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 Behavior Settings 36
Privacy 37
Summary of Environmental Effects 37
Summary 38  ¢  Key Terms 38  ¢  Thought Questions 38

Part 2 Theories of Personality 39

3 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality 43

Biography 44
Basic Theoretical Concepts 46
Homeostasis and Hedonism 46
Psychological Energy 47
The Instincts 48
Psychological Determinism 48
Libido and Developmental Stages 49
Personality Structures 51
Anxiety 53
Defense Mechanisms 54
Repression and the Unconscious 54
Childhood Sexual Abuse and Repression 56
Other Defenses 57
Individual Differences in Defensive Preferences 58
Defense Mechanisms May Be Necessary 59
General Evaluation 59
Summary 60  ¢  Key Terms 60  ¢  Thought Questions 60

4 Psychoanalytic Dissidents and Descendants 61

Rivals to Freud 61
The Analytic Psychology of Carl Jung 62
Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology 67
Karen Horney 68
Erich Fromm 70
Psychoanalysis Since Freud 72
Erik Erikson 73
Psychoanalytic Ego Psychology 75
Object Relations Theory 77
Narcissism and the Self 80
Psychoanalysis in Flux 81
Summary 82  ¢  Key Terms 83  ¢  Thought Questions 83

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5 Learning Theory Approaches to Personality 85
Associationist (Stimulus-Response) Learning Theory 86
Habits and Drives 87
Personality Development 88
Reinforcement Theory 91
Radical Behaviorism 92
Lawfulness and Control 92
Increasing or Maintaining Behavior 93
Decreasing Behavior 94
Applications of Reinforcement Theory 95
Limitations of Reinforcement Theory 97
Social Learning Theory 98
Expectancy-Value Theory 98
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory 99
Limitations of Social Learning Theory 103
Cognitive Behavior Modification 104
Conditioning New Associations 104
Other Cognitive Changes 105
Summary 105  ¢  Key Terms 106  ¢  Thought Questions 106

6 Phenomenological Theories 107

Humanistic Theory 108
The Person-Centered Theory of Carl Rogers 109
Self-Actualization 109
Client-Centered Therapy 111
Maslow’s Organismic Humanism 112
The Need Hierarchy 112
The Actualized Person 114
Existential Humanism 115
Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory 116
The Human as Scientist 117
Constructive Alternativism 118
Formal Theory 119
The Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test 120
Emotions 121
Overview of Kelly’s Theory 122
Implicit Psychology 122
A Concluding Comment 123
Summary 123  ¢  Key Terms 124  ¢  Thought Questions 124

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 Part 3 The Structure of Personality 125

7 Foundations of Personality Measurement 127

The Prescientific Era 128
The Scientific Era 129
Reliability and Validity 131
Reliability 131
Validity 135
How Low Reliability Affects Validity 139
Summary 140  ¢  Key Terms 140  ¢  Thought Questions 140

8 Personality Assessment 141

Objective Personality Tests 142
Tests Based on Face Validity 143
Empirical Approaches 144
Factor Analysis 146
The Theoretical Model 147
Projective Personality Tests and Methods 148
The Rorschach Inkblot Test 148
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 150
Other Approaches to Personality Assessment 152
The Interview 153
Self-Report 154
Observers 154
Physiological Assessment 154
Summary 155  ¢  Key Terms 156  ¢  Thought Questions 156

9 Traits, Situations, and Their Interaction 157

Personality Types 158
Trait Theories 159
Cattell and Factor Analysis 159
Eysenck’s Hierarchy 159
The Big Five 161
Trait and Situational Theories 163
Mischel’s Argument 163
Attribution Theory 164
Alternative Assessment Strategies 166
The Interactionist Position 166
The Moderator Variable Approach 167
Aggregation Techniques 168

x Contents

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 Trait Psychology Revisited 169
State versus Trait 170
Conceptualizing Traits 171
Summary 172  ¢  Key Terms 172  ¢  Thought Questions 172

