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General Chemistry
This page intentionally left blank
General Chemistry
E IG HTH E D I T ION, MEDIA ENHANCED EDITION

Darrell D. Ebbing
WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY, EMERITUS

Steven D. Gammon
WESTERN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON

Publisher: Charles Hartford
Senior Marketing Manager: Laura McGinn
Marketing Assistant: Kris Bishop
Development Editor: Kate Heinle
Editorial Assistant: Amy Galvin
Project Editor: Nan Lewis-Schulz
Editorial Assistant: Katherine Roz
Senior Production/Design Coordinator: Jill Haber
Cover Design Director: Tony Saizon
Composition Buyer: Chuck Dutton

Warning: This book contains descriptions of chemical reactions and photographs of

experiments that are potentially dangerous and harmful if undertaken without proper
supervision, equipment, and safety precautions. DO NOT attempt to perform these experiments
relying solely on the information presented in this text.

Photo credits: A list of credits precedes the index.

Cover image: White water rafting, Snake River, Jackson WY. Duomo Photography.

Copyright © 2008 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval
system without the prior written permission of Houghton Mifflin Company unless such copying
is expressly permitted by federal copyright law. Address inquiries to College Permissions,
Houghton Mifflin Company, 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116-3764.

Printed in the U.S.A.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2006935159

Student Edition ISBN: 0-618-73879-7

Instructor’s Annotated Edition ISBN: 0-618-74271-9

123456789-VH-11-10-09-08-07
Contents in Brief
■ Basics of Chemistry
1 Chemistry and Measurement 1
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 41
3 Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 86
4 Chemical Reactions 123
5 The Gaseous State 175
6 Thermochemistry 224

■ Atomic and Molecular Structure

7 Quantum Theory of the Atom 264
8 Electron Configurations and Periodicity 294
9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding 328
10 Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding Theory 372

■ States of Matter and Solutions

11 States of Matter; Liquids and Solids 418
12 Solutions 478
13 Materials of Technology 523

■ Chemical Reactions and Equilibrium

14 Rates of Reaction 558
15 Chemical Equilibrium 617
16 Acids and Bases 659
17 Acid–Base Equilibria 690
18 Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria 734
19 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium 764
20 Electrochemistry 802

■ Nuclear Chemistry and Chemistry of the Elements

21 Nuclear Chemistry 854
22 Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements 900
23 The Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds 958
24 Organic Chemistry 998
25 Polymer Materials: Synthetic and Biological 1036

v
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Contents
Essays xxi
Preface xxiii

1 Chemistry and Measurement 1

An Introduction to Chemistry 2
1.1 Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse 2
1.2 Experiment and Explanation 4
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Birth of the Post-it Note® 5
1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass 6
1.4 Matter: Physical State and Chemical Constitution 9
■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Separation of Mixtures by
Chromatography 14

Physical Measurements 16
1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures 16
1.6 SI Units 20
1.7 Derived Units 24
1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method) 27
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 31

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 41

Atomic Theory and Atomic Structure 42
2.1 Atomic Theory of Matter 42
2.2 The Structure of the Atom 45
2.3 Nuclear Structure; Isotopes 48
2.4 Atomic Weights 50
2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements 53

Chemical Substances: Formulas and Names 55

2.6 Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances 55
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability 56
2.7 Organic Compounds 61
2.8 Naming Simple Compounds 62
vii
viii Contents

Chemical Reactions: Equations 73

2.9 Writing Chemical Equations 73
2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations 74
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 77

3 Calculations with Chemical Formulas and

Equations 86
Mass and Moles of Substance 87
3.1 Molecular Weight and Formula Weight 87
3.2 The Mole Concept 89
Determining Chemical Formulas 93
3.3 Mass Percentages from the Formula 93
3.4 Elemental Analysis: Percentages of Carbon, Hydrogen, and
Oxygen 95
3.5 Determining Formulas 97
■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Mass Spectrometry and
Molecular Formula 98

Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions 102

3.6 Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation 103
3.7 Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction 104
3.8 Limiting Reactant; Theoretical and Percentage Yields 107
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 113

4 Chemical Reactions 123

Ions in Aqueous Solution 124
4.1 Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules 124
4.2 Molecular and Ionic Equations 129
Types of Chemical Reactions 133
4.3 Precipitation Reactions 133
4.4 Acid–Base Reactions 136
4.5 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 144
4.6 Balancing Simple Oxidation–Reduction Equations 152
 Contents ix

