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Page i

second edition

Developmental
Psychology

Patrick Leman, Andy Bremner


Ross D. Parke, Mary Gauvain
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

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Developmental Psychology, Second Edition Page ii

Patrick Leman, Andy Bremner, Ross D. Parke, Mary Gauvain


ISBN-13 9780077175191
ISBN-10 0077175190

Published by McGraw-Hill Education


338 Euston Road
London
NW1 3BH
Telephone: +44 (0) 203 429 3400
Website: www.mheducation.co.uk

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data


A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data


The Library of Congress data for this book has been applied for from the Library of Congress

Content Developer: Nicola Cupit


Content Product Manager: Adam Hughes
Production Manager: Ben King
Marketing Manager: Lauren Ward
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

Text design by Kamae Design


Cover design by Adam Renvoize
Printed and bound by Ashford Colour Press Ltd, Gosport, Hants PO13 0FW

Published by McGraw-Hill Education (UK) Limited an imprint of McGraw-Hill Education,


Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-
Hill Education (UK) Limited. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, Inc., including, but not
limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for
distance learning.

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Fictitious names of companies, products, people, characters and/or data that may be used
herein (in case studies or in examples) are not intended to represent any real individual,
company, product or event.

ISBN-13 9780077175191
ISBN-10 0077175190
eISBN-13 9781526847454

© 2019. Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Education, Inc. for manufacture and export. This
book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is sold by McGraw-Hill Education.
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Brief table of contents Page iii

Detailed table of contents iv


Preface vi
Guided tour x
Acknowledgements xvi
About the authors xvii

1. Developmental Psychology: Themes and Contexts 1


2. Theories in Developmental Psychology 13
3. Research Methods in Developmental Psychology 33
4. Physical Development: Growing a Body 57
5. The Biology of Development: Genes, Nervous System, Brain and Environment 94
6. Perceptual and Sensorimotor Development 128
7. Emotional Development and Attachment 166
8. Language and Communication 205
9. Cognitive Development: Origins of Knowledge 239
10. The Development of Cognitive Functions 285
11. Intelligence, Achievement and Learning 327
12. Parents, Peers and Social Relationships 359
13. Social Identities: Gender, Gender Roles and Ethnicity 391
14. Morality, Altruism and Aggression 417
15. Atypical Development with Alice Jones 451
16. Development in Adulthood 478

Glossary 508
References 522
Author index 627
Subject index 643
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Detailed table of contents Page iv

Preface vi
Guided tour x
Acknowledgements xvi
About the authors xvii

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND CONTEXTS 1


Themes of Development 3
Perspectives on Development 7

CHAPTER 2 THEORIES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 13


The Role of Theories in Developmental Psychology 14
Origins of Thought about Human Development 15
Behaviourism and Maturationism in the Early Twentieth Century 16
Psychodynamics and Ethology 18
Grand Theories of Cognitive Development 22
Information Processing and Computational Accounts of Cognitive Development 26
Neuroscience and Developmental Theories 31

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODS IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 33


Methodological Approaches to Studying Human Development 34
Methods for Data Collection 36
Qualitative Research Methods 43
Selecting a Sample 44
Research Design in Developmental Psychology 45
Studying Change over Time 50
The Ethics of Research with Children 54

CHAPTER 4 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: GROWING A BODY 57


Prenatal Development 58
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

Risks in the Prenatal Environment 64


Childbirth 72
Physical Growth 79
Sexual Maturation 85

CHAPTER 5 THE BIOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT: GENES, NERVOUS SYSTEM, BRAIN AND ENVIRONMENT
94
The Process of Genetic Transmission 95
Inheritance and Gene Expression 99
Genetic Disorders 103
Behavioural Genetics 107
Development of the Brain and Nervous System 115
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 119

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CHAPTER 6 PERCEPTUAL AND SENSORIMOTOR DEVELOPMENT 128
Learning to Perceive? 129
The Development of the Sensory Systems 132
Multisensory Development 137
Infants’ and Children’s Perception of Themselves and the World Around Them 139
Sensorimotor Development 153
State Change and Sleep in Infancy 161

