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 Fifth Edition

Essential Data on Job Opportunities

in 42 Industries
Your choice of industry is as important as your occupation!
This book is an essential reference for job seekers, students, career
changers, employers, and many others. It provides
★ Substantial reviews of all major U.S. industries, with details on working
conditions, job opportunities, training and education needed,
advancement, earnings, benefits, projected growth, and more
★ An excellent overview of major employment, industry, Up
and technological trends -t
det o-dat
42 ails e
in on
★ Information for each industry’s major jobs, cross- em dustr
p i
referenced to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 75% loyin es
of g
wo
another major source of career data rkf the
orc
e

By the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics

Essential Data on Job Opportunities
in 42 Industries
Fifth Edition

Published by JIST Works, this book’s industry descriptions

are a complete reprint of the entire contents of the
Career Guide to Industries (Bulletin 2541)
as produced by the good people at the Par t o
U.S. Department of Labor. f
Ame r ica
Top Jo ®’s
bs
Ser ie s
Career Guide to America’s Top Industries, Fifth Edition
Essential Data on Job Opportunities in 42 Industries

© 2002 by JIST Publishing, Inc.

Published by JIST Works, an imprint of JIST Publishing, Inc.
8902 Otis Avenue
Indianapolis, IN 46216-1033
Phone: 1-800-648-JIST Fax: 1-800-JIST-FAX
E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.jist.com

Other books in the America’s Top Jobs® series:

America’s Top 300 Jobs America’s Top Computer and Technical Jobs
America’s Fastest Growing Jobs America’s Top Medical, Education & Human Services Jobs
America’s Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree America’s Top White-Collar Jobs
America’s Top Jobs for College Graduates America’s Top Military Careers

For other career-related materials, turn to the back of this book or visit www.jist.com. Quantity discounts are available for JIST
books. Please call 1-800-648-JIST for more information and a free catalog.

Printed in the United States of America

04 03 02 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The industry information contained in JIST’s Career Guide to America’s Top Industries presents a general, composite
description of firms and jobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities.
The Career Guide, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right
of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should
earnings data in the Career Guide be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceedings involving
work injuries or accidental deaths.
Credits. This book is a complete reprint of the original Career Guide to Industries, published by the good people at the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Here is the text, from the original, providing credits to the many
people who worked on this:
The Career Guide to Industries was produced in the Bureau’s Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projec-
tions. General guidance and direction was provided by Mike Pilot, Chief of the Division of Occupational Outlook.
Chester C. Levine and Jon Sargent, Managers, Occupational Outlook Studies, were responsible for planning and day-
to-day direction.
Supervisors overseeing the research and preparation of material were Theresa Cosca, Douglas Braddock, Kristina Shelley,
and Carolyn M. Veneri. Analysts who contributed material were Andrew Alpert, Jill Auyer, Hall Dillon, Tamara Dillon,
Arlene K. Dohm, Henry Kasper, R. Sean Kirby, T. Alan Lacey, Kevin M. McCarron, Roger Moncraz, Andrew J. Nelson,
Azure Reaser, Terry Schau, Lynn Shniper, Tiffany T. Stringer, Patricia Tate, and Ian Wyatt. The cover design and other
artwork (for the original book) were contributed by Keith Tapscott. Word processing support was provided by Beverly
A. Williams.

ISBN 1-56370-886-8

ii
About This Book

Helpful Career Planning Information

on 42 Major Industries Employing 75%
of the Workforce
Most people, when planning their careers, think mainly about
the job they want and the education or training needed to get it.
Unfortunately, they often overlook the enormous importance of
the industry where they work. This book is designed to help.

The Career Guide to America’s Top Industries provides information

on employment trends and opportunities in industries. It is a com-
panion to another book, also published by the U.S. Department
of Labor, titled the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH). These
books fulfill a Labor Department mission to provide useful infor-
mation for career planning and job seeking.

While the OOH provides information on jobs, the Career Guide to

America’s Top Industries gives details on the industries where people
hold these jobs. JIST suggests you use both of these important
references in your career planning.

The Career Guide to America’s Top

Industries Is Easy to Use!
This book was developed to assist you in making good career de-
cisions. The information is presented in a readable and useful
format. Use the table of contents to identify industries that inter-
est you, and then find out more about them by turning to the
page where each industry is described. You can also get a good
overview on major employment trends by reading the short sec-
tion titled “Major Trends in Industries and Employment.”

iii
 Table of Contents
Electronic Equipment Manufacturing ......................... 57
Quick Summary Food Processing .......................................................... 62
Motor Vehicle and Equipment Manufacturing ........... 67
of Major Sections Printing and Publishing............................................... 72
Information Provided in the Career Guide to Steel Manufacturing ................................................... 77
America’s Top Industries: A quick review of the Textile Mill Products .................................................... 81
elements included in each industry description in
Transportation, Communications, and Public
this book. Begins on page v.
Utilities ............................................................... 85
Major Trends in Industries and Employment: An Air Transportation ....................................................... 86
excellent (and short!) overview of trends within
Cable and Other Pay Television Services ...................... 90
related groupings of industries and jobs. Begins on
page 1. Public Utilities ............................................................. 95
Radio and Television Broadcasting ............................ 101
The Industry Descriptions: This is the major sec-
Telecommunications ................................................. 106
tion of the book, providing detailed descriptions
of 42 industries that employ about 75 percent of Trucking and Warehousing ....................................... 111
the workforce. Use the following list titled “Indus- Wholesale and Retail Trade ............................. 117
tries Described in This Book” to locate industries
Department, Clothing, and Accessory Stores ............ 118
that interest you. Learn more about those indus-
tries by reading their descriptions on the pages Eating and Drinking Places ....................................... 122
indicated. Begins on page 9. Grocery Stores .......................................................... 126
Sources of State and Local Job Outlook Infor- Motor Vehicle Dealers ............................................... 130
mation: State-by-state sources of additional Wholesale Trade ........................................................ 135
information, including Internet addresses. Begins
Finance and Insurance ..................................... 141
on page 229.
Banking .................................................................... 142
Insurance .................................................................. 147
Securities and Commodities ..................................... 153

Services ............................................................. 159

Advertising ............................................................... 160
Industries Described Amusement and Recreation Services ........................ 164

in This Book Childcare Services ..................................................... 168

Computer and Data Processing Services ................... 172
Educational Services ................................................. 179
Agriculture, Mining, and Construction ............... 9
Health Services .......................................................... 184
Agricultural Production .............................................. 10
Hotels and Other Lodging Places .............................. 191
Agricultural Services ................................................... 15
Management and Public Relations Services .............. 196
Construction ............................................................... 21 Motion Picture Production and Distribution ............. 202
Mining and Quarrying ................................................ 26
Personnel Supply Services ......................................... 208
Oil and Gas Extraction ................................................ 32
Social Services, Except Childcare ............................... 212
Manufacturing ................................................... 37 Government ..................................................... 217
Aerospace Manufacturing .......................................... 38 Federal Government, Excluding the Postal Service .... 218
Apparel and Other Textile Products ............................. 43
State and Local Government, Excluding Education
Chemical Manufacturing, Except Drugs ...................... 47 and Hospitals ......................................................... 224
Drug Manufacturing ................................................... 52

