MODULE 2

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TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS

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Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Waves-- Snell’s law and critical angles
Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves with frequencies above the range of human hearing.
They are used in various applications, including medical imaging, industrial testing, and
underwater communication. Understanding Snell's law and critical angles in the context of
ultrasonic waves is essential for their effective use in these applications.

1. Snell's Law:
Snell's law, also known as the law of refraction, describes how waves, including ultrasonic
waves, change direction when they pass from one medium into another with a different
propagation velocity. The law is named after the Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snellius.
In the context of ultrasonic waves, Snell's law is used when these waves pass from one material
(with one acoustic velocity) into another material (with a different acoustic velocity). It helps
calculate the angle at which the ultrasonic wave will be refracted within the new material. This is
crucial in applications like medical ultrasound imaging, where sound waves travel through
tissues of varying densities.

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2. Critical Angle:
The critical angle is a specific angle of incidence at which Snell's law predicts that the angle of
refraction will be 90 degrees (the refracted wave will travel along the interface). Beyond this
angle, total internal reflection occurs, meaning that no refraction into the second medium
happens, and all the wave energy stays within the first medium.

For ultrasonic waves, the critical angle is crucial in applications like non-destructive testing
(NDT), where it helps determine the angle at which a wave should be incident on a material's
surface to ensure it doesn't refract into the air but instead propagates within the material. This
technique allows for efficient inspection of materials without the need for direct contact with the
transducer.

In summary, Snell's law and the concept of critical angles are fundamental principles in
understanding how ultrasonic waves propagate through different media and are essential in
various applications, including medical imaging and non-destructive testing.

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.

Fresnel and Fraunhofer effects– wave propagation in other engineering materials

The Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction effects describe the behavior of waves as they encounter
obstacles or apertures, and they are applicable to various types of waves, including
electromagnetic waves (e.g., light) and acoustic waves (e.g., sound or ultrasound). These
principles are used to understand wave propagation in different engineering materials and have
applications in areas such as optics, acoustics, and non-destructive testing (NDT).

1. Fresnel Diffraction:

Fresnel diffraction occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or aperture that is relatively close
to the source of the wave or the observation point. It involves the interaction of both spherical
and planar wavefronts.

Applications in Engineering Materials:

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Optics: In optical systems, Fresnel diffraction is important for understanding how light waves
propagate through small apertures, optical components, and around obstacles. It is used in the
design of lenses, cameras, and laser systems.

Antenna Design: In the field of radio frequency engineering, Fresnel diffraction is considered
when designing antennas, especially in near-field conditions.

2. Fraunhofer Diffraction:

Fraunhofer diffraction, also known as far-field diffraction, occurs when the wave source, the
obstacle, and the observation point are all sufficiently far apart, making the wavefronts nearly
parallel by the time they reach the obstacle or aperture.

Applications in Engineering Materials:

Optical Imaging: In optical microscopy and telescopes, Fraunhofer diffraction is used to produce
images of objects. It helps determine the resolution and quality of the image formed.

Acoustic Waves: In acoustics, Fraunhofer diffraction is relevant when analyzing the behavior of
sound waves as they propagate in the far field, such as when designing concert halls or outdoor
sound systems.

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): In ultrasonic NDT, Fraunhofer diffraction is used to analyze

how ultrasound waves propagate through materials. It aids in detecting defects, measuring
thickness, and characterizing materials.

Wave Propagation in Engineering Materials:

Both Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction effects are relevant when analyzing wave propagation in
engineering materials:

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Light: In optics, these effects help understand how light propagates through lenses, apertures,
and optical components, contributing to the design of optical instruments.

Sound and Ultrasound: In acoustics and ultrasonics, these principles help engineers analyze the
behavior of sound waves as they interact with structures and materials, enabling applications in
materials testing and imaging.

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): In NDT, the principles of diffraction are essential for
assessing the integrity of engineering materials by analyzing how waves, such as ultrasound,
interact with internal structures and defects within the material.