CHAPTER 7 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ATTACHMENT 166


Early Emotional Development 167
Primary and Secondary Emotions 171
Children’s Understanding of Their Own and Others’ Emotions 179
Attachment 184

CHAPTER 8 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION 205


The Antecedents of Language Development 206
Theories of Language Development 212
Semantic Development 218
The Acquisition of Grammar 223 Page v
Knowing about Language 231
Facilitating Children’s Language Development 235

CHAPTER 9 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: ORIGINS OF KNOWLEDGE 239


Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 240
Piaget’s Constructivism 241
A Stage Theory of Cognitive Development 244
Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory 261
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development 264
Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory 272
Social Cognitive Development: Understanding and Learning from Others 273
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

CHAPTER 10 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS 285


Cognitive Psychology and Developmental Psychology 286
Learning in Infants and Children 287
The Information-Processing Account of Cognitive Development 291
The Development of Executive Functions and Cognitive Strategies 294
Developmental Changes in Some Significant Cognitive Abilities 302
Changes in Mental Representations: Impacts on Information Processing 319
Metacognition 323

CHAPTER 11 INTELLIGENCE, ACHIEVEMENT AND LEARNING 327


Theories of Intelligence 328
Testing Intelligence 331
Individual Differences in Intelligence 337
Processes of Learning 346
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Learning from Teachers and Learning from Peers 351
Beyond the Norms: Giftedness and Intellectual Deficits 354
Creativity 356

CHAPTER 12 PARENTS, PEERS AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 359


The Family 360
The Social Context of Family Life 370
Peers 374
The Development of Friendship 385

CHAPTER 13 SOCIAL IDENTITIES: GENDER, GENDER ROLES AND ETHNICITY 391


Sex and Gender in Development 392
Biology, Cognition and Gender 398
Social Influences on Gender Typing 403
The Development of Ethnic Group Understanding and Prejudice 411

CHAPTER 14 MORALITY, ALTRUISM AND AGGRESSION 417


Moral Development 418
Behaviour and Moral Development 425
Prosocial Behaviour and Altruism 429
The Development of Aggression 435

CHAPTER 15 ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT WITH ALICE JONES 451


The Developmental Approach to Developmental Disorders 453
What is Atypical Development? 455
Classifying Developmental Disorders 459
Developmental Disorders 461
Conduct Disorders 462
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 464
Childhood Depression 469
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) 472
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

CHAPTER 16 DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD 478


The Importance of a Lifespan Perspective 479
Physical Changes through Adulthood 480
Cognitive and Behavioural Change in Adulthood 486
Social Development in Adulthood 493
Successful Ageing 501

Glossary 508
References 522
Author index 627
Subject index 643

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Page vi

Preface
We were all young once. It follows that every psychological phenomenon you will study in
adults has a developmental history. For this simple reason, developmental psychology
comprises one of the largest subdivisions within psychology, with huge numbers of scientific
papers dedicated to attempting to answer the questions it poses. The journal Developmental
Psychology receives the second highest number of submitted articles out of all of the
American Psychological Association (APA) journals.
Developmental psychology is a dynamic area of research; it continually combines with,
integrates and informs other subdivisions of psychology to provide frequent, novel insights
into how children grow and learn about the world around them. To provide some examples of
this kind of synergy of developmental psychology with other disciplines and domains:
advances in cognitive neuroscience enable advances in understanding of cognitive
development and cognitive functions; likewise, changes in society have an important impact
on the social and emotional development of gender identity and peer relationships. The
impact of developmental psychology is equally wide; it stimulates new developments in
educational practice for typically and atypically developing children, and informs health care
for people of all ages across the lifespan. Importantly, though, it is an intrinsic interest in
what makes us mature, and in how that relates to almost every other area of psychological
understanding, that has kept developmentalists committed to researching and teaching
developmental psychology. This is why we have written this book.
This revised edition of one of the world’s leading developmental psychology textbooks
adopts an international outlook. It is with this in mind that we have looked to develop a text
that encompasses a broader range of theories and research. The book also combines classic
and up-to-date research across the broad span of developmental psychology.
The book is designed with first- and second-year undergraduate students in mind. The
structured and topical approach provides teachers and students alike with a systematic
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

introduction to the latest international research in the area, building upon knowledge in a
progressive way throughout. It also means that each chapter serves as a standalone
introduction to an area, with links through to other chapters throughout.

