Chemical structures

giant ionic giant

structure metallic
e.g. table structure
salt e.g.
copper

giant covalent
structure simple molecules
e.g. e.g.water
diamond
Giant Ionic Structures
In substances which have ionic bonding, the ions are arranged in geometric 3D patterns
which go on “forever” (i.e. over extremely long distances compared to the size of the ions).

We call this a giant ionic structure (or

lattice). All ionic compounds have giant
ionic structures.

You need to be The electrostatic attraction of each ion

able to draw affects all the other ions around it. It
something like acts equally in all directions.
this !

Halite (NaCl)
Properties of substances with giant ionic structures:

structure type of bonding hardness melting and electrical

boiling points conductivity

Giant ionic Ionic (metal to Hard and brittle, High Solid – No

lattice non-metal) crystalline Molten/solution - Yes

High melting and boiling points:

Melting or boiling requires the lattice to be broken down so the ions can move around.
Throughout the lattice the ionic bonds are very strong it takes a lot of (heat) energy to
break the lattice apart so that the ions are free to move.

What affects how high the melting point is ?

Compare the melting points of these ionic compounds:
NaCl: Na+ and Cl- 801°C
MgO: Mg2+ and O2- 2852°C

The higher the charges on the ions are, the stronger the electrostatic attraction between
the ions is, and hence the more energy is needed to break these bonds to melt, or boil the
substance. Higher charges = higher melting/boiling points
Crystalline Structure
The regular arrangement of ions in the lattice gives these substances their crystalline
structure and shape.
Ionic crystals are brittle because once a layer of ions in the crystal has been forced to
move, ions of the same charge will be next to each other, and they will repel, splitting the
crystal.

Crocoite (PbCrO4)

Tourmaline
Gypsum (CaSO4)
(e.g. NaLi3Al6B3Si6O27F4)
Electrical Conductivity
In order to conduct electricity, there must be charge carriers (charged particles) which are
free to move.
Giant ionic lattices have charge carriers (ions) but solid ionic compounds do not conduct
electricity because the ions are fixed in position in the giant ionic lattice so unable to
move.

When liquid (melted) and when in

solution, ionic compounds do conduct
electricity because the ions are free to
move, carrying the electrical charge
Simple molecular structures

These pictures illustrate some

common substances with covalent
bonding – you should notice that they
are all liquids or gases at room
temperature. This tells us that they all
have low melting and boiling points.
Substances with covalent bonding are often made up of
individual molecules. We call this a simple molecular
structure. Inside each molecule, strong covalent bonds hold
the atoms together, but between the molecules there are only
weak forces holding one molecule to another.

full of Br2
molecules
Properties of substances with simple molecular structure:
structure type of bonding melting and Electrical Hardness
boiling points conductivity

Simple Covalent Low Solid – No Typically soft

molecules (non-metal to Liquid – No and not brittle
non-metal) Solution - No

Melting and boiling points are low because the intermolecular forces between the
individual molecules are weak. Overcoming these forces does not take much energy. NO
BONDS NEED TO BE BROKEN TO MELT OR BOIL SIMPLE MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES!

melting and compared to

boiling points melting and
of some typical boiling points
simple of some giant
molecules ionic lattices

Substances with simple molecular structures do not conduct electricity, either when
solid or when liquid (melted), because there are no charge carriers (no ions or
delocalised electrons) to carry the electrical charge.
Macromolecules
Macromolecules are simple molecules, but they are VERY LARGE
- containing many atoms, arranged in a geometric structure.
Like any simple molecules they have weak intermolecular forces
between the macromolecules, hence low melting and boiling
points. C60
buckminsterfullerene
Fullerenes are macromolecules containing carbon atoms in
Sir Harry Kroto (a UK
linked rings (often hexagonal). These form cage- or tube-like
chemist) got a Nobel Prize
structures.
for discovering C60 in 1985.

A variety of fullerenes have been made, in different shapes including

carbon nanotubes, which are extremely strong.

Applications:
- drug delivery into the body
- lubricants
- new catalysts
- reinforcing materials e.g. in tennis rackets
Giant Covalent lattices
Atoms that share electrons by covalent bonding can sometimes form large
networks of covalent bonds (lattices) called giant covalent structures.

This is most common with Group 4 elements and their compounds.

Examples include
• graphite and diamond (two forms of carbon)
• quartz (silicon dioxide)

Properties of substances with giant covalent lattices:

structure type of bonding melting and Electrical Hardness

boiling points conductivity
Giant covalent High Solid – No Very hard,
covalent (non-metal to Liquid – No crystalline
lattice non-metal) Solution - No (except graphite)
Substances with giant covalent lattice structures are hard materials, because the bonds
holding the atoms in place are strong.
They don’t conduct electricity – there are no charge carriers (no ions or delocalised
electrons) to carry the electrical charge. EXCEPT GRAPHITE!

