
1 1 0 1 Addend
Sum = 1 1 0 1 1

Binary subtraction

The rules to perform binary subtraction are

0 - 0 = 0
0 - 1 = 1 with a borrow 1 i.e., 10 - 1 = 1
1 - 0 = 1
1 - 1 = 0

Example: Perform the Binary subtraction for the numbers 1001 from 1101.

1 1 0 1 ➛ Minuend
- 1 0 0 1 ➛ Subtrahend

Difference = 0 1 0 0

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Binary Multiplication

Multiplication of the binary numbers is done in the same way as multiplication

of the decimal numbers. The rules to perform binary multiplication are

0 × 0 = 0
0 × 1 = 0
1 × 0 = 0
1 × 1 = 1

Example: Perform the Binary multiplication of 1002 and 102

1 0 0 x 10
000
100+
1000
Ans = 10002

Binary Division: The rules to perform binary division are

0 ÷ 0 = not defined
0 ÷ 1=0
1 ÷ 0 = not defined
1 ÷ 1=1

Example: Perform the Binary division of 10102 by 102

0101 Quotient
10 1010
- 10
0010
- 10
00 Reminder

Ans = 01012

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1’s and 2’s complement of binary number

The 1’s complement and the 2’s complement of a binary number help to do the
subtraction by the method of addition.

1’s complement of binary numbers

The 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by changing each 0 to 1
and 1 to 0.

Example: Perform the 1’s complement of the given binary number (101110)2

Solution: Given binary number is 1 0 1 1 1 0

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1’s complement of (101110)2 is
0 1 0 0 0 1

2’s complement of binary numbers

The 2’s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding 1 to the 1’s
complement of the number.
2’s complement = 1’s complement + 1 to LSB

Examples 1: Perform the 2’s complement of the given binary number 1101112
Solution: Given binary number = 1 1 0 1 1 1

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

0 0 1 0 0 0
1’s complement of 1101112 =
Add 1 to1’s complement = + 1

2’s complement of 1101112 0 0 1 0 0 1

=

Ans = (001001)2

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Subtraction of binary numbers using 1’s complement method
To subtract a smaller number from a larger number using 1’s
complement method
Step: 1 Obtain the 1’s complement of the subtrahend number.
Step: 2 Add 1’s complement of subtrahend to the minuend.
Step: 3 Adding always results in a final carry called end around carry. This
end around carry is discarded. Add 1 to the LSB of the sum obtained
in step 2. The resultant bits give the required answer.

Examples 1: Perform the 1’s complement subtraction for the given binary
numbers11012 from 10101112
Solution:

Step 1: 1’s complement the subtrahend

Subtrahend → 00011012
1’s complement of subtrahend → 11100102

Step 2: Add Minuend and 1’s complement of subtrahend

Minuend → 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1’s complement of → +1 1 1 0 0 1 0
subtrahend
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Step 3: Add 1 +1
Answer 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

Ans = 10010102
Conform answer: 8710-1310 = 7410

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Subtraction of binary numbers using 2’s complement method

To subtract a smaller number from a larger number using 2’s complement

method

Step 1: Obtain the 2’s complement of the subtrahend.

Step 2: Add the 2’s complement of subtrahend to the minuend.
Step 3: Adding always results in a final carry called end carry (EC). This end
carry bit is discarded. The remaining bits give the required answer.
Example: subtract 1012 from 11012 using 2’s complement method
Solution:

Step 1: 2’s complement of the subtrahend

Minuend → 11012 = 1310

Subtrahend → 01012 = 510

1’s complement of subtrahend → 1010

+ 1
2’s complement of the subtrahend → 1011

Step 2: Add 2’s complement of the subtrahend to the minuend

1 1 0 1

2’s complement of subtrahend → + 1 0 1 1

Step 3: Discard the end carry 1 1 0 0 0

After discarding the end carry, Answer is (1000)2

Sign magnitude binary numbers

There are many schemes for representing negative integers with patterns of
bits. One scheme is sign-magnitude. For n-bit word, left-most bit is sign-bit, 0
for positive number and 1 for negative number, and remaining n-1 bits
represent integer magnitude. In other words, for larger binary numbers, the
MSB always represent the sign and the remaining bits always stand for the
magnitude.