Part 4 Personality Development 173

10 The Development and Functions of the Self 175

The Self 176
Culture and the Self 176
Definitions of Self 176
The Self as a Concept 177
Self as Agent 178
Development of the Self-Concept 178
Self-Awareness 178
Further Developments of the Self-Concept 179
Self-Esteem 183
Self-Processes 184
Self-Monitoring 185
Self-Control 186
Positive and Negative Effects of Self-Awareness 186
Self-Motives 187
Self-Protection and Self-Enhancement 187
Self-Consistency 189
Personality Theories and the Self 190
The Self in Personality Theories 190
Summary 191  ¢  Key Terms 191  ¢  Thought Questions 191

11 Identity 193
Stages of Identity Formation: Erikson and Marcia 194
Beyond Four Statuses 197
Racial and Ethnic Identity 197
Sexual Orientation Identity Development 199
Gender Identity, Gender Typing, and Gender Differences 201
Gender Identity 201
Gender Differences 202
Gender Typing: Development of Gender Differences
and Gender Identity 205
Narrative and Identity 209
Summary 213  ¢  Key Terms 213  ¢  Thought Questions 213

Contents xi

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 12 Social Development and Patterns of Childrearing 215
Issues in Personality Development 216
Nature or Nurture? 216
Continuity or Stages? 217
Attachment Theory 218
Characteristics of Attachment 219
Mary Ainsworth and The Strange Situation 222
Caregiving and Attachment 223
Childhood Outcomes 224
Measurement in Adults 226
Socialization and the Family 228
Child-Rearing Patterns 228
Moral Development 231
The Superego and Moral Development 231
Stages of Moral Development: The Cognitive Approach 232
The Social Learning Approach 233
Prosocial Behaviors 234
Evolution of Positive Social Behaviors 234
Cooperation 235
Generosity and Caring 237
Empathy 237
Summary 239  ¢  Key Terms 239  ¢  Thought Questions 239

13 Development Through the Life Span 241

Personality Continuity and Change 241
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood 245
Biological Changes 246
Individual Variations 247
Autonomy and Conformity 247
Trait Level Changes 248
Continuity Between Adolescents and Parents 248
Adult Development 249
Adult Developmental Stages 250
Midlife “Crisis” 251
Continuity and Change in Adulthood 252
Old Age 254
Trait Stability into Old Age 254
Aging and Health 255
Competence and Survival 256

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 To Disengage or Not to Disengage 256
Demography 257
Summary 258  ¢  Key Terms 258  ¢  Thought Questions 258

Part 5 Personality Dynamics 259

14 The Dynamics of Behavior 261

A Historical Introduction 261
Psychodynamics from a Psychoanalytic Perspective 261
Behaviorism 262
Gestalt Psychology 263
Topics in the Study of Personality Dynamics 263
Conflict 264
Temporal, Spatial, and Discriminative Conflict 265
Lewin’s Classification System 265
Miller’s Conflict Model 266
Impulse Control and Delay of Gratification 268
Imaginary Images 269
Learning Theory Approaches 270
Expectancy and Delay of Gratification 270
Substitution 271
Frustration 273
Goals and Life Tasks 273
Summary 275  ¢  Key Terms 275  ¢  Thought Questions 275

15 Emotion and Stress 277

Emotion 277
Definition 278
Areas of Study 279
The Body as the Source 279
Two Factor Model 280
Cognitive Theories 282
An Attributional Approach to Emotions 283
Appraisal Approach to Emotions 284
The Structure of Emotion 285
Basic Emotions 285
Individual Differences in Emotional Reactivity 286
Mood 286

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 Stress 287
Life-Event Stress 287
Effects of Stress on Thinking 291
Coping with Stress 291
Appraisal and Problem-Focused Coping 292
Social Support 292
Individual Differences in Stress Reactions and Hardiness 294
Conclusion 294
Summary 295  ¢  Key Terms 295  ¢  Thought Questions 295

16 Consciousness 297
The Relationship of Consciousness to Nonconscious Information
Processing 298
Mindlessness 299
Automaticity 300
Priming 301
The Relationship of the Self to Consciousness 302
Are Nonconscious Processes “Smart” or “Dumb?” 303
Altered States of Consciousness 304
Sleep 304
Dreams 306
Hypnosis 309
Drugs 312
The Divided Self: Split-Brain Experiments
and Consciousness 313
Fantasy and Consciousness 315
Summary 316  ¢  Key Terms 316  ¢  Thought Questions 316