In summary, the Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction effects are fundamental concepts in wave
physics that have widespread applications in engineering materials, optics, acoustics, and NDT.
They play a crucial role in designing and understanding various engineering systems and
instruments.
Generation of ultrasonic waves– contact testing, immersion testing
Ultrasonic waves are commonly generated in non-destructive testing (NDT) for inspecting
materials and structures. The two primary methods for generating ultrasonic waves in NDT are
contact testing and immersion testing. These methods are used to direct ultrasonic energy into a
material for the purpose of detecting defects, measuring thickness, and characterizing material
properties. Here's how each of these methods works:

1. Contact Testing:

Contact testing, also known as direct contact testing or pulse-echo testing, involves placing a
transducer in direct contact with the surface of the material being inspected. The transducer emits
ultrasonic waves into the material, and it also receives the reflected waves (echoes) from internal
features or boundaries within the material. Here's the process in more detail:

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Transducer: A piezoelectric transducer is commonly used for contact testing. This transducer
converts electrical energy into mechanical vibrations and vice versa. When an electrical pulse is
applied to the transducer, it generates ultrasonic waves that travel into the material.

Gel or Couplant: To ensure good acoustic coupling between the transducer and the material, a
gel or couplant is applied to the surface. This eliminates air gaps that could interfere with the
transmission of ultrasonic waves.

Propagation and Reflection: The ultrasonic waves travel into the material, and when they
encounter boundaries or defects within the material, they are partially reflected back to the
transducer.

Echo Reception: The transducer, now acting as a receiver, detects the echoes and converts them
back into electrical signals. The time delay between the emitted pulse and the received echo is
used to calculate the distance to the reflecting surface or defect.

Data Analysis: The received signals are processed to create a visual representation (such as an
A-scan or B-scan) of the material's internal structure, allowing inspectors to identify defects and
measure material properties.

Applications of Contact Testing:

Contact testing is commonly used in applications like weld inspections, thickness measurements,
and flaw detection in metals and composites.

2. Immersion Testing:

Immersion testing, as the name suggests, involves immersing the test object in a liquid, typically
water, to facilitate the propagation of ultrasonic waves. Immersion testing is often used when
inspecting large or complex objects that are difficult to examine using contact testing. Here's
how it works:

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Transducer and Immersion Tank: A specialized transducer, known as an immersion
transducer, is used. The test object is placed in an immersion tank filled with water, and the
transducer is immersed in the water.

Coupling and Wave Propagation: The water serves as a coupling medium, allowing the
ultrasonic waves to propagate efficiently into the test object. The waves travel through the water
and into the material being inspected.

Reflection and Reception: When the ultrasonic waves encounter internal features or defects
within the material, they are reflected back into the water.

Echo Reception and Analysis: The transducer, still immersed in the water, receives the
reflected echoes and converts them into electrical signals. These signals are analyzed to create
images or visual representations of the material's internal structure.

Applications of Immersion Testing:

Immersion testing is commonly used for inspecting large aerospace components, composite
materials, and complex structures like turbine blades, where it may be challenging to achieve
good acoustic coupling with direct contact.

Both contact testing and immersion testing are valuable techniques in the field of non-destructive
testing, offering the ability to detect defects, measure material properties, and ensure the integrity
of various engineering materials and components. The choice between these methods depends on
the specific application and the size and accessibility of the test object.
Types of wave propagation in Ultrasonic testing
Ultrasonic testing (UT) uses high-frequency sound waves to inspect materials and detect defects
or characterize material properties. There are two primary modes of wave propagation used in
ultrasonic testing: longitudinal waves (L-waves) and shear waves (S-waves). These waves have
distinct characteristics and are used for specific inspection purposes.

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1. Longitudinal Waves (L-Waves):

Longitudinal waves, often referred to as compression waves or primary waves (P-waves),

propagate through materials by causing particles of the material to move in the same direction as
the wave itself.

Characteristics:
They are characterized by alternating compressions and rarefactions, where the material particles
move back and forth in the direction of wave propagation.
L-waves are the fastest and have the highest velocity among ultrasonic waves.
They can travel through both solids and liquids, making them versatile for various materials.

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L-waves are typically the first to arrive at a receiving transducer in ultrasonic testing.
Applications:
L-waves are commonly used for general ultrasonic thickness measurements and flaw detection in
materials, as they are efficient at penetrating deep into the material.