iv
 Information Provided in the
Career Guide to America’s Top Industries
What kinds of workers are employed by a particular industry, Significant Points
and what jobs are you qualified for right now? What jobs
require special education or training? And, what advancement One or more key information items are presented at the be-
opportunities do these jobs offer in the long run? The Career ginning of each industry description.
Guide to America’s Top Industries addresses these questions and
more for 42 diverse industries which, when combined, ac- Nature of the Industry
counted for nearly 3 out of 4 wage and salary jobs in 2000.
★ Description of the goods produced or the services pro-
As a companion to the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH),
vided
the Career Guide to America’s Top Industries discusses careers
from an industry perspective. Why? Because many career- ★ Description of individual segments of the industry
minded people think in terms of industries rather than
★ Description of production processes
occupations. Your personal circumstances or choice of lifestyle
may compel you to remain in your area, limiting prospective ★ Changes in technology or business practices taking place
jobs to those offered by the distinctive mix of industries in
your state or community. Or, you may be attracted to a par-
ticular industry for other reasons—the potential for high
Working Conditions
earnings in the securities and commodities industry, the ap- ★ Description of the physical environment in which work-
peal of using advanced technology in aerospace ers perform their duties
manufacturing, the opportunity to work with children offered
★ Hours of work, including frequency of night or week-
by the educational services industry, or the stability of jobs in
the federal government, to name a few. By focusing on indus- end work, or split shifts
tries, the Career Guide provides information that the OOH ★ Physical activities essential to successful job performance
does not. It shows the relationships between different occu-
pations and how they cooperate within industries to produce ★ Proportion of part-time workers
goods and bring them to the market or provide services to ★ Rate of job-related injury and illness
businesses and the public. Furthermore, some occupations are
unique to a particular industry and are not discussed in the ★ Extent and frequency of travel
OOH. And, some industries offer specific paths of career ad-
vancement that are not addressed in the OOH. Employment
For each industry, the Career Guide to America’s Top Industries ★ Number of wage and salary jobs in the industry
includes a section with information on each of the following
topics, although the information presented within each sec- ★ Number of self-employed persons in the industry, where
tion varies slightly from industry to industry. significant
★ Data on the age of workers, where significant
Industry Title
★ Number of establishments and concentration of indus-
This is the name the industry is most commonly called. try employment by state
★ Distribution of establishments and employment in the
SIC Number
industry by employment-size class
To the right of the industry titles you will see numbers in
★ Data on other unusual characteristics of industry work-
parentheses. These numbers are called SIC codes. They are
from a reference titled the Standard Industrial Classification ers, where significant
Manual, a publication of the Federal Office of Management
and Budget that defines and names industries and establishes Occupations in the Industry
a structure for relating industries to one another. Readers in-
★ Description of the various jobs in the industry and how
terested in obtaining more detailed definitions of the
industries in the Career Guide to America’s Top Industries should each fits into the process of producing goods or deliver-
consult the SIC Manual, which is available in the reference ing services to consumers
section of many libraries. The SIC Manual may also be con- ★ Current and projected wage and salary jobs by occupa-
sulted on the Internet at http://www.osha.gov/oshstats/ tion
sicser.html.

v
 Career Guide to America’s Top Industries

Training and Advancement Sources of Additional Information

★ Qualifications required or preferred for key occupations
This section includes organizations providing additional in-
★ Types of formal education and other training that em- formation via the Internet or by mail on the industry and its
ployers in the industry generally require or prefer job opportunities. It also lists jobs described in the Occupa-
tional Outlook Handbook that are typically found in the
★ Discussion of how experience, on-the-job training, for- industry.
mal employer training, and continuing education en-
able workers to advance in this industry A great many trade associations, professional societies, unions,
industrial organizations, and government agencies provide
★ Paths of career advancement for key types of workers career information that is valuable to counselors and job seek-
★ Opportunities for self-employment ers. For your convenience, some of these organizations and
their Internet addresses are listed at the end of each industry
statement. Although these references were carefully compiled,
Earnings the Bureau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facili-
★ Average weekly earnings in the industry ties for investigating the organizations or the information or
publications that are sent in response to a request and cannot
★ Earnings of key occupations in the industry guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an
organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an
★ Employee benefits that are often offered in the industry
endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau either of the
but which are uncommon in other industries organization and its activities or of the information it sup-
★ Principle unions representing workers in the industry plies. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever
information it issues.
★ The proportion of workers who belong to unions or who
are covered by union contracts
Information Tables
Outlook Unless otherwise indicated, the Bureau of Labor Statistics is
the source of data presented in the various tables.
★ Rate at which jobs in the industry are projected to grow
or decline
★ The projected rate of job growth compared to that of
the economy as a whole
★ Factors expected to influence employment growth in the
industry, such as new technology, changing business
practices, and demographics
★ Occupations expected to grow or decline

★ Ease or difficulty of acquiring a job in the industry

vi © 2002 ● JIST Works ● Indianapolis, IN

Major Trends in Industries
and Employment

You have many factors to consider in targeting one in-

dustry over another when making job and career choices.
Some industries pay more than others, are growing more
rapidly, have more openings, fit your interests better, or
have other advantages.
This section will give you a quick overview of the major
employment trends in various occupations and indus-
tries in the U.S. economy.
The U.S. economy is made up of industries with diverse 20 employees per establishment. Exceptions are the scheduled
characteristics. For each industry covered in the Career Guide, air transportation industry with 166.8 employees and colleges,
detailed information is provided about specific characteristics: universities, and professional schools with 433.4. In addition,
The nature of the industry, working conditions, employment, wide differences within industries can exist. Hospitals, for
occupational composition, training and advancement require- example, employ an average of 717.5 workers, while doctors’
ments, earnings, and job outlook. This chapter provides an over- offices employ an average of 8.7. Similarly, although there is
view of these characteristics for the economy as a whole. an average of 13 employees per establishment for all of retail
trade, department stores employ an average of 164.3 people.
Nature of the Industry Establishments in the United States are predominantly small;
Industries are defined by the goods and services they provide. 54.2 percent of all establishments employed fewer than 5
Because workers in the United States produce such a wide workers in 1999. The medium-sized to large establishments
variety of products and services, the types of industries in the employ a greater proportion of all workers. For example,
U.S. economy range widely, from aerospace manufacturing to establishments that employed 50 or more workers accounted
motion picture production. Although many of these industries for only 5.4 percent of all establishments, yet employed 59
are related, each industry has a unique combination of occupa- percent of all workers. The large establishments—those with
tions, production techniques, inputs and outputs, and business more than 500 workers—accounted for only 0.3 percent of all
characteristics. Understanding the nature of the industry is establishments, but employed 20.3 percent of all workers. Table
important, because it is this unique combination that determines 1 presents the percent distribution of employment according to
working conditions, educational requirements, and the job out- establishment size.
look for each of the industries discussed in the Career Guide. Establishment size can play a role in the characteristics of
Industries consist of many different places of work, called each job. Large establishments generally offer workers greater
establishments, which range from large factories and office occupational mobility and advancement potential, whereas small
complexes employing thousands of workers to small businesses establishments may provide their employees with broader
employing only a few workers. Not to be confused with experience by requiring them to assume a wider range of
companies, which are legal entities, establishments are physical responsibilities. Also, small establishments are distributed
locations in which people work, such as the branch office of a throughout the Nation; every locality has a few small businesses.
bank. Thus, a company may have more than one establishment. Large establishments, in contrast, employ more workers and are
Establishments that produce similar goods or services are less common, but they play a much more prominent role in the
grouped together into industries. Industries that produce economies of the areas in which they are located.
related types of goods or services are, in turn, grouped together
into major industry divisions. These are further grouped into Table 1. Percent distribution of establishments and employment
the goods-producing sector (agriculture, forestry, and fishing; in all industries by establishment size, 1999
mining; construction; and manufacturing) or the service-
Establishment size Establishments Employment
producing sector (transportation, communications, and public (number of workers)
utilities; wholesale trade; retail trade; finance, insurance, and
real estate; services; and government).
Total ................................. 100.0 100.0
Each industry is made up of a number of subdivisions, which
are determined largely by differences in production processes. 1 to 4 ............................... 54.2 5.9
An easily recognized example of these distinctions is in the food 5 to 9 ............................... 19.4 8.1
processing industry, which is made up of subdivisions that 10 to 19 ........................... 12.5 10.7
20 to 49 ........................... 8.5 16.3
produce meat products, preserved fruits and vegetables, bakery 50 to 99 ........................... 2.9 12.8
items, beverages, and dairy products, among others. Each of 100 to 249 ....................... 1.7 16.4
these subdivisions requires workers with varying skills and 250 to 499 ....................... 0.4 9.6
employs unique production techniques. Another example of 500 to 999 ....................... 0.2 7.2
1,000 or more ................. 0.1 13.2
these distinctions is found in public utilities, which employs
workers in establishments that provide electricity, sanitary SOURCE: Department of Commerce, County Business Patterns, 1999
services, water, and natural gas.
There were more than 7 million business establishments in Working Conditions
the United States in 1999. The average size of these establish- Just as the goods and services produced in each industry are
ments varies widely across industries. Among industry different, working conditions vary significantly among
divisions, manufacturing included many industries having among industries. In some industries, the work setting is quiet,
the highest employment per establishment in 1999. For example, temperature-controlled, and virtually hazard free. Other indus-
the aerospace and steel manufacturing industries each averaged tries are characterized by noisy, uncomfortable, and sometimes
200 or more employees per establishment. dangerous work environments. Some industries require long
Most establishments in the wholesale trade, retail trade, workweeks and shiftwork; in many industries, standard 40-hour
finance, and services industries are small, averaging fewer than workweeks are common. Still other industries can be seasonal,