Working with Solutions 155

4.7 Molar Concentration 155
4.8 Diluting Solutions 157
Quantitative Analysis 159
4.9 Gravimetric Analysis 159
4.10 Volumetric Analysis 161
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 164

5 The Gaseous State 175

Gas Laws 176
5.1 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 176
5.2 Empirical Gas Laws 178
5.3 The Ideal Gas Law 187
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Nitric Oxide Gas and Biological Signaling 188
5.4 Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes 194
5.5 Gas Mixtures; Law of Partial Pressures 196
Kinetic-Molecular Theory 200
5.6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas 201
5.7 Molecular Speeds; Diffusion and Effusion 204
5.8 Real Gases 209
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Carbon Dioxide Gas and the
Greenhouse Effect 213
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 215

6 Thermochemistry 224
Understanding Heats of Reaction 225
6.1 Energy and Its Units 225
6.2 Heat of Reaction 228
6.3 Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change 231
6.4 Thermochemical Equations 234
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lucifers and Other Matches 236
6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction 237
6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction 238
x Contents

Using Heats of Reaction 242

6.7 Hess’s Law 242
6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 246
6.9 Fuels—Foods, Commercial Fuels, and Rocket Fuels 251
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 254

7 Quantum Theory of the Atom 264

Light Waves, Photons, and the Bohr Theory 265
7.1 The Wave Nature of Light 265
7.2 Quantum Effects and Photons 269
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays 271
7.3 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 271
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lasers and Compact Disc Players 276

Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Numbers 278

7.4 Quantum Mechanics 278
■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 282
7.5 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals 282
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 288

8 Electron Configurations and Periodicity 294

Electronic Structure of Atoms 295
8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 295
■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 298
8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table 300
■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS X Rays, Atomic Numbers, and Orbital Structure
(Photoelectron Spectroscopy) 305
8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table 306
8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund’s Rule 309
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Levitating Frogs and People 311

Periodicity of the Elements 312

8.5 Mendeleev’s Predictions from the Periodic Table 312
8.6 Some Periodic Properties 313
8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements 320
 Contents xi

A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •

Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 323

9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding 328

Ionic Bonds 329
9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds 329
9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions 334
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry 335
9.3 Ionic Radii 339
Covalent Bonds 341
9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds 341
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin 344
9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity 345
9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas 347
9.7 Delocalized Bonding: Resonance 350
9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 352
9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas 355
9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order 358
9.11 Bond Energy 359
■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations
of Chemical Bonds 363
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 365

10 Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding

Theory 372
Molecular Geometry and Directional Bonding 374
10.1 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model 374
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules 384
10.2 Dipole Moment and Molecular Geometry 385
10.3 Valence Bond Theory 388
10.4 Description of Multiple Bonding 395
Molecular Orbital Theory 400
10.5 Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory 400
10.6 Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules of the
Second-Period Elements 403
xii Contents

10.7 Molecular Orbitals and Delocalized Bonding 407

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Human Vision 409
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Stratospheric Ozone (An Absorber
of Ultraviolet Rays) 410
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 410

11 States of Matter; Liquids and Solids 418

11.1 Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids 419

Changes of State 420
11.2 Phase Transitions 420
11.3 Phase Diagrams 430
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Removing Caffeine from Coffee 433

Liquid State 434

11.4 Properties of Liquids: Surface Tension and Viscosity 434
11.5 Intermolecular Forces; Explaining Liquid Properties 436
Solid State 444
11.6 Classification of Solids by Type of Attraction of Units 444
11.7 Crystalline Solids; Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 448
11.8 Structures of Some Crystalline Solids 452
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Liquid-Crystal Displays 453
11.9 Calculations Involving Unit-Cell Dimensions 460
11.10 Determining Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction 462
■ INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Automated X-Ray Diffractometry 464
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Water (A Special Substance for Planet Earth) 465
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 467

12 Solutions 478
Solution Formation 479
12.1 Types of Solutions 479
12.2 Solubility and the Solution Process 481
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Hemoglobin Solubility and
Sickle-Cell Anemia 486
12.3 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility 487
 Contents xiii