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Representing a sign magnitude numbers

Given number is 2510 = 110012

Then 0 11001 = +25

1 11001 = -25

In the above example 0 in the MSB position represents +ve and 1 in the MSB
position represents –ve number.

Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra is the study of ‘mathematical theory of logic’. It was
initially formulated by George Boole, a mathematician. In Boolean algebra,
each variable can only assume one of the two values 1 and 0. It is used in the
design, maintenance and analysis of digital circuits.

Boolean operations

The basic logic operations are

1) OR operation (Boolean addition)

2) AND operation (Boolean multiplication)
3) NOT operation (Boolean negation)

OR operation

1) A+0=A

2) A+1=1

3) A+A=A

4) A + A̅ =1

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AND operation

1) A·0 = 0

2) A·1 = A

3) A·A = A

4) A·A̅ = 0

NOT operation

A̿ = A

Basic Laws and Theorems of Boolean Algebra

Commutative laws

1) A+B = B+A
2) AB = BA

Associative laws

1) A (BC) = (AB) C
2) A+ (B+C) = (A+B) +C

Distributive laws

1) A (B+C) = AB+AC

2) A+BC = (A+B) (A+C)

Other Boolean laws

1) A+AB = A
2) A+𝐴̅B = A+B
3) AB + AB̅ = A

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 De-Morgan's Theorems

First Theorem: The complement of a logical sum is equal to the logical product
of the compliments.
A+ B=A . B

Second Theorem: The complement of a logical product is equal to the logical

sum of the compliments.
A . B= A+ B
Proof:
First Second
A B A+B A·B Theorem Theorem

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

Boolean identities and simplification of Boolean expressions

An expression obtained by relating Boolean variables using Boolean

functions is termed as Boolean expression.
1) Prove A+AB = A

Solution: LHS = A + AB
= A(1+ B)
= A·1 [ 1 + B = 1]
= A [ A·1 = A]
= RHS

A + AB = A

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2) Prove A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)

Solution: Consider RHS

(A+B)(A+C) = A·A + A·C + B·A + B·C

= A + AC + AB + BC
= A (1+ C) + AB + BC
= A·1 + AB + BC
= A + AB + BC
= A (1+ B) +BC
= A·1 + BC
= A + BC
= LHS

A+BC = (A+B) (A+C)

3) Prove (A+𝐴̅B) = A+B

Solution: LHS = A + 𝐴̅B

We know that (A+BC) = (A+B) (A+C)

∴ (A+𝐴̅B) = (A+𝐴̅) (A+B)

= 1· (A+B)
= A+B

∴ (A+𝐴̅B) = A+B
= RHS

4) Simplify the equation Y = A𝐵̅ C + 𝐴̅BC + ABC

Solution : Y = AB̅ C + A̅ BC +

ABC
= AB̅ C + BC (A̅ +A)
= AB̅ C + (BC·1)
= AB̅ C + BC
= C [B+B̅ A]
= C (B+A)

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Y = BC +
AC

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5) Simplify the equation Y = AB + A(̅𝐵̅+̅𝐶̅ )

Y = AB + A(̅𝐵̅+̅𝐶̅ )
= AB + A (𝐵̅ ·𝐶̅ )
Solution:

= AB + A B̅C̅
= A ( B+ ̅BC̅ )
= A ( B+ ̅C )
= AB + A𝐶̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅
6) Simplify the equation Y = (AB · 𝐴) · (AB · 𝐵)

Solution: Y = (AB · 𝐴) · (AB · 𝐵)

