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 FOURTH EDITION

Essentials of
Psychology

Kenneth S. Bordens • Josh R. Gerow • Nancy K. Gerow

 Improving Memory Retrieval 112
Psychology in Action: Hypnosis and Memory Improvement 119
Chapter Summary 120    Key Terms 122

6 Consciousness 123

Chapter Outline 123     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 123

Preview 124
Toward a Definition 124
Normal Waking Consciousness 124
Levels of Consciousness 125
Sleep 127
Psychology in Action: Behavioral Approaches to Treating Insomnia 131
Hypnosis 133
Meditation 135
Altering Consciousness with Drugs 136
Focus on Diversity: Demographic Differences in Illegal Drug Use 142
Chapter Summary 143    Key Terms 145

7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 147

Chapter Outline 147     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 147

Preview 148
Some Thoughts on Thinking 148
Problem Solving 150
Psychology in Action: Paths to Effective and Ineffective Problem Solving 151
Language 152
Just What Is Intelligence? 156
Focus on Diversity: Group Differences in Measured Intelligence 162
Chapter Summary 166    Key Terms 168

8 Motivation and Emotion 169

Chapter Outline 169     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 169

Preview 170
Explaining What Motivates Us 170
Focus on Diversity: Culture, Needs, and Job Performance 174
Balance or Equilibrium 175

Contents vii
 Putting It Together: Applying Motivational Concepts 177
Psychology in Action: The Hunger Motive and Eating Disorders 178
Psychologically Based Motives 179
Defining and Classifying Emotions 182
The Physiology of Emotion 183
Expressing Emotion 185
Chapter Summary 187    Key Terms 188

9 Human Sexuality and Relationships 189

Chapter Outline 189     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 189

Preview 190
Human Sexuality 191
Focus on Diversity: Gender Differences in Sexual Motivation 193
The Varieties of Human Sexuality 194
Interpersonal Attraction and Relationships 200
Psychology in Action: How Do We Select Our Mates? 203
Chapter Summary 206    Key Terms 208

10 Personality 209

Chapter Outline 209     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 209

Preview 210
Introducing Personality “Theories” 210
Focus on Diversity: Are There Cultural Differences in Personality? 222
Personality Assessment or Measurement 223
Psychology in Action: Predicting Criminality from Personality 226
Chapter Summary 227    Key Terms 229

11 Stress and Health Psychology 231

Chapter Outline 231     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 231

Preview 232
A Few Examples with Which to Work 232
Stressors: The Causes of Stress 233
Responses to Stressors 238
Effective Strategies for Coping with Stress 239

viii Contents
 Focus on Diversity: Are There Group Differences in the Perception
of and Coping with Stress? 243
Ineffective Strategies for Coping with Stress 244
Psychological Factors That Influence Physical Health 246
Psychology in Action: Can Optimism Cure What Ails You? 249
Promoting Healthy Behaviors 251
Chapter Summary 254    Key Terms 255

12 Psychological Disorders 257

Chapter Outline 257     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 257

Preview 258
What Is Abnormal? 258
Psychology in Action: How Do We Perceive People with Mental Illness? 261
Anxiety Disorders 262
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 264
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 264
A Neurodevelopmental Disorder: Autism
Spectrum Disorder 265
Dissociative Disorders 267
Personality Disorders 268
Depressive Disorders 270
Bipolar Disorder 271
Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder 272
Focus on Diversity: Gender Differences in Alzheimer’s Disease 274
Chapter Summary 275    Key Terms 276

13 Treatment and Therapy for Psychological Disorders 277

Chapter Outline 277     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 277

Preview 278
Biomedical Treatments 278
Psychology in Action: Suicide and Suicide Prevention 281
Psychotherapy Techniques 284
Evaluating Psychotherapy 292
Focus on Diversity: Group Differences in the Therapy Process 294
Chapter Summary 295    Key Terms 297

Contents ix
14 Social Psychology 299

Chapter Outline 299     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 299