2. Shear Waves (S-Waves) or Transverse Waves:

Shear waves, also known as transverse waves or secondary waves (S-waves), propagate through
materials by causing particles to move perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
Characteristics:
S-waves involve shear or sideways motion of material particles.
They are slower than L-waves and have lower velocity.
S-waves can only propagate through materials that have shear strength, such as solids (metals,
composites, etc.), and are not suitable for liquids or gases.
S-waves are typically used for detecting surface and near-surface defects.
Applications:

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S-waves are often employed in weld inspection, where they are more sensitive to certain types of
defects like cracks and lack of fusion near the weld surface.
In addition to L-waves and S-waves, other specialized wave modes can also be generated and
utilized in ultrasonic testing, depending on the specific inspection requirements and material
properties. Some of these modes include:

3. Surface Waves (Rayleigh Waves):

Surface waves travel along the surface of a material and are characterized by both longitudinal
and shear motion.
They are used for inspecting materials for surface-breaking defects, such as cracks and
delaminations, and are effective at identifying these types of flaws.

4. Lamb Waves:

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Lamb waves are guided waves that propagate through thin plates or shells.
They are commonly used for inspecting large structures like pipelines and aircraft components,
where they can cover a wide area for defect detection.

Ultrasonic guided waves

Ultrasonic guided waves are a type of mechanical wave that propagate through a solid material,
typically in a bounded structure like a plate, pipe, or rail. These waves are guided by the
geometry of the material and are used for various non-destructive testing (NDT) and monitoring
applications. Ultrasonic guided waves offer advantages such as the ability to inspect large
structures over long distances and the capability to detect defects in difficult-to-access areas.
Here are some key aspects of ultrasonic guided waves:

1. Types of Ultrasonic Guided Waves:

There are several types of guided waves, with the most common ones being:
Lamb Waves: Lamb waves involve both longitudinal and transverse motion and are commonly
used for plate-like structures.
Rayleigh Waves: Rayleigh waves are surface waves that travel along the boundary of a material.
Horizontal Shear Waves: These waves cause vertical particle motion and are used in some
applications.
2. Generation of Guided Waves:

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Guided waves are typically generated using specialized transducers called wedge transducers or
delay-line transducers.
The transducer is placed on the surface of the material and generates waves that travel along the
material's surface or through its thickness.
3. Propagation Modes:

Guided waves can propagate in various modes, including symmetric (S0), asymmetric (A0), and
higher-order modes (e.g., S1, A1, etc.).
Each mode has its unique characteristics, including wave velocity and sensitivity to different
types of defects.
4. Applications:

Ultrasonic guided waves find applications in a wide range of industries, including:

Pipelines: Guided waves are used for inspecting long pipelines for corrosion, cracks, and other
defects. They can cover long distances without the need for extensive excavation.
Aerospace: Guided waves are employed to inspect aircraft structures, wings, and fuselages for
hidden defects.
Railways: They are used for inspecting rails, detecting cracks and other defects.
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM): Guided waves are utilized to monitor the structural
integrity of bridges, buildings, and other critical structures over time.
Manufacturing: In manufacturing, guided waves can be used for inspecting composite materials
and welded structures.
5. Challenges:

Guided wave testing can be complex due to the multiple modes and dispersion effects associated
with guided waves. Interpretation of results may require sophisticated signal processing
techniques.
Guided waves may be affected by the geometry and material properties of the structure being
inspected.
6. Advantages:

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Guided wave testing offers advantages like long-range inspection capabilities, the ability to
inspect hidden or hard-to-reach areas, and the capacity to screen large structures quickly.
Overall, ultrasonic guided waves are a valuable tool in the field of non-destructive testing and
structural health monitoring, providing a means to inspect and monitor the integrity of structures
efficiently and effectively.
Laser Ultrasonics

Laser ultrasonics, also known as laser-generated ultrasound or laser-based ultrasonic testing, is

an advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) technique that utilizes lasers to generate and detect
ultrasonic waves in materials. This technique offers several advantages, such as high precision,
non-contact operation, and the ability to inspect materials with complex geometries. Here's how
laser ultrasonics works and some of its applications:

How Laser Ultrasonics Works:

1. Laser Generation: Laser ultrasonics begins with the generation of ultrasonic waves using a
pulsed laser. A laser beam is focused onto the surface of the material to create a localized heating
and expansion of the material. This rapid expansion generates ultrasonic waves that propagate
into the material.