2
requiring long hours during busy periods and abbreviated During busy times of the year, longer hours are common, whereas
schedules during slower months. These varying conditions slack periods lead to cutbacks in work hours and shorter work-
usually are determined by production processes, establishment weeks. Jobs in these industries are generally appealing to
size, and the physical location of work. students and others who desire flexible, part-time schedules.
One of the most telling indicators of working conditions is
an industry’s injury and illness rate. Overexertion, being struck Table 3. Part-time workers as a percent of total employment,
by an object, and falls on the same level, are among the most selected industries, 2000
common incidents causing work-related injury or illness. In
Percent
1999, approximately 5.7 million nonfatal injuries and illnesses Industry part-time
were reported throughout private industry. Among major
industry divisions, manufacturing had the highest rate of injury
All industries ................................................................ 15.3
and illness—9.2 cases for every 100 full time workers—while
finance, insurance, and real estate had the lowest rate—1.8 cases. Many part-time workers
About 5,900 work-related fatalities were reported in 2000; Eating and drinking places ....................................... 37.8
transportation incidents, contact with objects and equipment, Department, clothing, and accessory stores ........... 31.3
Grocery stores .......................................................... 30.4
assaults and violent acts, and falls were the most common events Amusement and recreation services ....................... 29.3
resulting in fatal injuries. Table 2 presents industries with the Childcare services .................................................... 28.2
highest and lowest rates of nonfatal injury and illness. Motion picture production and distribution .............. 23.0
Educational services ................................................ 21.9
Social services .......................................................... 20.9
Table 2. Nonfatal injury and illness rates of selected industries,
2000 Few part-time workers
Public utilities ............................................................ 3.2
Cases per Chemical manufacturing, except drugs ................... 3.0
Industry 100 full-time employees Drug manufacturing .................................................. 2.6
Electronic equipment manufacturing ....................... 2.4
All industries ................................................................ 6.3 Mining and quarrying ................................................ 1.9
Aerospace manufacturing ........................................ 1.8
High rates Steel manufacturing .................................................. 1.5
Transportation equipment manufacturing ................ 13.7 Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .......... 1.5
Transportation by air ................................................. 13.3
Lumber and wood products manufacturing ............. 13.0
Primary metal industries .......................................... 12.9 Employment
Food and kindred products manufacturing .............. 12.7 The total number of jobs in the United States in 2000 was 145.6
Fabricated metal products manufacturing ............... 12.6 million. This included 11.5 million self-employed workers,
Low rates 169,000 unpaid workers in family businesses, and more than
Insurance carriers ..................................................... 1.9 133.9 million wage and salary workers—including primary and
Engineering and management services .................. 1.7 secondary job holders. The total number of jobs is projected to
Depository institutions .............................................. 1.5 increase to 167.8 million by 2010, and wage and salary jobs are
Legal services ........................................................... 1.0
Insurance agents, brokers, and service ................... 0.9
projected to account for more than 155.9 million of them.
Security and commodity brokers .............................. 0.6 As shown in table 4, although wage and salary jobs are the vast
majority of all jobs, they are not evenly divided among the various
industries. The services major industry division is the largest source
Work schedules are another important reflection of working of employment, with more than 50 million workers, followed by
conditions, and the operational requirements of each industry the wholesale and retail trade and manufacturing major industry
lead to large differences in hours worked and in part-time divisions. Among the industries covered in the Career Guide, wage
versus full-time status. In retail trade, 28.9 percent of and salary employment ranged from only 216,000 in cable and
employees worked part time in 2000 compared with only 4.4 other pay television services to 11.8 million in educational services.
percent in manufacturing. Table 3 presents industries having Three industries—educational services, health services, and eating
relatively high and low percentages of part-time workers. and drinking places—together accounted for almost 31 million jobs,
The low proportion of part-time workers in some manufac- or nearly a quarter of the Nation’s employment.
turing industries often reflects the continuous nature of the Although workers of all ages are employed in each
production processes that makes it difficult to adapt the volume industry, certain industries tend to possess workers of distinct age
of production to short-term fluctuations in product demand. groups. For the reasons mentioned above, retail trade
Once begun, it is costly to halt these processes; machinery must employs a relatively high proportion of younger workers to fill
be tended and materials must be moved continuously. For part-time and temporary positions. The manufacturing sector, on
example, the chemical manufacturing industry produces many the other hand, has a relatively high median age because many
different chemical products through controlled chemical jobs in the sector require a number of years to learn and perfect
reactions. These processes require chemical operators to moni- skills that do not easily transfer to other firms. Also,
tor and adjust the flow of materials into and out of the line of manufacturing employment has been declining, providing fewer
production. Because production may continue 24 hours a day, opportunities for younger workers to get jobs. As a result,
7 days a week, under the watchful eyes of chemical operators almost one-third of the workers in retail trade were 24 years of
who work in shifts, full-time workers are more likely to be age or younger in 2000, compared with only 10 percent of
employed. Retail trade and service industries, on the other hand, workers in manufacturing. Table 5 contrasts the age distribu-
have seasonal cycles marked by various events, such as school tion of workers in all industries with the distributions in five
openings or important holidays, that affect the hours worked. very different industries.

3
Table 4. Wage and salary employment in selected industries, 2000 and projected change, 2000-2010
(Employment in thousands)

2000 2010 2000-10

Percent Percent Percent Employment
Industry Employment distribution Employment distribution change change

All industries ........................................................................ 133,896 100.0 155,872 100.0 16.4 21,977

Goods-producing industries .............................................. 27,984 20.9 29,728 19.1 6.2 1,745

Agriculture, mining, and construction ................... 9,514 7.1 10,682 0.0 12.3 1,167
Agricultural production ............................................. 1,120 0.8 1,092 0.7 -2.5 -28
Agricultural services ................................................. 1,099 0.8 1,524 1.0 38.6 425
Construction .............................................................. 6,698 5.0 7,522 4.8 12.3 825
Mining and quarrying ................................................ 231 0.2 199 0.1 -14.0 -32
Oil and gas extraction .............................................. 311 0.2 289 0.2 -7.3 -23

Manufacturing ............................................................ 18,469 13.8 19,047 12.2 3.1 577

Aerospace manufacturing ........................................ 551 0.4 655 0.4 18.9 104
Apparel and other textile products ........................... 633 0.5 530 0.3 -16.3 -103
Chemical manufacturing, except drugs ................... 723 0.5 691 0.4 -4.5 -32
Drug manufacturing .................................................. 315 0.2 390 0.3 23.8 75
Electronic equipment manufacturing ....................... 1,554 1.2 1,657 1.1 6.6 103
Food processing ....................................................... 1,684 1.3 1,634 1.0 -3.0 -50
Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .......... 1,013 0.8 1,100 0.7 8.6 87
Printing and publishing ............................................. 1,547 1.2 1,545 1.0 -0.2 -3
Steel manufacturing ................................................. 225 0.2 176 0.1 -21.6 -49
Textile mill products .................................................. 529 0.4 500 0.3 -5.4 -29

Service-producing industries ............................................. 105,912 79.1 126,144 80.9 19.1 20,232