Preview 300
Social Cognition: Making Sense of the Social World 301
Psychology in Action: Recognizing and Avoiding Biased Social Cognition 302
The Nature of Attitudes 303
Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination 306
Focus on Diversity: How Ideology Relates to Behavior 309
Conformity 310
Obedience to Authority 312
Bystander Intervention 315
Social Loafing and Social Facilitation 317
Decision-Making in Groups 319
Chapter Summary 321    Key Terms 323

15 Development Throughout the Life Span 325

Chapter Outline 325     Questions You Will Be Able to Answer 325

Preview 326
Prenatal Development 326
The Cognitive Development of Children 329
Focus on Diversity: Group Differences in Moral Reasoning 332
Developing Gender Identity 334
What It Means to Be an Adolescent 336
Development in Early Adulthood 341
Development in Middle Adulthood 344
Development in Late Adulthood 346
Psychology in Action: Understanding Death and the Dying Process 348
Chapter Summary 349    Key Terms 351

Glossary G-1
References R-1
Index I-1

x Contents
Preface

Essentials of Psychology, 4th edition, is a concise and balanced introduction to

­psychology and its applications created specifically for courses in basic psychology. This
­student-friendly text embraces the latest perspectives on traditional concepts and current
theories to provide students with insight into human behavior. The authors have mini-
mized complex explanations and illustrations to maximize straightforward understanding
and application.
This comprehensive text presents the core topics in psychology in a clear and c­ oncise
manner. New chapters in this edition cover consciousness, human sexuality, social psy-
chology, and developmental psychology. Essentials of Psychology has been thoroughly
­updated to reflect recent examples, research, and scholarship from across the discipline.
Text features include a broad range of examples and applications that increase the rel-
evance of key concepts and issues for a wide range of students, such as the Psychology
in Action and Focus on Diversity boxes that are found in every chapter. This edition has
a contemporary design with numerous graphs, figures, and tables that reinforce the text
discussions by providing a visual guide to key concepts. Essentials of Psychology also
includes specific student- and instructor-oriented features.

STUDENT-ORIENTED FEATURES
This book includes many time-tested features that enhance the accessibility of the mate-
rial for students and will facilitate learning. In addition to the following features, see “Stu-
dent Supplements and Upgrades” for a complete list of the available student supplements.
Chapter Outline and List of Questions to Be Answered: Each chapter begins
„„
with a chapter outline, followed by a list of questions that students will be able to
answer after reading the chapter. These questions will cue students to the central
topics they should focus on as they read the chapter, with Study Checks throughout
highlighting the relevant questions for each section of the chapter. The questions
appear once more in the Chapter Summary, with answers provided so that students
can check their understanding.
Preview: The Preview gives a concise overview of each chapter, listing the issues
„„
to be addressed and providing a sense of direction and focus for what to expect in
each chapter.
Thinking Critically Boxes and Study Checks: Each chapter has several Thinking
„„
Critically boxes with questions that encourage critical reflection and prompt
students to apply examples to their own lives, further enhancing the learning
experience. The Thinking Critically and Study Checks features provide “resting
places” within each chapter to pause and reflect on the material. As a review, the
Study Checks help promote elaborative rehearsal of what has been read. Students
can self-test and reread a particular section if they need more time with a concept.
Glossary Terms: For the beginning student, vocabulary development is vital to
„„
learning about psychology. To assist in that process, key words and concepts are
printed in the text in a colored, boldface type and defined immediately. Each term
is then defined again in a running marginal glossary. All key terms are assembled
in a Key Terms list at the end of the chapter, with a page reference to indicate

xi

 where each term may be found in the chapter. Key terms are repeated in a glossary
at the back of the book.