Part 6 Complex Personality Processes 317

17 Perceived Causality and Control 319

Perceived Control 320
Locus of Control 320
Learned Helplessness 322
Optimism 325
Efforts to Preserve a Sense of Personal Control 326
Self-Determination Theory 329
Achievement Motivation 330
The Measurement of Achievement Needs 331
Achievement Needs as a Personality Structure 331
Achievement Motivation and Economic Development 332

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 The Development of Achievement Needs 334
Atkinson’s Theory of Achievement Motivation 334
Attribution Theory and Achievement Strivings 336
Competence 339
Mindset 339
Integrating Perceived Control with Achievement Motivation and Competence 340
Attributions of Responsibility 340
Evaluation 341
Helping Behavior 342
Conclusion 342
Summary 342  ¢  Key Terms 343  ¢  Thought Questions 343

18 Love and Hate 345

Love’s Infinite Variety 346
Research on Love 347
A Triangular Model of Love 347
Passionate Love 349
Companionate Love 350
Intimacy 351
Attachment Styles 351
Choosing a Partner 353
Love and Sex 353
Love and Hate 354
Aggression 356
What Is Aggression? 356
Biological Aspects of Aggression 357
Physiological Influences 359
Genetics and Aggression 360
Cultural Influences 361
The Physical Environment 362
Personality Theories and the Antecedents of Aggression 364
Psychoanalytic Theory 364
Learning Theory Models of Aggression 365
Developmental Influences 371
Child-Rearing Practices 371
Child Abuse 372
Aggression as a Personality Trait 372
Hostile Attribution Bias 373
Narcissism 373
Catharsis and the Regulation of Aggression 374

Contents xv

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 Catharsis 374
Cognitive Control Mediators and Prosocial Expression of Anger 375
Altering Stimulus Meaning 375
Summary 375  ¢  Key Terms 376  ¢  Thought Questions 376

19 Summing Up 377
Interactionism 377
The Multidimensionality of the Person 380
The Self 381
Personality as a Science 382
The Future 383
Personality Structure 384
Individual Differences and Their Development 385
Personality Dynamics 385
An Integrated Theory of Personality 386
Summary 387  ¢  Thought Questions 387

Glossary 389
References 397
Index of Names 449
Index of Concepts 457

xvi Contents

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Preface

In a sense, we are all personality psychologists. We are making an inference about the
genetics of personality when we say, “She has her father’s personality.” We are judging
child-rearing practices when we note, “They’re good parents.” We are noticing the stabil-
ity of personality when we complain that, “He has always been stubborn.”
Personality is intended for an undergraduate audience at two- and four-year colleges
and universities. An extensive background in psychology is not a prerequisite for the use
of the book. We have tried to produce a text written for students at the college level. We
have tried to respect most students’ ability and have not written down to them.
More so than most topics in psychology, personality psychology textbooks can be de-
scribed in terms of style, rather than content. Some focus on grand theories, others focus
on recent research. This textbook includes some of both perspectives. Most chapters in
the second half of the book address topics from the perspective of the theories laid out in
the first half. This approach provides an integrative framework for understanding these
issues. It is likely that some approaches will work better or be more intuitive than others.
However, it is useful to take the time to understand the approaches that aren’t so intuitive
in that context. It is also a good exercise to critically evaluate those approaches.
Often the problem with the grand theories is that they tend to not be parsimonious and
fail with regard to empirical validity. The grand theories tend to be older and the style is
quite different from the more recent, and often smaller, theories. The grand theories do
contribute heuristic value; that is, they give the reader a way to think about how and why
people behave as they do. The psychoanalytic approach is referred to often in the book,
and has some serious problems, but there is no doubt that was a crucial theory for devel-
oping psychotherapy.
The new research approach tends to be smaller in aims, and more grounded in empir-
ical validity. A textbook that focuses on new research, however, tends to neglect some of
the classic but very important and useful theory and research. Learning theory approaches
to personality have great explanatory power and are very useful for behavior change. The
conflict models and frustration-aggression models are both parsimonious and empirically
supported. But the reference dates sure do look old. Remember that old research, well
conducted, is still good research.
This edition has updates to every chapter, but the basic format has been maintained
from previous editions. Given the comprehensive coverage of the book, it is likely the
instructor may want to choose which chapters to assign. As a student, you are certainly
welcome to read the unassigned chapters.
This book offers a range of features and tools to help students develop and test their
understanding of core concepts and topics.
An accessible and relevant text that offers a unique narrative—A natural and relaxed
„„
writing style promotes a sense of a conversation between the authors and student.
Comprehensive coverage of current topics and scholarly research—The text has
„„
been thoroughly updated to reflect recent research, theories, and scholarship from
across the discipline.
Flexible format and organization—The text provides the core theoretical
„„
foundations of Personality while offering instructors the flexibility to incorporate a
variety of outside course materials and cases.