Colligative Properties 490

12.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration 490
12.5 Vapor Pressure of a Solution 496
12.6 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 500
12.7 Osmosis 504
12.8 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions 508
Colloid Formation 509
12.9 Colloids 509
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The World’s Smallest Test Tubes 514
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 514

13 Materials of Technology 523

Metals and Metallurgy 524
13.1 Natural Sources of the Metallic Elements 525
13.2 Metallurgy 527
13.3 Bonding in Metals 534
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Superconductivity 537

Nonmetallic Materials 537

13.4 Diamond, Graphite, the Fullerenes, and Nanotechnology 538
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Buckminsterfullerene—A Third
Form of Carbon 542
13.5 Semiconductors 542
13.6 Silicon, Silica, and Silicates 546
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Silica Aerogels, the Lightest “Solids” 550
13.7 Ceramics 550
13.8 Composites 552
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 553

14 Rates of Reaction 558

Reaction Rates 559
14.1 Definition of Reaction Rate 560
14.2 Experimental Determination of Rate 564
14.3 Dependence of Rate on Concentration 566
14.4 Change of Concentration with Time 572
xiv Contents

14.5 Temperature and Rate; Collision and Transition-State

Theories 581
14.6 Arrhenius Equation 585
Reaction Mechanisms 588
14.7 Elementary Reactions 588
14.8 The Rate Law and the Mechanism 592
14.9 Catalysis 597
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Seeing Molecules React 602
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 602

15 Chemical Equilibrium 617

Describing Chemical Equilibrium 618
15.1 Chemical Equilibrium—A Dynamic Equilibrium 618
15.2 The Equilibrium Constant 621
15.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria; Solvents in Homogeneous
Equilibria 628
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Slime Molds and Leopards’ Spots 629

Using the Equilibrium Constant 631

15.4 Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant 631
15.5 Predicting the Direction of Reaction 632
15.6 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 634
Changing the Reaction Conditions; Le Chatelier’s Principle 639
15.7 Removing Products or Adding Reactants 639
15.8 Changing the Pressure and Temperature 642
15.9 Effect of a Catalyst 647
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 649

16 Acids and Bases 659

Acid–Base Concepts 660
16.1 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases 660
16.2 Brønsted–Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases 662
16.3 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 664
 Contents xv

Acid and Base Strengths 666

■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Taking Your Medicine 667
16.4 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 667
16.5 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength 670
Self-Ionization of Water and pH 673
16.6 Self-Ionization of Water 673
16.7 Solutions of a Strong Acid or Base 674
16.8 The pH of a Solution 677
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Unclogging the Sink and Other Chores 682
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 682

17 Acid–Base Equilibria 690

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base 691
17.1 Acid-Ionization Equilibria 691
17.2 Polyprotic Acids 698
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Acid Rain 700
17.3 Base-Ionization Equilibria 702
17.4 Acid–Base Properties of Salt Solutions 705
Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base with Another Solute 710
17.5 Common-Ion Effect 710
17.6 Buffers 713
17.7 Acid–Base Titration Curves 720
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 724

18 Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria 734

Solubility Equilibria 735
18.1 The Solubility Product Constant 735
18.2 Solubility and the Common-Ion Effect 739
18.3 Precipitation Calculations 742
18.4 Effect of pH on Solubility 746
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Limestone Caves 748
xvi Contents

Complex-Ion Equilibria 749

18.5 Complex-Ion Formation 749
18.6 Complex Ions and Solubility 752
An Application of Solubility Equilibria 754
18.7 Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions 754
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 757

19 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium 764

19.1 First Law of Thermodynamics; Enthalpy 765

Spontaneous Processes and Entropy 768
19.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 769
19.3 Standard Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 775
Free-Energy Concept 779
19.4 Free Energy and Spontaneity 779
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Coupling of Reactions 784
19.5 Interpretation of Free Energy 784
Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants 786
19.6 Relating G to the Equilibrium Constant 786
19.7 Change of Free Energy with Temperature 790
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 793

20 Electrochemistry 802
Half-Reactions 803
20.1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Acidic and
Basic Solutions 803
Voltaic Cells 808
20.2 Construction of Voltaic Cells 808
20.3 Notation for Voltaic Cells 811
20.4 Electromotive Force 813
20.5 Standard Cell emfs and Standard Electrode Potentials 815
20.6 Equilibrium Constants from emfs 823
 Contents xvii