CHAPTERS INCLUDED IN THE BOOK

This book is organized into 15 chapters. The content of each chapter is summarized as
follows:
Chapter 1, Psychology Is in Our Lives: Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter with
„„
information intended to familiarize students with the field of psychology. Topics
include definitions of psychology and its subject matter, the science and practice
of psychology, scientific methods in psychology, a brief history of psychology, and
careers in psychology. The chapter concludes with a discussion of key principles
that guide us in understanding topics in psychology (e.g., explanations for behavior
are complex and involve interactions; there are individual differences in behavior).
Chapter 2, The Biological Foundations of Behavior: Chapter 2 introduces
„„
students to the biological underpinnings of behavior, cognition, and affect. The
chapter starts by looking at these underpinnings at the microlevel and includes
information on neurons (structure and function), synaptic transmission, and neural
thresholds. Next, the bigger picture is provided with a discussion of how the
human nervous system is organized and what each element does. Then, the spinal
cord is explored. Finally, there is a discussion of brain structures, starting with
structures in the brainstem, then moving to the limbic system, and ending with the
cortex.
Chapter 3, Sensation and Perception: Chapter 3 explores the related processes
„„
involved in sensation and perception. The major senses are covered (vision,
hearing, cutaneous senses, kinesthetic senses, position senses, and the pain sense).
The discussion of perception includes the topics of perceptual selection, how the
perceptual world is organized, the perception of depth and distance, and perceptual
constancies.
Chapter 4, Learning: Chapter 4 introduces students to the main approaches to
„„
learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive approaches.
The basics of classical conditioning are covered, including the components
of classical conditioning (e.g., unconditioned and conditioned stimuli) and
information on generalization, discrimination, and extinction. Additional
discussion focuses on how classical conditioning applies to our everyday lives.
Similarly, the basics of operant conditioning are covered, including positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. The section on cognitive
approaches includes discussions of latent learning, cognitive maps, and social
learning theory.
Chapter 5, Memory: Chapter 5 begins with a discussion of the nature of memory
„„
and the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. A discussion of sensory
memory follows. Next, short-term memory is discussed. This discussion includes
information on the nature of short-term memory and its capacity. The section on
long-term memory includes discussions of semantic, episodic, and procedural
memory. There is also information on the accuracy of long-term memory,
including recovered memories and eyewitness testimony. The chapter concludes
with discussions of how memory can be improved (e.g., practice strategies,
mnemonics).
Chapter 6, Consciousness: Chapter 6 opens with a definition of consciousness
„„
and a presentation of James’s characteristics of normal waking consciousness.
Next, sleep is covered, including discussions of the stages of sleep and dreaming.
The next main section covers alterations of consciousness through hypnosis,
meditation, and the use of psychoactive drugs.

xii Preface
 Chapter 7, Thinking, Language, and Intelligence: Chapter 7 includes discussions
„„
of thinking and problem solving. The section on thinking covers thinking
processes, concepts, and types of reasoning. The discussion of problem solving
includes information on how problems are defined and the distinction between
well-defined and ill-defined problems. Language is covered next. Language is
contrasted with communication, and the structure and functions of language are
discussed. The chapter concludes with a discussion of approaches to intelligence,
intelligence testing, and the extremes of intelligence (i.e., giftedness and
intellectual disability).
Chapter 8, Motivation and Emotion: The chapter opens with a definition of
„„
motivation and then discusses instincts, needs, and drives. Physiological (e.g., need
for food) and psychological needs (e.g., need to achieve) are discussed. The next
section covers emotions, including discussions of how emotions are classified, the
physiology of emotions, and how emotions are expressed.
Chapter 9, Human Sexuality and Relationships: The chapter begins with a
„„
discussion of sexual motivation and human sexuality. The next major section
covers the varieties of human sexuality. In this section, the various sexual
orientations (e.g., heterosexual, same sex, and transgender) are defined and
discussed. In-depth coverage is provided on the same-sex and transgender
orientations. The final section of the chapter discusses how relationships are
formed and covers the roles of proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness.
The chapter ends with a discussion of love relationships.
Chapter 10, Personality: Chapter 10 first defines personality and then covers
„„
the major theories and approaches to personality. Information is presented on
psychoanalytic theory (Freudian and neo-Freudian), the behavioral/learning
approach, the cognitive approach, and humanistic theory. Trait theories are covered
next, including information on the HEXACO model, which is an extension of the
Big Five approach. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the various ways in
which personality is measured.
Chapter 11, Stress and Health Psychology: Chapter 11 begins with a definition
„„
of stress and stressors. Information is provided on frustration-induced, conflict-
induced, and life stress. Sections on effective and ineffective coping strategies
are included as well. The chapter concludes with sections on health psychology,
including such topics as unhealthy lifestyles, promoting healthy behaviors, and
coping with HIV/AIDS.
Chapter 12, Psychological Disorders: A definition of the term abnormal and
„„
a description of how psychological disorders are classified open Chapter 12.
A distinction is made between the concepts of psychological disorders,
insanity, and competence. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to covering
a range of psychological disorders, including anxiety disorders, obsessive-
compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, autism, dissociative disorders,
personality disorders, depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenic
spectrum disorder.
Chapter 13, Treatment and Therapy for Psychological Disorders: Chapter 13
„„
covers various methods for treating psychological disorders. The chapter begins
with a discussion of biomedical treatments (psychosurgery, electroconvulsive
therapy [ECT], and drug therapy). Next, psychotherapy techniques are discussed,
including psychoanalytic therapy, humanistic approaches, behavioral approaches,
cognitive approaches, and group approaches. The chapter closes with a section on
evaluating psychotherapy.
Chapter 14, Social Psychology: Chapter 14 presents several topics in social
„„
psychology. The chapter opens with a discussion of social cognition, followed
by a section on attitudes and attitude change via persuasion. Next, prejudice,