xvii

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 Extensive use of real-world examples—Each chapter contains a wide variety of
„„
real-world examples that illustrate text concepts and demonstrate the connection
between theory and applications.
Student-friendly pedagogy and features—Chapter outlines, key terms and on-
„„
page marginal key-term definitions, “Highlight” box inserts, numerous photos,
graphs, tables, figures, chapter summaries, and Thought Questions, and key terms
support student learning, retention, and critical analysis.
Complete Instructor’s Support Package—The support package includes the
„„
Instructor’s Resource Manual, Test Item File, and PowerPoint Lecture Slides.

Online and in Print

Student Options: Print and Online Versions
This fifth edition of Personality is available in multiple versions: online, in PDF, and in
print as either a paperback or loose-leaf text. The content of each version is identical.
The most affordable version is the online book, with upgrade options including the
online version bundled with a print version. What’s nice about the print version is that
it offers you the freedom of being unplugged—away from your computer. The people at
Academic Media Solutions recognize that it’s difficult to read from a screen at length and
that most of us read much faster from a piece of paper. The print options are particularly
useful when you have extended print passages to read.
The online edition allows you to take full advantage of embedded digital features,
including search and notes. Use the search feature to locate and jump to discussions
anywhere in the book. Use the notes feature to add personal comments or annotations.
You can move out of the book to follow Web links. You can navigate within and between
chapters using a clickable table of contents. These features allow you to work at your
own pace and in your own style, as you read and surf your way through the material.
(See “Harnessing the Online Version’’ for more tips on working with the online version.)

Harnessing the Online Version

The online version of Personality, 5e, offers the following features to facilitate learning
and to make using the book an easy, enjoyable experience:
Easy-to-navigate/clickable table of contents—You can surf through the book
„„
quickly by clicking on chapter headings, or first- or second-level section headings.
And the Table of Contents can be accessed from anywhere in the book.
Key terms search—Type in a term, and a search engine will return every instance of
„„
that term in the book; then jump directly to the selection of your choice with one click.
Notes and highlighting—The online version includes study apps such as notes
„„
and highlighting. Each of these apps can be found in the tools icon embedded in
the Academic Media Solutions/Textbook Media’s online eBook reading platform
(http://www.academicmediasolutions.com).
Upgrades—The online version includes the ability to purchase additional study
„„
apps and functionality that enhance the learning experience.

Instructor Supplements
In addition to its student-friendly features and pedagogy, the variety of student formats
available, and the uniquely affordable pricing options that are designed to provide stu-
dents with a flexibility that fits any budget and/or learning style, Personality, 5e, comes
with the following teaching and learning aids:
Test Item File—An extensive set of multiple-choice, short answer, and essay
„„
questions for every chapter for creating original quizzes and exams.

xviii Preface

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 Instructor’s Manual—An enhanced version of the book offering assistance in
„„
preparing lectures, identifying learning objectives, developing essay exams and
assignments, and constructing course syllabi.
PowerPoint Presentations—Key points in each chapter are illustrated in a set of
„„
PowerPoint files designed to assist with instruction.