2. Ultrasonic Wave Propagation: The generated ultrasonic waves travel through the material,
reflecting and interacting with internal structures, defects, and boundaries. The waves may
undergo various interactions, including reflection, refraction, and scattering, depending on the
material's properties.

3. Detection: To detect the ultrasonic waves, a second laser beam, often called a probe laser, is
directed onto the material's surface. The probe laser beam interacts with the surface vibrations
caused by the ultrasonic waves, leading to changes in the probe laser's properties, such as
intensity or frequency.

4. Interferometry: Interferometric techniques, such as Michelson or Fabry-Perot interferometry,

are commonly used to measure these changes in the probe laser. The interference patterns
provide information about the amplitude and phase of the ultrasonic waves, allowing for precise
analysis.

5. Data Processing: The acquired data can be processed to create images or visual
representations of the material's internal structure. This includes identifying defects, measuring
material properties like thickness, and characterizing material anisotropy.

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Applications of Laser Ultrasonics:

Laser ultrasonics is a versatile technique with applications in various industries, including:

Materials Characterization: Laser ultrasonics is used to determine material properties such as

elastic constants, acoustic attenuation, and anisotropy. It is valuable in materials science and
research.

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): In aerospace, automotive, and manufacturing industries, laser

ultrasonics is employed to inspect critical components for defects, including cracks,
delaminations, and voids.

Bonding Quality Assessment: It can assess the quality of adhesive bonds in composite materials
used in aerospace and automotive manufacturing.

Thin Film Inspection: Laser ultrasonics can evaluate the integrity and thickness of thin films
and coatings, which is vital in semiconductor manufacturing and microelectronics.

Quality Control: It is used for quality control in various manufacturing processes, such as the
inspection of welds, forged parts, and castings.

Pharmaceutical Industry: Laser ultrasonics is used to evaluate the integrity of pharmaceutical

tablets, ensuring consistent quality and dissolution rates.

Biomedical Imaging: In medical applications, it can be used for imaging and evaluating
biological tissues.

Laser ultrasonics offers several advantages over traditional ultrasonic testing methods. It is
non-contact, allowing for inspections of delicate or hot materials without surface damage.
Additionally, it provides high-resolution images and precise measurements, making it a
valuable tool in research, quality control, and NDT applications across various industries.

Optical detection of ultrasound

Optical detection of ultrasound, often referred to as laser-based ultrasound or laser ultrasonics, is

a technique that uses lasers and optical methods to generate, manipulate, and detect ultrasonic
waves in materials. This approach offers non-contact and highly sensitive means of measuring
and imaging ultrasonic waves in a variety of applications. Here's an overview of how optical
detection of ultrasound works and its applications:

Principle of Optical Detection of Ultrasound:

Ultrasound Generation: Ultrasonic waves are generated in the material of interest using a
pulsed laser. The laser beam is focused onto the material's surface, leading to localized heating
and rapid expansion. This expansion generates ultrasound waves that propagate into the material.

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Ultrasonic Wave Propagation: The ultrasonic waves travel through the material, interacting
with internal structures, defects, and boundaries. The waves may reflect, refract, or scatter
depending on the material's properties and the nature of the interfaces they encounter.

Optical Detection: To detect these ultrasonic waves non-invasively, an optical method is

employed. Typically, a second laser, referred to as a probe laser, is directed onto the material's
surface. This probe laser interacts with the surface vibrations induced by the ultrasonic waves.

Interference or Absorption: The interaction between the probe laser and surface vibrations
leads to changes in the properties of the probe laser. These changes can manifest as variations in
laser intensity, frequency, or phase, depending on the specific detection method used.

Interferometry or Photodetection: Interferometric or photodetection techniques are commonly

used to measure the changes in the probe laser properties accurately. For instance, Michelson or
Fabry-Perot interferometers can capture changes in phase or intensity, enabling precise detection
of ultrasonic wave characteristics.