Preface xiii
 stereotyping, and discrimination are defined and discussed. Topics related to social
influence (e.g., conformity and obedience) are then covered. Sections on bystander
intervention, social loafing, and decision making in groups follow.
Chapter 15, Development Throughout the Life Span: Chapter 15 discusses the
„„
development process from birth to death. The chapter begins with a discussion
of prenatal development and the factors (e.g., nutrition, alcohol, and drugs) that
can affect the normal course of development. The chapter then covers cognitive
development in childhood (Piaget’s theory and the information-processing
approach) and the development of gender identity. Next, the chapter covers the
biological and psychological aspects of adolescence. The chapter then discusses
development during early, middle, and late adulthood.

FOCUS ON DIVERSITY AND PSYCHOLOGY

IN ACTION BOXES
In the modern era, it is becoming increasingly important for students to understand how
diversity issues relate to behavior, cognition, and affect. To this end, Essentials in Psy-
chology integrates multicultural content throughout and provides discussions of specific
diversity issues in each chapter in the form of Focus on Diversity boxed features. Each of
the Focus on Diversity boxes includes discussion of an important diversity issue relating
to the main themes of the chapter. The material included in these boxes presents students
with a sketch of what we know about gender, ethnic, cultural, and racial differences based
on research. The selected topics are intended not only to inform students on these issues
but also to spark their curiosity and encourage them to further explore these topics.
As important as diversity issues are, students often want to know how all of the “theo-
retical stuff ” applies to everyday life and experience. To show students how many of the
topics covered in the text apply to real life, a Psychology in Action box is included in each
chapter. Like the Focus on Diversity boxes, these boxes show students how issues directly
relating to them or people they know can be informed by research in psychology. Once
again, these boxes are intended to spark curiosity among students and encourage them to
think about how psychology relates to their everyday lives.
The Focus on Diversity and Psychology in Action boxes, organized by chapter, are as
follows:

Chapter 1
Psychology in Action: Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience
Focus on Diversity: Pioneering Women and Minorities in Psychology

Chapter 2
Psychology in Action: The Neuropsychology of Addiction
Focus on Diversity: Gender Differences in the Brain

Chapter 3
Psychology in Action: Personal Listening Devices and Hearing Loss
Focus on Diversity: Culture and Perception

Chapter 4
Psychology in Action: The Training and Use of Service Dogs
Focus on Diversity: Ethnic and Racial Differences in Parenting

Chapter 5
Psychology in Action: Hypnosis and Memory Improvement
Focus on Diversity: Gender Differences in Memory

xiv Preface
Chapter 6
Psychology in Action: Behavioral Approaches to Treating Insomnia
Focus on Diversity: Demographic Differences in Illegal Drug Use

Chapter 7
Psychology in Action: Paths to Effective and Ineffective Problem Solving
Focus on Diversity: Group Differences in Measured Intelligence

Chapter 8
Psychology in Action: The Hunger Motive and Eating Disorders
Focus on Diversity: Culture, Needs, and Job Performance

Chapter 9
Psychology in Action: How Do We Select Our Mates?
Focus on Diversity: Gender Differences in Sexual Motivation

Chapter 10
Psychology in Action: Predicting Criminality from Personality
Focus on Diversity: Are There Cultural Differences in Personality?