Student Supplements and Upgrades (Additional Purchase

Required)
Lecture Guide—This printable lecture guide is designed for student use and is
„„
available as an in-class resource or study tool. Note: Instructors can request the
PowerPoint version of these slides to use as developed or to customize.

Acknowledgments
We are grateful to those who reviewed the manuscript for previous editions: Sylvia San-
tos, California State University, Dominguez Hills; Hal Arkowitz, University of Arizona;
Etzel Cardena, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences; Paul M. From-
son, Elon College; Stella D. Garcia, University of Texas, San Antonio; Bill C. Henry,
Colby College; Anita E. Kelly, University of Notre Dame; Carolyn C. Morf, University of
Utah; Robert W. Newby, Tarleton State University; Michael F. Shaughnessy, Eastern New
Mexico University; T. Gale Thompson, Bethany College; Bill Thornton, University of
Southern Maine; and Paul H. Wright, University of North Dakota We also want to thank
Virginia Harrelson Lilian Gonzales and Lorraine Woods for their assistance in tracking
down relevant articles.
Finally, we would like to thank Mark Covey, Concordia College; Gwyneth Beagley,
Alma College; Wally Beagley, Alma College; and Paula Niedenthal, University of Wis-
consin; for support at various points in the project. We would also like to thank Emily
Kirby, Kilee DeBrabander, and Megan Setterlund for their extensive help. We would also
like to thank Dan Luciano for development of the concept of affordable college textbooks
and his encouragement to write the book, and Victoria Putman of Putman Productions for
the production and editorial direction she provided to make this book a reality.

Preface xix

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About the Authors

Marc Setterlund is a Professor of Psychology at Alma College. He has served

as the associate provost of the college, as well as department chair. He earned his B.A.
from Gustavus Adolphus College, and his Ph.D. from The Johns Hopkins University. He
has been teaching Personality Psychology for over twenty years to students at liberal arts
colleges. In addition, he has taught social psychology, human sexuality, research meth-
ods, statistics, and a travel-abroad course about the origins of psychology in Vienna and
­Germany. He has published and conducted research on the self-concept, self-esteem,
emotion, sexual decision making, and the effects of ostracism.

Seymour Feshbach earned his B.A. from the City College of New York (CCNY),
after being discharged from the army, and his Ph.D. from Yale University. After receiving
his Ph.D., he was recalled to active duty and served in the Korean War. He is a profes-
sor emeritus at the University of Pennsylvania and at the University of California, Los
­Angeles. His major area of interest was the dynamics of aggressive behavior, especially
the reduction of aggression. His later research focused on other areas, particularly the
analysis of patriotism and nationalism.

Bernard Weiner received his undergraduate degree from the University of Chicago
and his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan. Since 1965, he has been at the University
of California, Los Angeles, where he is currently Distinguished Professor of Psychology.
He has written, coauthored, or edited l6 books, including Judgments of ­Responsibility
(l995), and Social Motivation, Justice, and the Moral Emotions (2006), as well as pub-
lished more than 225 articles. He has been awarded the Donald Campbell Research Award
and the Edward L. Thorndike Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Psycho-
logical Association, the Distinguished Scientist Award from the Society of Experimental
Social Psychology, and is a member of the National Academy of E ­ ducation. In addition
to a Distinguished Teaching Award, he holds honorary degrees from the University of
Bielefeld, Germany; Turku University, Finland; and the University of Manitoba, Canada.

Arthur C. Bohart received his undergraduate degree in mathematics and psy­

chology from the University of California, Santa Barbara. He received his Ph.D. from
the ­University of California, Los Angeles. He is a retired professor emeritus at both
California State University Dominguez Hills and at Saybrook University. He is the co­author
or coeditor of several books, including How Clients Make Therapy Work: The Process of
­Active Self-Healing, Constructive and Destructive Behavior, Empathy Reconsidered, and
­Humanity’s Dark Side. His work has focused on the nature and effects of ­empathy, the
client’s role in psychotherapy, psychotherapy integration, and evidence-based practice in
psychotherapy.