Transportation, communications,
and public utilities .................................................. 7,019 5.2 8,274 5.3 17.9 1,255
Air transportation ...................................................... 1,281 1.0 1,600 1.0 24.9 319
Cable and other pay television services .................. 216 0.2 325 0.2 50.6 109
Public utilities ............................................................ 851 0.6 893 0.6 4.9 42
Radio and television broadcasting ........................... 255 0.2 280 0.2 9.7 25
Telecommunications ................................................. 1,168 0.9 1,311 0.8 12.2 143
Trucking and warehousing ....................................... 1,856 1.4 2,262 1.5 21.9 407

Wholesale and retail trade ....................................... 30,331 22.7 34,200 21.9 12.8 3,869
Department, clothing, and accessory stores ........... 4,030 3.0 4,198 2.7 4.2 168
Eating and drinking places ....................................... 8,114 6.1 9,600 6.2 18.3 1,486
Grocery stores .......................................................... 3,107 2.3 3,281 2.1 5.6 174
Motor vehicle dealers ............................................... 1,221 0.9 1,366 0.9 11.9 145
Wholesale trade ........................................................ 7,024 5.2 7,800 5.0 11.1 776

Finance, insurance, and real estate ....................... 7,560 5.6 8,247 5.3 9.1 687
Banking ..................................................................... 2,029 1.5 1,999 1.3 -1.5 -31
Insurance .................................................................. 2,346 1.8 2,497 1.6 6.4 151
Securities and commodities ..................................... 748 0.6 900 0.6 20.3 152

Services ...................................................................... 50,764 37.9 64,483 41.4 27.0 13,719

Advertising ................................................................ 302 0.2 400 0.3 32.5 98
Amusement and recreation services ....................... 1,728 1.3 2,325 1.5 34.5 597
Childcare services .................................................... 712 0.5 1,010 0.6 41.9 298
Computer and data processing services ................. 2,095 1.6 3,900 2.5 86.2 1,805
Educational services ................................................ 11,797 8.8 13,400 8.6 13.6 1,603
Health services ......................................................... 11,065 8.3 13,882 8.9 25.5 2,817
Hotels and other lodging places .............................. 1,912 1.4 2,167 1.4 13.3 255
Management and public relations services ............. 1,090 0.8 1,550 1.0 42.2 460
Motion picture production and distribution .............. 287 0.2 369 0.2 28.7 82
Personnel supply services ....................................... 3,887 2.9 5,800 3.7 49.2 1,913
Social services, except childcare ............................. 2,191 1.6 3,118 2.0 42.3 927

Government ............................................................... 10,238 7.6 10,940 7.0 6.9 702

Federal Government ................................................. 1,917 1.4 1,772 1.1 -7.6 -145
State and local government ..................................... 7,461 5.6 8,318 5.3 11.5 856

4
Table 5. Percent distribution of wage and salary workers by age group is the largest in the Nation. (See table 7.) Other large
group, selected industries, 2000 occupational groups include service occupations, professional
workers, and production workers.
Age group
Industry 16 to 24 25 to 44 45 to 64 65 to 90 Table 7. Total employment and projected change by broad
occupational group, 2000-10
All industries .......................... 15 50 32 3 (Employment in thousands)
Percent
Textile mill products Employment, change,
manufacturing .................. 9 47 41 3 Occupational group 2000 2000-10
Public utilities ........................ 5 51 42 1
Eating and drinking places ... 45 39 15 2
Computer and data Total, all occupations ............................................. 145,571 15.2
processing services ......... 11 67 22 1 Management, business, and financial
Educational services ............. 11 43 43 3 occupations ......................................................... 15,519 13.6
Professional and related occupations ................... 26,758 26.0
Service occupations ............................................... 26,075 19.5
Sales and related occupations .............................. 15,513 11.9
Office and administrative support occupations ..... 23,882 9.1
Employment in some industries is concentrated in one region Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations ........... 1,406 5.3
of the country. Such industries often are located near a source of Construction and extraction occupations .............. 7,451 13.3
raw or semifinished materials upon which the industry relies. For Installation, maintenance, and repair
example, oil and gas extraction jobs are concentrated in Texas, occupations ......................................................... 5,820 11.4
Production occupations ......................................... 13,060 5.8
Louisiana, and Oklahoma; many textile mill products manufac- Transportation and material moving
turing jobs are found in North Carolina, South Carolina, and occupations ......................................................... 10,088 15.2
Georgia; and a significant proportion of motor vehicle and equip-
ment manufacturing jobs are located in Michigan and Ohio. On
the other hand, some industries—such as grocery stores and Training and Advancement
educational services—have jobs distributed throughout the Workers prepare for employment in many ways, but the most
Nation, reflecting the general population density. fundamental form of job training in the United States is a high
school education. Fully 87.5 percent of the Nation’s workforce
Occupations in the Industry possessed a high school diploma or its equivalent in 2000.
The occupations found in each industry depend on the types of However, many occupations require more training than
services provided or goods produced, as mentioned above. For previously, so workers are responding by pursuing additional
example, because construction companies require skilled trades training. In 2000, 28.8 percent of the Nation’s workforce had
workers to build and renovate buildings, these companies some college or an associate’s degree, while an additional 27.5
employ large numbers of carpenters, electricians, plumbers, percent continued in their studies and attained a bachelor’s or
painters, and sheet metal workers. Other occupations common higher degree. In addition to these types of formal education,
to construction include construction equipment operators and other sources of qualifying training include formal company-
mechanics, installers, and repairers. Retail trade, on the other provided training, informal on-the-job training, correspondence
hand, displays and sells manufactured goods to consumers, and courses, the Armed Forces, and friends, relatives, and other
so hires numerous sales clerks and other workers, including more non-work-related training.
than 5 out of 6 cashiers. Table 6 shows the major industry The unique combination of training required to succeed in each
divisions and the occupational groups that predominate in each. industry is determined largely by the industry’s occupational
The Nation’s occupational distribution clearly is influenced by composition. For example, machine operators in manufacturing
its industrial structure, yet there are many occupations, such as generally need little formal education after high school, but some-
general manager or secretary, that are found in all industries. In times complete considerable on-the-job training. Training require-
fact, some of the largest occupations in the U.S. economy are ments by major industry division are shown in table 8.
dispersed across many industries. Because nearly every industry Persons with no more than a high school diploma accounted
relies on administrative support, for example, this occupational for about 63.8 percent of all workers in agriculture, forestry,

Table 6. Industry divisions and their largest occupational group, 2000

Largest Percent of
occupational industry wage
Industry division group and salary jobs

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing .................................................... Farming, forestry, and fishing occupations ......................................... 45.4
Mining ............................................................................................. Construction and extraction occupations ............................................ 33.6
Construction ................................................................................... Construction and extraction occupations ............................................ 67.6
Manufacturing ................................................................................. Production occupations ....................................................................... 51.7
Tranportation, communication, and utilities .................................. Transportation and material moving occupations ............................... 36.0
Wholesale and retail trade ............................................................. Sales and related occupations ............................................................ 32.4
Finance, insurance, and real estate .............................................. Office and administrative support occupations ................................... 45.3
Services .......................................................................................... Professional and related occupations ................................................. 36.9
Government, except State and local education and hospitals ..... Office and administrative support occupations ................................. 26.8

5
Table 8. Percent distribution of workers by highest grade completed or degree received, by industry division, 2000

Bachelor’s Some college Less than 12

or higher or associate’s High school years or no
Industry division degree degree or equivalent diploma

All industries ..................................................................................... 28 29 31 13

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing ...................................................... 14 22 34 30