Chapter 11
Psychology in Action: Can Optimism Cure What Ails You?
Focus on Diversity: Are There Group Differences in the Perception of and Coping with
Stress?

Chapter 12
Psychology in Action: How Do We Perceive People with Mental Illness?
Focus on Diversity: Gender Differences in Alzheimer’s Disease

Chapter 13
Psychology in Action: Suicide and Suicide Prevention
Focus on Diversity: Group Differences in the Therapy Process

Chapter 14
Psychology in Action: Recognizing and Avoiding Biased Social Cognition
Focus on Diversity: How Ideology Relates to Behavior

Chapter 15
Psychology in Action: Understanding Death and the Dying Process
Focus on Diversity: Group Differences in Moral Reasoning

ONLINE AND IN PRINT

Student Options: Print and Online Versions
This fourth edition of Essentials of Psychology is available in multiple versions: online,
in PDF, and in print as either a paperback or loose-leaf text. The content of each version
is identical.
The most affordable version is the online book, with upgrade options including the
online version bundled with a print version. The benefit of the print version is that it of-
fers you the freedom of being unplugged—away from your computer. Academic Media
Solutions recognizes that it is difficult to read from a screen at length and that most of us
read much faster when reading printed materials. The print version is particularly useful
when you have extended print passages to read.

Preface xv
 The online edition allows you to take full advantage of embedded digital features,
including search and notes. Use the search feature to locate and jump to discussions any-
where in the book. Use the notes feature to add personal comments or annotations. You
can move out of the book to follow Web links. You can navigate within and between chap-
ters using a clickable table of contents. These features allow you to work at your own pace
and in your own style as you read and surf your way through the material. (See “Harness-
ing the Online Version” for more tips on working with the online version.)

Harnessing the Online Version

The online version of Essentials of Psychology offers the following features to facilitate
learning and to make using the book an easy, enjoyable experience:
Easy-to-navigate/clickable table of contents—You can surf through the book
„„
quickly by clicking on chapter headings, or first- or second-level section headings.
The table of contents can be accessed from anywhere in the book.
Key terms search—Type in a term, and a search engine will return every instance
„„
of that term in the book, then jump directly to the selection of your choice with one
click.
Notes and highlighting—The online version includes study apps such as notes
„„
and highlighting. Each of these apps can be found in the tools icon embedded in
the Academic Media Solutions/Textbook Media’s online eBook reading platform
(www.academicmediasolutions.com).
Upgrades—The online version includes the ability to purchase additional study
„„
apps and functionality that will enhance the learning experience.

SUPPLEMENTS FOR INSTRUCTORS

In addition to the student-friendly features and pedagogy, the variety of student formats
available, and the uniquely affordable pricing options, Essentials of Psychology, 4th edi-
tion, also includes a number of ancillaries and supplements that instructors will find use-
ful when teaching their courses:
Test-Item File—The extensive Test-Item File includes a bank of multiple-choice
„„
questions for each chapter for use in creating original quizzes and exams. Each
item indicates the page(s) on which the material covered in a question appears in
the text.
Instructor’s Manual—For each chapter, the Instructor’s Manual contains a
„„
chapter outline, chapter preview, learning objectives, key terms, a lecture outline,
a practice quiz, ideas for class demonstrations and discussions, and links to online
videos. The Instructor’s Manual has been developed to facilitate a quick review of
the chapter and provide insights into the best use of the text’s features.
PowerPoint Presentations—Each chapter has an accompanying PowerPoint
„„
presentation that instructors can use to help organize lectures. The slides
summarize the key concepts and material in each chapter, and include all of the
numbered figures and tables from each chapter.
Online Video Labs with Student Worksheets—This collection of high-quality,
„„
dynamic, and sometimes humorous video segments (contemporary and classic),
produced by a variety of media, academic, and entertainment sources, is accessed
via the Web. Organized by chapter, the video segments illustrate key topics and
issues discussed in the text. Each video segment is accompanied by a student
worksheet that consists of a series of discussion questions that help students
connect the themes presented in the video segment with key topics discussed in the
specific chapter.