Because it takes a lot of energy to break the strong covalent bonds throughout the lattice:
- They are chemically very unreactive
- They have very high melting and boiling points

Structure of diamond Each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon

atoms, arranged tetrahedrally thoughout the lattice.
The structure is therefore a 3D network of single
covalent bonds.

Use of diamond:
Because diamond is very hard, it is a good material to
use for the cutting edges of drills or saws which must
cut through hard materials such as metals or ceramics.

Its high melting point means it won’t melt even when

the cutting edge gets very hot due to the friction.
You need to be able to
draw something like this !
Graphite
In graphite, the atoms are bonded in giant layers, with each
carbon atom covalently bonded to 3 neighbours.
The layers are attracted to one another by weak
intermolecular forces, so the layers easily slide over each other
making graphite softer than diamond.
The bonds throughout a layer are strong, so melting and
boiling points are high.
The ‘extra’ outer shell electron from each carbon atom is
delocalised so it is able to move through the lattice, and
therefore can carry an electrical charge. Graphite therefore You need to be able to
conducts electricity. draw something like this !

Use of graphite:
Because graphite is softer than diamond, the layers slide over one another. This property
makes graphite useful in pencils and as a lubricant.
Because graphite is fairly inert
(unreactive), has a high melting
point, and can conduct
electricity, it is used where
electrical contacts must be
made to moving parts, e.g. in
motors.
Giant Metallic lattices
The arrangement of layers of metal ions,
surrounded by delocalised electrons is
called a Giant Metallic structure (or
lattice). Many of the properties of metals
are due to their bonding and structure.

Properties:
structure type of bonding melting and Electrical Hardness
boiling points conductivity
Giant metallic High Yes – solid Hard, not brittle (can be
metallic (metal to metal) and liquid bent and shaped)
lattice

High melting and boiling points

Because the metallic bonds throughout the lattice are very strong it takes a lot of (heat)
energy to break the lattice apart so that the metal ions are free to move. This is why metals
have high melting and boiling points.
The higher the charge on the metal ion, the stronger the metallic bonds will be, and so the
higher the melting point.
e.g. Magnesium (Mg2+) has a higher melting point than sodium (Na+)
Good electrical conductors
The delocalised electrons in a metal can move throughout the lattice. These
are charge carriers, so metals conduct electricity whether solid or molten.

Good conductors of heat

Metals are also good conductors of heat because the
delocalised electrons can spread the vibrational (heat)
energy through the metal lattice.

Ductile and Malleable

The layers of metal ions in a pure metal can slide over
each other – this is why metals can be hammered and
bent into different shapes (malleable), or drawn out into
wires (ductile).

NOT brittle
Because the electrons are free to move, the layers
don’t break apart when they slide over each other –
the electrons keep the layers bonded together.
Alloys

Definition: An alloy is a metal which has been mixed with small amounts of other
elements (usually metals) to give it special properties e.g. greater hardness.

Pure metal: metal ions same size so

SOFT layers can slide over each
other

Different size ions disrupt

Alloy:
the layers – so they can’t
HARDER
slide over each other

Examples:
• steel – an alloy of iron with other metals e.g. chromium (stainless
steel) which stops the iron rusting, and makes it harder for use in
tools.
• brass – an alloy of copper and zinc. It only tarnishes slowly, and is
used e.g. for door knobs, and musical instruments.
• solder – an alloy of zinc and lead. It is used in electronics to fix
components to circuit boards.
• amalgam – an alloy of mercury with silver or tin. It is used for dental
fillings because it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Pure gold jewellery?
Gold jewellery is always an alloy of gold with other metals,
because pure gold would be too soft, so it would bend easily,
or wear away quickly.
The familiar yellow gold is an
White gold is an alloy of gold alloy of gold with copper and
with nickel, platinum or silver. Adding more copper
palladium. than silver gives pink gold.

Smart alloys
A shape memory alloy (SMA) or smart alloy returns to its original shape after being
deformed.
The alloy has a special temperature (the memory temperature).
- below this temperature it can be bent and shaped
- once heated above the memory temperature it goes back to its “remembered” shape
Nitinol is an SMA made SMA is used in dental braces.
from nickel and When cooled, it can be bent to
titanium. It is used to fit around teeth that are out of
make spectacles that position. When it warms up in
‘remember’ their shape the mouth it returns to its
and do not break when correct shape, pulling the
crushed. teeth into alignment.