Data Processing: The acquired data is processed to extract information about the ultrasonic
waves, including their amplitude, frequency, and phase. This data can be used to create images
or visualize the material's internal structure.

Applications of Optical Detection of Ultrasound:

Optical detection of ultrasound has a wide range of applications across different fields:

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): It is used for inspecting materials and structures for defects,
including cracks, delaminations, and voids, in industries such as aerospace, manufacturing, and
civil engineering.

Materials Characterization: Optical detection of ultrasound is employed to measure material

properties, including elastic constants, acoustic attenuation, and anisotropy, aiding materials
research.

Biomedical Imaging: In medical applications, it can be used for non-invasive imaging and
evaluation of biological tissues, such as detecting tumors or monitoring cell behavior.

Microelectronics: It is used for inspecting and characterizing microelectronic components, such

as semiconductor wafers, integrated circuits, and thin films.

Thin Film Characterization: It can assess the integrity and thickness of thin films and coatings
used in various industries, including optics and microelectronics.

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Pharmaceuticals: Optical detection of ultrasound can evaluate the quality and consistency of
pharmaceutical tablets and capsules, ensuring uniformity and dissolution rates.

Biotechnology: It aids in studying and manipulating cells and biological structures at the
microscale, contributing to advancements in biotechnology and cell biology.

Optical detection of ultrasound offers the advantage of non-contact and high-resolution

measurement capabilities, making it a valuable tool in research, quality control, and non-
destructive testing applications. It has the potential to provide detailed information about
material properties and internal structures in a wide range of materials and industries.

Laser shearography

Laser shearography is an advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) technique used for inspecting
materials and structures. It relies on the principles of interferometry and is particularly effective
for detecting surface and near-surface defects, as well as measuring deformation and stress in
various materials. Here's an overview of how laser shearography works and its applications:

Principle of Laser Shearography:

Shearography Basics: Shearography is based on the interference of laser light reflected from
the surface of an object. It measures the change in the surface displacement or deformation that
occurs when the object is subjected to an applied stress or when defects (such as delaminations,
voids, or cracks) are present.

Laser Illumination: A laser source illuminates the object being inspected with a coherent laser
beam. This laser light reflects off the surface of the object.

Shear Generation: A shearographic system creates a shearing effect by splitting the laser beam
into two components: a reference beam and an object beam. The reference beam remains
unchanged, while the object beam interacts with the object's surface. When the object undergoes
deformation or has defects, the phase and intensity of the object beam change.

Interference: The two beams are recombined, and their interference pattern is recorded by a
detector, typically a high-resolution camera. The interference pattern, also known as a speckle
pattern, reflects changes in the object's surface.

Deformation and Defect Detection: When the object experiences deformation due to stress or
contains defects, the interference pattern changes. These changes are analyzed by the
shearographic system to identify and characterize defects, measure deformation, or assess stress
distribution.

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Applications of Laser Shearography:

Laser shearography finds applications in various industries due to its ability to provide rapid and
sensitive inspections:

Aerospace: Laser shearography is used to inspect aircraft structures, composite materials, and
critical components for defects like delaminations, disbonds, and impact damage.

Manufacturing: It is applied in quality control and process monitoring for composite materials,
adhesively bonded components, and welds.

Automotive: Laser shearography is used for inspecting vehicle bodies, glass, and adhesive
bonds in automotive assembly.

Civil Engineering: It aids in evaluating the structural integrity of buildings, bridges, and other
civil engineering structures, detecting defects such as cracks and debonding.

Wind Energy: In the wind energy industry, shearography is used to inspect wind turbine blades
for damage and defects, contributing to safety and maintenance.

Art Conservation: Laser shearography is applied to assess the condition of artworks and
historical artifacts, identifying hidden damage or deformations.

Marine Industry: It is used to inspect ship hulls and marine structures for defects and corrosion.

Research and Development: Laser shearography is employed in materials research to study

material behavior under stress, measure material properties, and validate theoretical models.

Laser shearography offers advantages such as rapid inspection, non-contact operation, and
high sensitivity to surface and near-surface defects. It is a valuable tool in ensuring the
safety, quality, and reliability of materials and structures in various industries.

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