Mining ............................................................................................... 17 26 45 12
Construction ..................................................................................... 10 25 44 21
Manufacturing ................................................................................... 21 26 39 15
Tranportation, communication, and other public utilities ................ 21 35 37 8
Wholesale trade ............................................................................... 25 31 34 11
Retail trade ....................................................................................... 13 30 36 21
Finance, insurance, and real estate ................................................ 39 33 25 4
Business and repair services .......................................................... 29 29 29 12
Personal services ............................................................................. 13 28 38 22
Entertainment and recreation services ........................................... 25 30 28 17
Professional and related services ................................................... 48 27 20 5
Government ...................................................................................... 36 36 25 3

and fishing; 64.7 percent in construction; 53.4 percent in manu- Employee benefits, once a minor addition to wages and
facturing; and 44.8 percent in wholesale trade and 57.4 in retail salaries, continue to grow in diversity and cost. In addition to
trade. On the other hand, those who had acquired at least some traditional benefits—including paid vacations, life and health
training at the college level accounted for 72.4 percent of all insurance, and pensions—many employers now offer various
workers in government; 71.4 percent in finance, insurance, and benefits to accommodate the needs of a changing labor force.
real estate; and 75.1 percent in professional and related services. Such benefits include childcare, employee assistance programs
Education and training also are important factors in the that provide counseling for personal problems, and wellness
variety of advancement paths found in different industries. Each programs that encourage exercise, stress management, and self-
industry has some unique advancement paths, but workers who improvement. Benefits vary among occupational groups, full-
complete additional on-the-job training or education and part-time workers, public and private sector workers,
generally help their chances of being promoted. In much of the regions, unionized and nonunionized workers, and small and
manufacturing sector, for example, production workers who large establishments. Data indicate that full-time workers and
receive training in management and computer skills increase their those in medium-sized and large establishments—those with 100
likelihood of being promoted to supervisory positions. Other or more workers—receive better benefits than do part-time
factors that impact advancement and that may figure workers and those in smaller establishments.
prominently in the industries covered in the Career Guide
include the size of the establishments, institutionalized career tracks,
and the mix of occupations. As a result, persons who seek jobs in Table 9. Average weekly earnings of production or nonsupervisory
particular industries should be aware of how these workers on private nonfarm payrolls in selected industries, 2000.
advancement paths and other factors may later shape their careers. Industry Earnings

Earnings All industries ........................................................................... $474

Like other characteristics, earnings differ from industry to
industry, the result of a highly complicated process that reflects Industries with high earnings
a number of factors. For example, earnings may vary due to the Petroleum refining ............................................................ 1,099
Pipelines, except natural gas ........................................... 956
nature of occupations in the industry, average hours worked, Aircraft and parts .............................................................. 901
geographical location, industry profits, union penetration of the Computer and data processing services ......................... 897
workforce, workers’ average age, and educational requirements. Electric, gas, and sanitary services ................................. 895
In general, wages are highest in metropolitan areas to compen- Coal mining ....................................................................... 871
Blast furnances and basic steel products ........................ 870
sate for the higher cost of living. And, as would be expected, Security and commodity brokers ...................................... 841
industries that employ relatively few unskilled minimum-wage Engineering and architectural services ........................... 821
or part time workers tend to have higher earnings. Motion picture production and services ........................... 811
A good illustration of these differences is shown by the earn-
ings of all wage and salary workers in petroleum refining, which Industries with low earnings
Agricultural services ......................................................... 379
averaged $1,099 a week in 2000, and those in eating and drinking Nursing and personal care facilities ................................. 349
places, where the weekly average was $177. These differences Apparel and other textile products manufacturing .......... 338
are so large because petroleum refining establishments employ Drug stores and proprietary stores .................................. 323
more highly skilled, full-time workers, while eating and drinking Hotels and motels ............................................................. 298
Food stores ....................................................................... 281
places employ many lower skilled, part-time workers. In addi- Department stores ............................................................ 278
tion, many workers in eating and drinking places are able to supple- Amusement and recreation services ............................... 262
ment their low wages with money they receive as tips, which is Child daycare services ..................................................... 258
not included in the industry wages data. Table 9 highlights the Eating and drinking places ............................................... 177
industries with the highest and lowest average weekly earnings.

6
 Union penetration of the workforce varies widely by different rates in different occupations. For example, changes
industry, and it also may play a role in earnings and benefits. In in technology, production methods, and business practices in an
2000, about 15 percent of workers throughout the Nation were industry might eliminate some jobs, while creating others. Some
union members or covered by union contracts. As table 10 industries may be growing rapidly overall, yet opportunities for
demonstrates, union affiliation of workers varies widely by workers in occupations that are adversely affected by techno-
industry. Approximately a third of the workers in government logical change could be stagnant or even declining. Similarly,
and transportation, communications, and public utilities are union employment of some occupations may be declining in the
members or are covered by union contracts, compared with fewer economy as a whole, yet may be increasing in a rapidly growing
than 4 percent in business and repair services; agriculture, industry.
forestry, and fishing; and finance, insurance, and real estate. As shown above in table 4, employment growth rates over
the next decade will vary widely among industries. Employ-
ment in goods-producing industries is expected to increase as
Table 10. Union members and other workers covered by union growth in agricultural services, construction, and manufactur-
contracts as a percent of total employment in major industry ing is partially offset by declining employment in agricultural
divisions, 2000
production and mining and quarrying. Rapid growth in agricul-
Percent union tural services will be driven by its landscaping and veterinary
members or services components. Growth in construction employment will
covered by stem from new factory construction as existing facilities are
Industry union contract
modernized; from new school construction, reflecting growth
in the school-age population; and from infrastructure improve-
All industries ...................................................................... 14.9 ments, such as road and bridge construction. Employment in
agricultural production and mining and quarrying is expected to
Government ....................................................................... 35.7 decline due to laborsaving technology. Reliance on foreign
Tranportation, communication, and
public utilities ............................................................... 31.9
sources of energy also is expected to play a role in employment
Construction ...................................................................... 20.4 declines in mining and in oil and gas extraction.
Manufacturing .................................................................... 15.7 Manufacturing employment will increase slightly, as strong
Mining ................................................................................ 11.6 demand continues for high technology electrical goods and
Entertainment and recreation services ............................ 10.5
Personal services .............................................................. 9.8
pharmaceuticals despite improvements in production technol-
Wholesale trade ................................................................ 5.6 ogy and rising imports.. Apparel manufacturing is projected to
Retail trade ........................................................................ 5.2 lose about 103,000 jobs over the 2000-10 period—more than
Professional and related services .................................... 5.2 any other manufacturing industry—due primarily to increasing
Business and repair services ........................................... 3.8 imports. But other manufacturing industries with strong
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing ....................................... 3.3
Finance, insurance, and real estate ................................. 2.8 domestic markets and export potential are expected to experi-
ence increases in employment. The drug manufacturing and
aerospace manufacturing industries are two examples. Sales of
drugs are expected to increase with growth in the population,
Outlook particularly among the elderly, and the introduction of new drugs
Total employment in the United States is projected to increase to the market. An increase in air traffic, coupled with the need
by about 15 percent over the 2000-10 period. Employment to replace aging aircraft will generate strong sales for commer-
growth, however, is only one source of job openings; the total cial aircraft. Both drug and aerospace manufacturing also have
number of openings in any industry also depends on the industry’s large export markets.
current employment level and its need to replace workers who Growth in overall employment will result primarily from
leave their jobs. Throughout the economy, in fact, replacement growth in service-producing industries over the 2000-10 period,
needs will create more job openings than will employment almost all of which are expected to have increasing employ-
growth. Employment size is a major determinant of job open- ment. Rising employment in these industries will be driven by
ings—larger industries generally provide more openings. The services industries—the largest and fastest growing major in-
occupational composition of an industry is another factor. dustry group—which are projected to provide almost 2 out of 3
Industries with high concentrations of professional, technical, new jobs across the Nation. Health, education, and personnel
and other jobs that require more formal education—occupations supply services will account for 6.3 million of these new jobs.
in which workers tend to leave their jobs less frequently—gen- In addition, employment in the Nation’s fastest growing
erally have fewer openings resulting from replacement needs. industry—computer and data processing services—is expected
On the other hand, more replacement openings generally occur to nearly double, adding another 1.8 million jobs. Job growth
in industries with high concentrations of service, laborer, and in the services sector will result from overall population growth,
other jobs that require little formal education and have lower the rise in the elderly and school-age populations, and the trend
wages because workers in these jobs are more likely to leave toward contracting out for computer, personnel, and other
their occupations. business services.
Employment growth is determined largely by changes in the Wholesale and retail trade is expected to add 3.9 million jobs
demand for the goods and services produced by an over the coming decade. More than 776,000 of these jobs will
industry, worker productivity, and foreign competition. Each arise in wholesale trade, reflecting growth both in trade and in
industry is affected by a different set of variables that the overall economy. Retail trade is expected to add 3.1 million
determines the number and composition of jobs that will be jobs over the 2000-10 period, the result of increases in both
available. Even within an industry, employment may grow at population and personal income. Although most retail stores