OUR APPROACH IN THIS BOOK


Balanced theoretical perspectives
The topical approach of the book allows for a sophisticated presentation of the theories that
guide research in the many areas of developmental psychology. We have attempted to show
in each chapter how thinking about important questions has changed through critiques and
revisions of classic theories in accordance with up-to-date empirical findings. We aim to
provide a balanced presentation of the grand and classic theories, with acknowledgement of
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the more specialized theories that are important in particular areas.
While the theoretical approaches that are most popular vary from region to region, we have
attempted as far as is possible to portray the field in a balanced way, offering at the same time
a holistic overview of the major topics for developmental psychology. In order to achieve this
we have added new topics and chapters to the original US format of the book and have
extensively revised other areas. Also, to highlight the importance of how research in different
areas and different theoretical approaches can influence and inform one another we have
therefore included cross-links in every chapter to highlight some of the main ways in which
students and instructors can think about linking material across the book.

Basic and applied research


Throughout the book you will see a focus on a data-driven approach to understanding
development. We believe that this is important if university education is to stimulate new
generations of researchers who will apply their scientific acumen to investigating new
questions about development. You will see this empirical emphasis particularly in the Page vii
methods chapter (Chapter 3), but we have also taken the opportunity to remind
students about the methods developmentalists use through our coverage of each individual
topic. Perhaps the clearest way in which this is achieved is through the Research Close-Up
boxes (detailed below). While this book covers research methods that are employed across
psychology as a discipline, there are of course some methodological approaches that are
unique to developmental psychology. Particular emphasis is therefore placed on
developmental methodologies.
Thus, we advocate a consideration of ‘basic’ developmental psychology research throughout
the book. However, we also place particular emphasis on how understanding the broadest
implications and applications of this research can provide further insights. Basic research can
enable us to understand real-life problems and, conversely, insights gained from applying the
results of scientific investigation can help improve research and sharpen theoretical
understanding. This emphasis of basic research and application is brought into focus by the
pedagogical features we employ throughout the book. Each chapter contains two types of
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

pedagogical boxes: Research Close-Up (these boxes present single research studies in detail,
giving students a sense of how research is carried out) and Applied Developmental
Psychology (these boxes discuss instances of how developmental research has been applied
outside of the purely academic domain).

International approach
Developmental psychology is an international discipline. As such, we have opted not to focus
explicitly on any particularly region with regard to theories and research. Our aim is to
provide students with an international and holistic introduction to the discipline; this means
using the most appropriate research and examples for a given topic. Based on our location,
there is some natural bias towards the European region and local research, but we do not
offer this at the expense of key US or broader international research.
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This approach is reflected in both the research and theoretical presentation across the book.
There are certain theories and topics that were not covered in the US edition but are deemed
important by a wider international community. These topics and theories have been included
in our revised edition. We provide more detail regarding the adaptation next.

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE NEW EDITION


In our original adaptation of Parke and Gauvain, we undertook a number of structural
changes as well as updating and expanding the coverage in a number of areas. We introduced
new chapters on developmental research methods and theoretical approaches, as well as
consolidating coverage of developmental psychology into a topic based approach via new
chapters on brain development, physical development, perceptual and sensorimotor
development, and adult development. We think that the structural changes which we
introduced in the new edition have been effective and have retained these for the new edition,
whilst undertaking a thorough revision of content. We have highlighted some of the key
changes to the second edition below:

Chapter 2: Theories in Developmental Psychology


Significant expansion of coverage of modern nativist theories of development (e.g.,
those of Spelke and Gopnik).
Increased coverage of computational models of development, incorporating
connectionist, Bayesian models of development as well as dynamical systems accounts.