xvi Preface
STUDENT SUPPLEMENTS AND UPGRADES
(ADDITIONAL PURCHASE REQUIRED)
Lecture Guide—This printable lecture guide is designed for student use as an in-
„„
class resource or study tool. Note: Instructors can request the PowerPoint version
of this guide, which can be used as developed or customized.
Quizlet Study Set—Quizlet is an easy-to-use online learning tool built from all
„„
the key terms in the textbook. Students can turbo-charge their studying via digital
flashcards and other types of study apps, including tests and games. Students are
able to listen to audio clips and create their own flashcards. Quizlet is a cross-
platform application and can be used on a desktop, tablet, or smartphone.
Study Guide—The Study Guide is available online, and a printable version
„„
is available via downloadable PDF chapters for easy self-printing and review.
The Study Guide provides several additional learning aids for each chapter and
includes the following features:
„„ The chapter outline lists the main topic headings for each chapter.
„„ The list of questions to answer is provided at the beginning of each chapter,
with space included for students to add their own answers. Students can use this
feature to help review and study material.
„„ The key terms for each chapter are listed, with space provided for students to
add definitions for each term. This feature allows students to rehearse key term
definitions, aiding in recall and retention.
„„ Practice multiple-choice questions with answers can be used for review and
self-testing.
„„ Active Internet links that relate to the chapter content are organized in a “Cyber-
Psychology” section. These links are keyed to the major sections of every
chapter. Students can use these links to learn more about the content discussed
in the text.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank the staff at Academic Media Solutions (AMS) who worked with us
to publish this new edition of Essentials of Psychology: Daniel C. Luciano, president/
founder of AMS, and Victoria Putman of Putman Productions. We appreciate the support
and assistance they provided throughout the development and production of this book.

Preface xvii
About the Authors

Kenneth S. Bordens (Professor Emeritus of Psychology) received his bachelor

of arts degree in psychology from Farleigh Dickinson University (Teaneck, New Jersey,
­campus) in 1975. He earned a master of arts (1978) and a doctor of philosophy (1979) degree
in social psychology from the University of Toledo. After receiving his Ph.D., he accepted
a position at Purdue University Fort Wayne, formerly Indiana University-Purdue Univer-
sity Fort Wayne (IPFW), where he taught psychology for 37 years before retiring in 2016.
Dr. Bordens’s main research interest was psychology and the law. He published several stud-
ies on juror and jury decision making in criminal and civil trials. His most recent research
focused on stereotyping and prejudice on the Left of the political spectrum. He has co-­
authored several textbooks in psychology, including Social Psychology (5th ed.), Research
Design and Methods: A Process Approach (10th ed.), General Psychology (5th ed.), and
Psychology and the Law: Integrations and Applications (2nd ed.). Dr. ­Bordens taught classes
on social psychology, child development, research methods, the history of p­ sychology, and
introductory psychology during his tenure at Purdue University Fort Wayne.

Josh R. Gerow (1941–2015) began his college training at Rensselaer Polytechnic

Institute, where he majored in chemistry. He earned his bachelor of arts in psychology
at the University of Buffalo and his Ph.D. in experimental psychology at the University
of Tennessee. His graduate area of specialization was developmental psycholinguistics.
After teaching for two years at the University of Colorado, Denver, he joined the ­faculty
of Purdue University Fort Wayne, formerly Indiana University-Purdue University Fort
Wayne (IPFW), in 1969. Dr. Gerow conducted research and published articles in the field
of instructional psychology, focusing on factors that affect performance in the introduc-
tory psychology course. During his more than 40 years as a college professor, he taught
courses on the psychology of learning, memory, and the history of psychology, as well as
his favorite course, general psychology. He brought college-level introductory ­psychology
classes to high school students and made frequent presentations at regional and national
conferences on the teaching of psychology. He authored (or co-authored) a large number
of editions of introductory psychology textbooks and the supplements that accompany
those texts. Dr. Gerow died on December 4, 2015.