7
are expected to add employees, nonstore retailers will ing more than 152,000 jobs. A growing interest in investing and the
experience the fastest growth rate—35 percent—as electronic popularity of 401(k) and other pension plans are fueling increases in
commerce and mail-order sales account for an increasing por- this industry. In contrast, employment in the largest industry in this
tion of retail sales. Eating and drinking places will have the group, banking, will decrease by 1.5 percent, or -31,000 jobs, as
largest number of new jobs, nearly 1.5 million. technological advances and the increasing use of electronic banking
Employment in transportation, communications, and public reduce the need for large administrative support staffs. Nondepository
utilities is projected to increase by nearly 1.26 million new jobs. institutions—including personal and business credit institutions, as
The trucking and warehousing industry will have the biggest well as mortgage banks—are expected to grow as fast as the average,
increase—407,000 jobs. Trucking industry growth will be adding 111,800 jobs. Insurance carriers will grow more slowly than
fueled by growth in the volume of goods that need to be shipped average, increasing by only 42,600 jobs.
as the economy expands. Air transportation is expected to gen- All 702,000 new government jobs are expected to arise in
erate nearly 319,000 jobs. Air transportation will expand as State and local government, reflecting growth in the population
consumer and business demand increases, reflecting a growing and its demand for public services. In contrast, the Federal
population and increased business activity. Demand for new Government is expected to lose more than 145,000 jobs over
telecommunications services, such as Internet and wireless com- the 2000-10 period, as efforts continue to cut costs by contract-
munications, will lead to an expansion of the telecommunica- ing out services and giving States more responsibility for
tions infrastructure. Employment growth is projected to add administering federally funded programs.
143,000 jobs. While radio and television broadcasting will show In sum, recent changes in the economy are having far-reach-
average growth due to consolidations in the industry, employ- ing and complex effects on employment in each of the indus-
ment of cable and other pay-television companies will increase tries covered in the Career Guide. Jobseekers should be aware
by 51 percent as they upgrade their systems to deliver a wider of these changes, keeping alert for developments that can affect
array of communication and programming services. job opportunities in industries and the variety of occupations
Overall employment growth in finance, insurance, and real estate that are found in each industry. For more detailed information
is expected to be around 9 percent, with close to 687,000 jobs on specific occupations, consult the 2002-2003 edition of the
added by 2010. Securities and commodities brokers, exchanges, Occupational Outlook Handbook, which provides information
and services will be the fastest growing industry in this group, add- on more than 275 occupations.

8
 The Industry Descriptions

This is the book’s major part, which describes 42 major indus-

tries. Look in the table of contents for a complete list of the
industries, arranged into these seven clusters:
★ Agriculture, Mining, and Construction
★ Manufacturing
★ Transportation, Communications, and Public Utilities
★ Wholesale and Retail Trade
★ Finance and Insurance
★ Services
★ Government

Agriculture, Mining, and Construction

Agricultural Production
(SIC 01, 02)
SIGNIFICANT POINTS

• Small family farms constitute 91 percent of all farms and own about two-thirds of all farmland,
but large family and commercial farms account over half of the total value of agricultural
production.

• Self-employed workers—mostly farmers—account for more than half of the industry’s workforce.

• Employment in agricultural production is projected to decline, especially among self-employed

farmers and ranchers.

Nature of the Industry climates of Florida, California, and Arizona are well suited for
Agricultural production—consisting of farming and ranching, citrus fruit production. The Southern States are the major grow-
including aquaculture—has long been a mainstay of the Nation’s ers of tobacco, cotton, rice, and peanuts, while the Northeast,
economy, successfully feeding and clothing the domestic popu- from Maine to New Jersey, produces blueberries, maple syrup,
lation as well as exporting agricultural goods around the world. and apples. Cranberry bogs are found mainly in Wisconsin,
Once a labor intensive industry, providing jobs for at least 12 Massachusetts, and New Jersey. Hogs, grains, potatoes, and
percent of the workforce as late as 1950, both agricultural range-fed cattle are major products in the Plains States, where
employment and the number of farms have dropped significantly cattle feedlots also are numerous. In the Southwest and West,
in recent decades because of mechanization and other techno- ranchers raise beef cattle. In Washington State, apples are an
logical improvements and wide fluctuations in farm incomes important crop. In California, most vegetables and fruits are
due to unstable agricultural commodity prices. Although prominent, as well as grapes for wine. Poultry and dairy farms
approximately one-third the number of farms exists today as tend to be found in most areas of the country.
compared with 50 years ago, output has more than doubled, The nature of the work in the agricultural production indus-
exports of agricultural goods continue to contribute positively try varies, depending on the type of product. Consumption of,
to the foreign trade balance, and agricultural production remains and demand for, cash grains tend to be strong and steady, and
one of the Nation’s top industries in terms of total employment. these grains account for a substantial part of agricultural output.
Thanks to generally temperate climates, rich soil, and a vari- They are generally grown in large-scale operations in several
ety of growing conditions, the agricultural sector produces an areas in the Nation, but particularly in the Midwest and Plains
abundance and wide selection of products. The industry is States. During the planting, growing, and harvesting seasons,
roughly divided into two major segments: livestock production, workers are busy for long hours, plowing, disking, harrowing,
including animal specialties; and crop production. Livestock seeding, fertilizing, and harvesting. Fieldwork on large farms
production includes establishments that raise livestock, such as consisting of hundreds, sometimes thousands, of acres often is
beef cattle, sheep, and hogs; dairy farms; poultry and egg farms; done using massive, climate-controlled tractors and other mod-
and animal specialty farms, such as apiaries (bee farms) and ern agricultural equipment. In some cases, teams of operators
aquaculture (fish farms). Crop production includes the grow- with tractors, combines, or other agricultural equipment travel
ing of cash grains, such as wheat, corn, and barley; field crops, from one farm to another during harvest time in a practice known
such as cotton and tobacco; vegetables and melons; fruits and as “custom harvesting.”
nuts; and horticultural specialties, such as flowers and ornamental Small-scale establishments are more common in the North-
plants. east, while larger establishments are located elsewhere in the
About 2.1 million farms make up the agricultural production country, particularly the Southwest and West. However, these
industry. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, an small farms in States with limited growing seasons cannot
establishment must sell at least $1,000 worth of produce per provide produce for markets during the late fall, winter, and
year to qualify as a farm. Almost 1.9 million, or 91 percent, are early spring. Therefore, fresh vegetables grown on large farms
small family farms with less than $250,000 in annual sales, but in warm States, such as California, Florida, and Arizona are
they own about two-thirds of the Nation’s farmland. Operation shipped throughout the country in the cooler months. Vegetables
of these farms is the primary occupation of about one-third of generally are still harvested manually by groups of migrant
their owners; two-thirds are operated as a secondary source of farmworkers, although new machines have been developed to
income, primarily as homes for the rural lifestyle they afford, or replace manual labor for some fruit crops. Vegetable growers
as limited retirement enterprises. Large family farms numbered on large farms of approximately 100 acres or more usually
about 150,000 and commercially operated farms barely 40,000, practice “monoculture,” large-scale cultivation of one crop on
but together they were responsible for just over half of the total each division of land.
output of the agricultural production industry. Dairy farms provide the Nation with milk, from which cheese,
Production of some types of crops and livestock tends to be butter, ice cream, and a variety of other products are made. Dairy
concentrated in particular regions of the country, on the basis of farming requires outdoor, as well as indoor, work. Farmers,
growing conditions and topography. For example, the warm farm managers, and farmworkers must feed cows, heifers, and