= (AB · 𝐴) + (AB · 𝐵)
= (̅𝐴̅𝐵̅ ·A) + (̅𝐴̅𝐵̅ ·B)
= (𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅ )A + (𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅ )B
= (𝐴̅ A + 𝐵̅ A) + 𝐴̅ B + 𝐵̅ B
= 0 + 𝐵̅ A + 𝐴̅B +
0 Y = AB̅ + A̅ B

7) Simplify the equation Y = AB + AC +

A̅ B̅C Solution : Y = AB + AC +

A̅ B̅ C
AB · AC + A̅ B̅C
(A̅ + B̅)(A̅ + C̅ )+ A̅ B̅C
=

A̅ + B̅ C̅ + A̅ B̅ C
=

A̅ + B̅ ( C̅ + C A̅ )
=

A̅ + B̅ ( C̅ + A̅ )
=

A̅ + B̅ C̅ + A̅ B̅
=

A̅ (1+ ̅B) + B̅ C̅
=

A̅ ·1 + B̅ C̅
=
=

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= A̅ + B̅ C̅

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Logic gates

A logic gate is a basic unit of digital circuit which makes logic decision. A logic
gate has one or more inputs but only one output. The basic gates are AND
gate, OR gate and NOT gate. Universal gates are NAND gate and NOR gate.

Basic Gates:
A logic gate which performs only a specific basic Boolean function is
called Basic Gates. Basic gates are used in construction of digital circuits. Basic
gates are constructed by using active components (such as diodes and
transistors) and passive components (such as resistor).

Ex: Basic Gate Boolean function (Basic logic

Operation) OR Gate Boolean addition
AND Gate Boolean
multiplication NOT Gate Boolean
negation
Timing diagram: A pictorial representation of inputs and output states of a
logic circuit is known as timing diagram.
Ex: Timing diagram of AND gate for the inputs A, B and output Y

Fig. 4.5 Timing diagram

OR GATE:

OR gate is a basic gate which produces a high output if at least any

one of the input is high. It performs Boolean addition.

The symbolic representation of two input OR gate is as shown in Fig. 4.6.

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 Fig. 8.6 Symbol of OR gate

If A and B are the two input variables and Y is the output variable, then
the logic expression for the output is given by Y = A + B.

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Fig 4.6(a) Fig 4.6(b)

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AND Gate:

AND gate is a basic gate which produces a high output if and only if
all the inputs are high. It performs Boolean multiplication.

If A and B are the two input variables and Y is the output variable, then
the logic expression for the output is given by Y = AB. Logic Symbol for two input
AND gate, and Timing Diagram are given in fig 4.7.

Timing Diagram

B Y=AB

AND gate symbol

Fig.4.7. Symbol of two input AND gate with timing diagram

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B Y = AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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 NOT Gate:

NOT gate is a basic gate which complements the input signal value. It
performs Boolean negation. It is also called as an inverter. It is a logic gate with
only one input and one output. Logic Symbol of NOT gate is shown in fig. 4.8.

Fig.4.8. Logic symbol of NOT gate

Truth table

Input Output
A Y= A
0 1
1 0

NAND gate:

NAND gate is a universal gate which performs complement of AND logic. In NAND
gate the output is high only when any of the input is low.
The Boolean expression is given by Y = A . B

The logic circuit symbol is shown in fig 4.9.

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B Y = A.B
0 0 1
Fig.4.9. Symbol of two input NAND gate 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

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NOR gate:

NOR gate is a universal gate which performs the complement o f O R logic.

In NOR gate the output is high if and only if all the inputs are low.

If A and B are the two input variables and Y is the output variable, then
the logic expression for the output is given by Y = A+ B

The logic circuit symbol of NOR gate is shown in fig 4.10

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B Y = A+ B
0 0 1
Fig.4.10. Symbol of two input NOR gate
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

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Logic circuits for Logic expressions

1) Y = AB + BC

2) Y = (A+B)(B+C)

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3) Y = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + BC

4) Y= 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶

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