Nancy K. Gerow, MS, earned her bachelor of arts degree in psychology from
Indiana University and her master of science in psychology from Purdue University. As a
personal counselor of college students, she assisted college students with decision making,
stress management, short-term therapy, and assessment and referral. She co-authored a text
on achieving success in college, focusing on personal and social adjustment issues. She
also has prepared ancillary materials for a number of introductory psychology textbooks.
Ms. Gerow participated in the field trials for the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statis-
tical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). As a clinician in private practice, Ms. Gerow
provides individual, marital, family, and group therapy services. She also provides short-
term assessment and counseling services as an employee assistance provider to businesses
as well as for members of the military. Under the supervision of a health service provider
in psychology (HSPP) psychologist, she has been responsible for testing and assessment in
a variety of clinical settings. She is a licensed marriage and family therapist in the states of
Indiana and Florida. She is a Clinical Fellow of the American Association of Marriage and
Family Therapists and a Life Status member of the American Psychological Association.
xviii
Psychology Is in Our Lives CHAPTER
1
Chapter Outline
Preview
Psychology’s Subject Matter: You
and Me and More
Psychology: The Science and the
Practice
More on the Scientific Methods
of Psychology
Psychology in Action:
Distinguishing Science from
Pseudoscience
Where Psychology Has
Been–A Brief History
Focus on Diversity: Pioneering
Source: PopTika/Shutterstock Women and Minorities in
Psychology
Careers in Psychology Today—
Psychology in Your Career
Questions You Will Be Able to Answer
Some Key Principles to Guide Us
After reading Chapter 1, you should be able to answer the following
questions:
• What is the subject matter of psychology?
• What are affect and cognitions?
• Why does psychology qualify as a science?
• In general terms, what are scientific methods?
• What are the typical activities of scientist-practitioners in psychology?
• What are reliability and validity?
• What distinguishes correlational and experimental methods?
• What are the three major variables involved in an experiment?
• What were the contributions of some of the persons who shaped
psychology’s early years, mentioning in particular, Wundt, James, Watson,
Freud, and Rogers?
• For what jobs or careers is the study of psychology a relevant experience?
• What are the three major principles that will appear repeatedly throughout
this text?

1

 Preview
Psychology may well be the best class you’ll take. After all, it is about you, your
family, and your friends. It’s about why people think and feel and behave as they do.
It’s about how all of us find out about the world and how we learn and remember
things. It’s about facing problems and stress and finding ways to cope. This book
will cover all sorts of issues you’ve wondered about for a long time. It may not an-
swer all of your questions, and it may even raise a few new ones, but it will set you
off on a new path of discovery.
This first chapter is necessarily quite general. It seems logical to start off with
everyone coming to a general agreement about what psychology is and what psy-
chologists do. In many ways, you can think of this first chapter as an outline, with
details to be filled in as we go along. We begin with a standard “textbook” definition
of psychology, looking at what it is that psychologists study and why we may call
their endeavors scientific. We will take a very brief look at some of the high points
of psychology’s past, and consider a few of the pioneers who helped shape the dis-
cipline as it developed. We will examine some of the careers that are available to
psychologists and to people with training in psychology. You will find us constantly
reminding you that psychology is a science. To reinforce that notion, we’ll take a few
pages to examine some of the major methods used in the science of psychology. We
end the chapter by listing a few major, over-arching themes or ideas that will guide
our study of the science of psychology.