10
calves; clean their stalls; and take them outside to pastures for leaders, farm-equipment operators, and agricultural workers may
exercise and grazing. Workers also may plant, harvest, and store work a 6- or 7-day week during planting and harvesting
several crops to feed the cattle through the cold of winter or the seasons. Graders and sorters may work evenings or weekends
drought of summer. because of the perishable nature of the products. Almost 1 out
Though the nature of the work on large livestock ranches in of 4 employees in this industry work variable schedules,
the West and Southwest still entails the kind of activities—such compared with fewer than 1 in 10 workers in all industries
as branding and herding—often seen in cowboy movies, the use combined. Because much of the work is seasonal in nature,
of modern equipment and technology has changed the way the many farmworkers must cope with the difficulty in obtaining
work is done. Branding and vaccinating of herds, for example, year-round, full-time employment. Migrant farmworkers, who
are largely mechanized; and the use of trucks, portable commu- move from location to location as crops ripen, live an unsettled
nications gear, and geopositioning equipment now is common lifestyle, which can be stressful.
and saves valuable time for ranchers. The work on such estab- Much farm and ranch work takes place outdoors in all kinds
lishments still tends to be seasonal and to take place largely of weather and is physical in nature. Harvesting vegetables, in
outdoors. Common activities include raising feed crops, rotat- particular, requires manual labor and workers do much bend-
ing cattle from one pasture to another, and keeping fences in ing, stooping, and lifting. Some field workers may lack
good repair. adequate sanitation facilities, and their drinking water may be
Most poultry and egg farms are large operations resembling limited. The year-round nature of much livestock production
production lines. Although free-range farms allow fowl some work means that ranch workers must be out in the heat of
time outside during the day for exercise and sunlight, most poul- summer, as well as the cold of winter. Those who work directly
try production involves mainly indoor work, with workers with animals risk being bitten or kicked.
repeatedly performing a limited number of specific tasks. Farmers, farm managers, and agricultural workers in crop
Because of increased mechanization, poultry growers can raise production risk exposure to pesticides and other potentially
chickens by the hundreds—sometimes the thousands—under one hazardous chemicals that are sprayed on crops or plants. Those
roof. Eggs still are collected manually in some small-scale hatch- who work on mechanized farms must take precautions when
eries, but, in larger hatcheries, eggs tumble down onto conveyor working with tools and heavy equipment to avoid injury.
belts. Machines then wash, sort, and pack the eggs into indi- Farmwork has long had one of the highest incidences of illnesses
vidual cartons. Workers place the cartons into boxes and stack and injuries of any industry. In 1999, crop production had 7.0
the boxes onto pallets for shipment. injuries and illnesses per 100 full-time workers, compared with
Aquaculture farmers raise fish and shellfish in salt, brackish, an average of 6.3 throughout private industry.
or fresh water—depending on the requirements of the particular
species. Farms usually use ponds, floating net pens, raceways, Employment
or recirculating systems, but some fish farms are actually in the
In 2000, agricultural production employed a total of about 2
sea, relatively close to shore. Workers on aquaculture farms
million workers, making it one of the largest industries in the
stock, feed, protect, and otherwise manage aquatic life to be
Nation. This industry is unusual in that self-employed workers
sold for consumption or used for recreational fishing. Horticul-
account more than 40 percent of its workforce. Among workers
ture farms raise ornamental plants, bulbs, shrubbery, sod, and in all agricultural production occupations, over 1.1 million were
flowers. Although much of the work takes place outdoors, in
wage and salary workers, 885,000 were self-employed, and
climates with cold seasons, substantial production also takes
34,000 were unpaid family.
place in greenhouses or hothouses.
Among the industry’s wage and salary workers, the single
Although most agricultural establishments sell their products
most common occupation was that of farmworkers, who made
to food processing and textile companies and food retailers, some
up nearly 54 percent of the overall workforce. The majority of
cater directly to the public. For example, some fruit and self-employed workers were farmers and ranchers, but they
vegetable growers use the marketing strategy of “pick-your-own”
accounted for only about 3.3 percent of wage and salary
produce, or set up roadside stands. Nurseries and greenhouses,
employment in this industry. Agricultural production is one of
which grow everything from seedlings to sod, also provide
the few remaining areas of the economy in which unpaid family
products directly to individual consumers as well as to retail
workers remain a significant part of the workforce. Most
establishments and other industries.
unpaid family workers on farms assist with the farmwork, but a
small number do bookkeeping and accounting or act as farmers.
Working Conditions Employment is fairly evenly distributed between livestock
Agricultural production attracts people who enjoy working with production and crop production, with livestock-producing
animals, living an independent lifestyle, or working outdoors establishments employing about 50 percent of all workers and
on the land. For many, the wide-open physical expanse, the crop-producing establishments employing the other 50 percent.
variability of day-to-day work, and the rural setting provide ben- Establishments specializing in ornamental nursery products em-
efits that offset the sometimes hard labor, the danger that unsea- ployed the largest number of workers in 2000, followed by
sonable or extreme weather may stunt or ruin crops, and the risk vegetable- and melon-producing farms and fruit orchards. Crop
that unfavorable commodity prices may reduce income. farms, dairy farms, and vineyards also employed significant
Although the working conditions vary by occupation and numbers of workers. Most individual agricultural-production
setting, there are some characteristics common to most agricul- establishments, however, employ fewer than 10 workers (chart).
tural jobs. Hours generally are uneven and oftentimes long; Workers in agricultural production tend to be older than work-
work cannot be delayed when crops must be planted and ers in other industries. In 2000, 50 percent of the workers live-
harvested, or when animals must be sheltered and fed. Week- stock production were age 45 or older, compared with 35
end work is common, and farmers, agricultural managers, crew percent for all workers in all industries.