Chapter 3: Research Methods in Developmental Psychology


Updated Applied Developmental Psychology box on delayed gratification in response to
recent and significant findings in this area.
Updated Applied Developmental Psychology box on research addressing the effects of
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

television use in children to include the latest perspectives and data on the use of social
media and tablets.
A new structure and a thorough updating of the ‘Methods for Data Collection’ section.

Chapter 4: Physical Development: Growing a Body Page viii

Thorough updates and additions to the section on ‘Risks in the Prenatal Environment’ to
incorporate the latest developments in this area of research. This includes new
subsections on ‘Principles of teratogenesis’, and ‘How do teratogens have their effects?’
A new Applied Developmental Psychology box examining the effects of tactile contact
on brain development in preterm infants.
A new section on embodied approaches to development.
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A new section on the effects of puberty on brain development.

Chapter 5: The Biology of Development: Genes, Nervous System,


Brain and Environment
Updated and more extensive coverage of polygenicity.
An extensive update of the behavioural genetics section, including an analysis of
critiques of behavioural genetics methods.
New Research Close-Up box on use of functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)
for investigating the social brain in infancy.
A substantially updated section on brain plasticity.

Chapter 6: Perceptual and Sensorimotor Development


Completely restructured chapter which captures current trends in the discipline,
emphasizing the development of a wider range of senses including touch and
chemosensation, as well as multisensory interactions among the senses.
New material on the origins of an ability to perceive material properties of objects in
infancy.
New section capturing a wide range of research findings regarding how infants perceive
their social world.
New Research Close-Up box on human foetus’s in utero face preferences.
New section on the development of self and body perception in infancy.

Chapter 7: Emotional Development and Attachment


Expanded coverage of children’s understanding of facial expressions.
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

Revised attachment coverage.

Chapter 8: Language and Communication


Increased coverage of pointing, joint attention and crying.
Additional coverage of phonological development, including research on dyslexia.

Chapter 9: Cognitive Development: Origins of Knowledge


Enhanced coverage of Bruner and scaffolding.
Updated coverage of language and internal speech.
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Updated coverage of perspective taking in children.
Updated coverage of children’s trust in testimony.
New coverage of recent controversies around early false belief abilities in infants.

Chapter 10: The Development of Cognitive Functions


Substantially updated coverage of the development of imitation, controversies
surrounding neonatal imitation and rational imitation.
Rewritten and updated section on models of cognition, with an increased emphasis on
the working memory model.
New section on the relevance and use of cognitive models.
Considerable restructuring of the sections on the development of cognitive strategies
and functions, placing a greater emphasis on the development of executive function and
the role of executive functions across domains.

Chapter 11: Intelligence, Achievement and Learning Page ix

Expanded assessment coverage to include the Cognitive Assessment System and


Raven’s Matrices.
Individual differences in intelligence expanded.
New coverage of executive functions and working memory in education.
Expanded achievement coverage.

Chapter 12: Parents, Peers and Social Relationships


Revised parents and family section.
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

Expanded coverage of parental versus peer influence.


Coverage of bullying included.

Chapter 13: Social Identities: Gender, Gender Roles and Ethnicity


Extended biological coverage of gender differences.
Revised section on media impact on gender identity.
New coverage of ethnicity.

Chapter 14: Morality, Altruism and Aggression


Extended section on Piaget’s theory.
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Neuropsychological and socioemotional approaches.
Revised section on prosocial behaviour.

Chapter 15: Atypical Development

with Alice Jones


This chapter has been renamed ‘atypical development’ (whereas previously it was
developmental psychopathology) to reflect a rebalancing of the coverage towards
cognitive developmental disorders.
Updated section on the principles of atypical development.
Updating of all coverage to reflect revised diagnostic criteria and classification of
disorders in DSM-5 (2013).

Chapter 16: Development in Adulthood


Focus on the cognitive decline in intelligence, problem solving and memory.
Social focus on relationships and happiness in later life, particularly with regard to
romantic relationships.
Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

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Page x
Guided tour
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Copyright © 2019. McGraw-Hill UK Higher Ed. All rights reserved.

Page xi
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