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Introduction

Source: HelgaLin/Shutterstock

Definition of Personality
The field of personality is enormously complex and diverse. As a student
taking this class, you may be interested in questions such as What is my
personality—what are my fundamental characteristics? How changeable is my
personality? How did I acquire my personality? How is my personality orga-
nized? What factors determine my behavior—my motives, my self, my traits,
my thoughts, my emotions? How do all those factors interact and interrelate?
How can I understand others’ personality? Are all aspects of my personality
conscious, or are some parts determined by unconscious forces—how well
can I know myself? What role do my emotions play in my personality and my
behavior? Why are some people more able than others to handle stress and
conflict? Are humans basically aggressive or basically loving?

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 The field of personality addresses the most basic questions of what it means to be a
functioning human being. Because many writers and theorists have taken different ap-
proaches and emphasized different aspects, it is difficult to define personality in a way
that will satisfy everyone. For the person on the street, personality most fundamentally
refers to what is distinctive about an individual. People describe themselves and their
friends in terms of what is distinctive about them: he is shy, quiet, and sensitive; she is
outgoing, friendly, and open to different experiences. In addition, people often use the
term personality to refer to someone who is not only distinctive but interesting in a pos-
itive way. Thus, they might say that someone “has a lot of personality,” meaning that the
person stands out in charm, colorfulness, or interesting characteristics. When people say
that someone has “no personality,” they mean that there is little about the person that is
distinctive, interesting, or colorful.
For some psychologists, personality is largely defined in terms of the enduring charac-
teristics that differ from person to person, that is, in terms of individual differences. Thus,
for many, personality is typically equated with personality traits. However, personality
can also be considered to include one’s motives, thoughts, emotions, beliefs, and values.
Further, one’s personality may depend on how all these things are organized.
In this text, we adopt a broader view of personality than simply the focus on individual
differences. For us, the field of personality consists of the study of all the issues and topics
we have mentioned, and how they interrelate. In essence, it deals with the study of all the
factors that play a role in how an individual’s overall functioning is organized.
The study of personality intersects with other aspects of psychology. Just as how we
perceive and learn is relevant to our overall functioning, so is our genetic endowment. Our
overall functioning is also influenced by social and cultural variables. What distinguishes
the study of personality from the study of social and cultural psychology is that we focus
on how those many variables influence the functioning of the individual. How our person-
alities develop is also a topic of relevance, and, therefore, the field of personality inter-
sects with that of developmental psychology. Finally, how personality functioning can go
awry is an important part of personality. Therefore, the field of personality overlaps with
the fields of abnormal and clinical psychology as well.
In sum, for us, personality refers to (1) the relatively enduring behavior patterns that
distinguish individuals from one another, (2) the overall organization and structure of in-
dividuals’ behavior patterns, and (3) the patterns of interactions between this organization
and both external factors—such as cultural, environmental, and social variables—and
internal factors—such as motivations, emotions, and thoughts.

The Field of Personality and the Structure

of This Textbook
Because of its great complexity and diversity, the field of personality presents a great chal-
lenge to both the student and the psychologist. Many individuals associate this field of study
with grand theorists, such as Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, who postulated comprehensive
schemes that attempted to explain phenomena as far ranging as war, neurosis, and dream
symbolism. But the formulation of a general theory of personality is just one aspect of a
vast mosaic. Other personality psychologists focus on less ambitious, and more attainable,
goals. A number of personality psychologists have been concerned with the structure of
personality—identifying basic traits, such as introversion or the need for achievement, and
ascertaining how they can be best assessed. Others have examined how these characteris-
tics come into existence—that is, the genetic and experiential determinants of personality
development. Still other personality psychologists are interested in personality dynamics,
or how personality structures interact with the environment to generate behavior. Issues
such as stress, conflict, and frustration are part of the study of the dynamics of personality.
The four main divisions in the study of personality—theory, structure, development,
and dynamics—are not completely separate. For example, Freud’s general theory includes
a discussion of personality structure (such as the “anal” character), how such a trait might

xxii Introduction

03/15/2020 - tp-27044ee4-66fe-11ea-9b5c-024 (temp temp) - Personality

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