11
 themselves, with the added tasks of managing the schedules and
Few agricultural production establishments work of the employees. They assign, monitor, and assess indi-
employ 10 or more workers viduals’ work day in and day out. They may keep in order all
Percent the paperwork needed to satisfy legal requirements, including
payroll records and State and Federal tax records.
Establishments 54.1 Besides managing farms and ranches, agricultural managers
Employment
also oversee nurseries, greenhouses, timber tracts, cotton gins,
and packing houses, among other agricultural establishments.
Large commercial farms may have a manager for different
operations within the establishment. On smaller farms, manag-
ers oversee all operations. They purchase the inputs used in the
30.1 farm’s production: Machinery, seed, fertilizers, herbicides and
27.0
pesticides, fuel, and labor. They must be aware of any laws that
21.9 govern the use of such inputs in the farm’s locality. Addition-
ally, they may hire and oversee other farm employees as they
15.1
14.5
12.4 plow, disk, harrow, plant, fertilize, harvest, and care for live-
10.5
8.7 stock. Agricultural managers must be knowledgeable about crop
5.8 rotation, soil testing, and various types of capital improvements
necessary to maximize crop yields.
1 2 3 to 4 5 to 9 10+ Agricultural workers perform the whole spectrum of daily
Number of workers employed by establishment chores involved in crop or livestock production. Graders and
sorters ensure the quality of the agricultural commodities that
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Census of Agriculture, 1997
reach the market. They grade, sort, or classify unprocessed food
and other agricultural products by size, weight, color, or condi-
Occupations in the Industry tion. Farmworkers and laborers, crops, nurseries, and green-
It takes several kinds of occupational specialties—from book- house manually plant, maintain, and harvest food crops; apply
keepers, accountants, and auditors to mechanics and repairers— pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer to crops; and cultivate plants
to keep the industry functioning (table 1). However, despite used to beautify landscapes. They prepare nursery acreage or
upgrades in technology, new forms of machinery, and the com- greenhouse beds for planting; water, weed, and spray trees,
plex financial records that must be kept, three occupations still shrubs, and plants; cut, roll, and stack sod; stake trees; tie, wrap,
compose the overwhelming majority of workers in agricultural and pack flowers, plants, shrubs, and trees to fill orders; and dig
production: Farmers, agricultural managers, and agricultural up or move field-grown and containerized shrubs and trees.
workers. Additional duties include planting seedlings, transplanting sap-
Farmers and ranchers are the self-employed owner-opera- lings, and watering and trimming plants.
tors of establishments that produce agricultural output. Their Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals care for farm, ranch,
work encompasses numerous tasks. They keep records of their or aquaculture animals that may include cattle, sheep, swine,
animals’ health, crop rotation, operating expenses, major pur- goats, horses and other equine, poultry, finfish, shellfish, and
chases, bills paid and income due, as well as pay bills and file bees. They also tend to animals raised for animal products,
taxes. Computer literacy has become as necessary for farmers such as meat, fur, skins, feathers, eggs, milk, and honey. Duties
as it has for many other occupations. may include feeding, watering, herding, grazing, castrating,
Farmers and ranchers must have additional skills to keep a branding, debeaking, weighing, catching, and loading animals.
farm or ranch operating day in and day out. A basic understand- They also may maintain records on animals, examine animals
ing and working knowledge of mechanics, carpentry, plumbing, to detect diseases and injuries, and assist in birth deliveries and
and electricity all are helpful, if not essential, for running an administer medications, vaccinations, or insecticides, as appro-
agricultural establishment. The ability to maintain and repair priate. Daily duties include cleaning and maintaining animal
equipment and facilities is important to keep costs down and housing areas. These farmworkers also repair farm buildings
the farm or ranch running smoothly. and fences. For farmworkers on dairy farms, the work may in-
Farmers who work large commercial farms for cash crops clude operating milking machines and other dairy-processing
make decisions as much as a year in advance about which crop equipment and hauling livestock products to market.
to grow. Therefore, a farmer must be aware of prices in national Some agricultural workers share duties as farm-equipment
and international markets to use for guidance, while tracking operators, and handle the tractors and equipment used for plowing,
the costs associated with each particular crop. When dealing in sowing, and harvesting using machinery such as fertilizer spread-
hundreds or thousands of acres of one crop, even small errors in ers, haybines, raking equipment, balers, combines, and threshers.
judgment are magnified, so the impact can be substantial. Thus,
large-scale farmers strive to keep costs to a minimum in every Training and Advancement
phase of the operation. Furthermore, risk management of port- The agricultural production industry is characterized by a large
folios—the practice of juggling stocks, buying and selling number of workers with low levels of educational attainment.
futures, and engaging in other paper deals like bond trading—is More than 30 percent of this industry’s workforce does not have
now becoming more important for farmers of large commercial a high school diploma, compared with only 12.5 percent of all
farms. workers in other industries. The proportion of workers without
Farm, ranch, and other agricultural managers operate the a high school diploma is particularly high in the crop-produc-
farm or ranch on a daily basis for the owners. Agricultural man- tion sector, where there are more labor-intensive establishments
agers perform many of the functions of farmers and ranchers employing migrant farmworkers.

12
Table 1. Employment of wage and salary workers in agricultural common as the percentage of the U.S. population raised on farms
production by occupation, 2000 and projected change, 2000-2010 continues to dwindle. But even with a farming background, a
(Employment in thousands) person considering farming would benefit from the formal school-
Percent ing offered by land-grant universities in each State. Programs
Employment, change, usually incorporate hands-on training into the curricula to comple-
2000 2000- ment the academic subjects. Typical coursework covers the agri-
Occupation Number Percent 2010 cultural sciences (crop, dairy, and animal) and business subjects
such as accounting and marketing.
All occupations ............................................ 1,120 100.0 -2.5 Experience and some formal education are necessary for ag-
ricultural managers. A bachelor’s degree in business with a con-
Management, business, and
financial occupations ................................ 198 17.6 4.1
centration in agriculture provides a good background. Work
Farm, ranch, and other agricultural experience in the various aspects of farm or ranch operations
managers ............................................... 154 13.7 5.2 enhances knowledge and develops decision-making skills, which
Farmers and ranchers .............................. 36 3.3 0.4 further qualifies prospective agricultural managers. The expe-
rience of having performed tasks on other farming establish-
Service occupations .................................... 19 1.7 -1.7
Building and grounds cleaning and ments as a farmworker may save managers valuable time in form-
maintenance occupations ..................... 14 1.3 -0.5 ing daily or monthly workplans and in avoiding pitfalls that could
result in financial burdens for the farm.
Office and administrative support Whether it is gained through experience or formal educa-
occupations ................................................ 46 4.1 -10.1
Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing
tion, both farmers and agricultural managers need enough tech-
clerks ...................................................... 18 1.6 -11.1 nical knowledge of crops, growing conditions, and plant dis-
Secretaries and administrative eases to make sound scientific and business decisions. A
assistants ............................................... 9 0.8 -11.8 rudimentary knowledge of veterinary science, as well as animal
husbandry, is important for dairy and livestock farmers, ranch-
Farming, fishing, and forestry
occupations ................................................ 771 68.8 -3.8 ers, and agricultural managers.
First-line supervisors/managers/contractors It also is crucial for farmers, ranchers, and agricultural
of farming, fishing, and forestry workers ....... 35 3.1 1.2 managers to stay abreast of the latest developments in agricul-
Farmworkers ................................................. 610 54.5 -5.0 tural production. They may do this by reviewing agricultural jour-
Graders and sorters, agricultural
products .................................................... 8 0.7 -8.3
nals that publish information about new cost-cutting procedures,
All other farming, fishing, and forestry new forms of marketing, or improved production using new tech-
workers ...................................................... 116 10.4 1.1 niques. County cooperative extension agencies serve as a link
between university and government research programs and farm-
Installation, maintenance, and repair ers and farm managers, providing the latest information on nu-
occupations ................................................ 21 1.9 -1.5
Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment merous agriculture-related subjects. County cooperative exten-
service technicians and mechanics ......... 8 0.7 -1.6 sion agents may demonstrate new animal breeding techniques, or
Other installation, maintenance, and more environmentally safe methods of fertilizing, for example.
repair occupations .................................... 10 0.9 -2.0 Other organizations provide information—through journals, news-
Production occupations .............................. 13 1.2 -1.8
letters, and the Internet—on agricultural research and the results
of implementing innovative methods and ideas.
Transportation and material moving Some private organizations are helping to make farmland
occupations ................................................ 37 3.3 -1.8 affordable for new farmers through a variety of institutional in-
Truck drivers, heavy and tractor-trailer ........ 13 1.1 1.3 novations. The Land Link program, run by the Center for Rural
Truck drivers, light or delivery services ....... 9 0.8 0.1
Material moving occupations ....................... 12 1.1 -4.5 Affairs, matches old farmers up with young ones. In the match-
ing process, farmers approaching retirement arrange to pass
along their land to young farmers wishing to keep the land un-
der cultivation. This program has now been expanded to at
NOTE: May not add to totals due to omission of occupations with
small employment.
least 18 States, and is now coordinated by the National Farm
Transition Network.

Training and education requirements for general farmworkers Earnings

are few. Some experience in farm or ranch work is beneficial, In 2000, median earnings for workers in agricultural production
but most tasks require manual labor and are learned fairly quickly were $335 a week, substantially lower than the median of $580
on the job. Advancement for farmworkers is somewhat limited. a week for all workers in private industry. In fact, only the high-
Motivated and experienced farmworkers may become crew lead- est 10 percent of workers in agricultural production earned more
ers or farm-labor contractors. Because firsthand knowledge of than $630 a week. Lower than average earnings are due in part
farm produce is good preparation for grading, sorting, and in- to the low level of skill required for many of the jobs in the
specting, some farmworkers may become agricultural inspec- industry and the seasonal nature of the work.
tors. Farmworkers who wish to become independent farmers or Farm income can vary substantially, depending on a number
ranchers first must buy or rent a plot of land. of factors, including: The type of crop or livestock being raised,
Becoming a farmer generally does not require formal training price fluctuations for various agricultural products, and weather
or credentials. However, knowledge and expertise about agricul- conditions that affect yield. For a growing number of farmers
tural production are essential to success for prospective farmers. and ranchers, particularly those working noncommercial farms,
The traditional method for acquiring such knowledge is through crop or livestock production is not their major occupation or
growing up on a farm. This background is becoming less and less source of income.

13
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