Psychology’s Subject Matter: You and Me and More

We will expand on it throughout the rest of this text, but here is a definition of psychology
Psychology—the science that that we can work with for now: Psychology is the science that studies behavior and mental
studies behavior and mental processes. This rather simple definition may not tell us a lot just yet, but it does raise a
processes. couple of points worthy of our time.
This definition claims that the subject matter of psychology is behavior and mental
processes. Before we get into what it means to say that psychology is a science, let’s take
Behavior—what organisms
do—their actions and a closer look at just what it is that psychologists study.
reactions. Psychologists study behavior. Behavior is what organisms do—their actions and reac-
tions. The behaviors of organisms are observable and measurable. If we wonder whether
Cognitions—mental events, a rat will press a lever in some situation, we can put a rat in that situation and watch to
such as beliefs, perceptions, see what it does. If we are interested in Jason’s ability to draw a circle, we can ask him to
thoughts, ideas, and memories. draw one and observe his efforts. Observable, measurable behaviors offer an advantage
as objects of study. Several observers can agree on the
behavior or event being studied. We can agree that
the rat pressed the lever (or didn’t) and even measure
the extent, speed, and force with which it did so. We
can agree that Jason correctly drew a circle and not a
Source: HQuality/Shutterstock.

triangle or an oval. If you were interested in the ex-

tent to which violent movies contribute to aggression,
you would most likely focus on observable, aggres-
sive behaviors, rather than on how such movies make
a viewer feel or think.
Psychologists also study mental processes. There
are two kinds of mental processes: cognitions and af-
fect. Cognitions are mental events, such as beliefs,
Cognitive processes are “intellectual” mental processes, such as perceptions, thoughts, ideas, and memories. Cognitive
perceiving, remembering, or—in this case—reading. (cog´-ni-tiv) processes, then, include activities such

2 Chapter 1 Psychology Is in Our Lives

as perceiving, thinking, knowing, deciding, and remembering.
For example, if you read a news story on Facebook, what you
think about it is a cognitive process, and you may choose to
agree or disagree with it. Affect (af´-ekt) is a term that refers

Source: ESB Professional/Shutterstock.

to feelings, emotions, or moods. How you feel about the news
story would determine your affect regarding that story (e.g.,
Does it make you angry, happy, or sad?). For just about any-
thing you do or encounter in your world, you will likely have
cognitions (thoughts) and affect (feelings). It is important to
understand that your thoughts and feelings may or may not re-
late directly to your behavior. For example, if you read a news
story about hungry children, it may make you sad and angry.
These feelings might lead you to donate money to a charity to
help hungry children or volunteer to help directly. In this case,
your affect motivated you to behave in a certain way. On the
other hand, just because the story makes you sad and angry, Affect is the term that psychologists use when referring to
you may not necessarily do anything different behaviorally. the mental state related to a person’s emotional state or
Here we have a scheme we will encounter repeatedly: the mood, such as happiness.
ABCs that make up the subject matter of psychology. Psychol-
ogy is the science that studies affect, behavior, and cognition. To say that we understand a Affect (af´-ekt)—a term that
person at any given time, we must understand what that person is feeling (A), doing (B), refers to feelings, emotions, or
and thinking (C). moods.
The major difference between behaviors and mental processes is that while behaviors
are directly observable, mental processes are not. A person’s affect or cognitions have to be
inferred from the observation of behaviors. For example, we may infer that someone is sad
(an affective state) if we see him sitting slumped over and crying. We may infer that jurors
used certain pieces of evidence when coming to their decision (a cognitive process) on the
basis of what they tell us in a post-trial interview. Remember, we can observe directly what
people are doing (e.g., slumping over, finding a defendant guilty), but we cannot observe
directly how they are feeling or thinking (e.g., feeling sad, using certain evidence).
Here’s a point often overlooked: Most of the time, psychologists do focus their study
on the behaviors and/or the mental processes of their fellow humans. Although unstated
in our definition, psychologists often study non-human animals as well. We will see many
examples of psychological research that use animals in an effort to help us understand
human behaviors or mental processes. At the same time, some psychologists study the
behavior and mental activity of animals simply because they find them interesting and
worthy of study in their own right.
People in many walks of life can be said to “study behavior and mental processes.” Schol-
ars and laypersons alike have studied human nature for centuries. What makes psychology’s
study unique is its reliance on the methods of science. It is to this issue that we turn now.

STUDY CHECK
What is the subject matter of psychology?
What are affect and cognitions?

THINKING CRITICALLY
If you want to know how someone really feels, or what someone really thinks about
some issue, what are some of the problems that might arise from simply asking
them how they feel or what they think?

Chapter 1 Psychology Is in Our Lives 3

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