20.7 Dependence of emf on Concentration 826

20.8 Some Commercial Voltaic Cells 830
Electrolytic Cells 834
20.9 Electrolysis of Molten Salts 834
20.10 Aqueous Electrolysis 836
20.11 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis 841
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 843

21 Nuclear Chemistry 854

Radioactivity and Nuclear Bombardment Reactions 855
21.1 Radioactivity 855
21.2 Nuclear Bombardment Reactions 864
21.3 Radiations and Matter: Detection and Biological Effects 869
21.4 Rate of Radioactive Decay 871
21.5 Applications of Radioactive Isotopes 878
Energy of Nuclear Reactions 882
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 883
21.6 Mass–Energy Calculations 884
21.7 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 888
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Chernobyl Nuclear Accident 892
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems •
Online Study Center Media Summary 892

22 Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements 900

22.1 General Observations About the Main-Group Elements 901

Chemistry of the Main-Group Metals 903
22.2 Group IA: The Alkali Metals 904
22.3 Group IIA: The Alkaline Earth Metals 910
22.4 Group IIIA and Group IVA Metals 916
Chemistry of the Nonmetals 920
22.5 Hydrogen 921
22.6 Group IVA: The Carbon Family 924
22.7 Group VA: Nitrogen and the Phosphorus Family 929
22.8 Group VIA: Oxygen and the Sulfur Family 937
xviii Contents

22.9 Group VIIA: The Halogens 943

22.10 Group VIIIA: The Noble Gases 947
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 949

23 The Transition Elements and Coordination

Compounds 958
Properties of the Transition Elements 959
23.1 Periodic Trends in the Transition Elements 959
23.2 The Chemistry of Two Transition Elements 964
Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds 967
23.3 Formation and Structure of Complexes 968
23.4 Naming Coordination Compounds 972
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Salad Dressing and Chelate Stability 973
23.5 Structure and Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 976
23.6 Valence Bond Theory of Complexes 984
23.7 Crystal Field Theory 985
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Cooperative Release of Oxygen from
Oxyhemoglobin 992
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 993

24 Organic Chemistry 998

24.1 The Bonding of Carbon 999

Hydrocarbons 999
24.2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 1000
24.3 Alkenes and Alkynes 1008
24.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1012
24.5 Naming Hydrocarbons 1015
Derivatives of Hydrocarbons 1022
24.6 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen 1022
24.7 Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen 1027
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 1029
 Contents xix

25 Polymer Materials: Synthetic

and Biological 1036
Synthetic Polymers 1037
25.1 Synthesis of Organic Polymers 1037
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Discovery of Nylon 1040
25.2 Electrically Conducting Polymers 1042
Biological Polymers 1044
25.3 Proteins 1044
25.4 Nucleic Acids 1049
■ A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Atomic
Force Microscopy 1058
A Checklist for Review • Review Questions • Conceptual Problems •
Practice Problems • General Problems • Online Study Center Media Summary 1059

Appendices A-1
A. Mathematical Skills A-1
B. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-8
C. Thermodynamic Quantities for Substances and Ions at 25C A-8
D. Electron Configurations of Atoms in the Ground State A-13
E. Acid-Ionization Constants at 25C A-15
F. Base-Ionization Constants at 25C A-16
G. Solubility Product Constants at 25C A-16
H. Formation Constants of Complex Ions at 25C A-17
I. Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials in
Aqueous Solution at 25C A-18

Answers to Exercises A-20

Answers to Concept Checks A-24

Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-27

Glossary A-44
Photo Credits A-62
Index A-64
This page intentionally left blank
Essays
A C H E M I S T L O O K S AT
LIFE SCIENCE
Nitric Oxide Gas and Biological Signaling 188
Human Vision 409
Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia 486
Taking Your Medicine 667
L IFE S CIENCE
Coupling of Reactions 784
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 883
The Cooperative Release of Oxygen from Oxyhemoglobin 992
Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Atomic Force Microscopy 1058
M AT E R I A L S
Lasers and Compact Disc Players 276
Superconductivity 537
Buckminsterfullerene—A Third Form of Carbon 542
Silica Aerogels, the Lightest “Solids” 550
M ATERIALS
The Discovery of Nylon 1040
ENVIRONMENT
Carbon Dioxide Gas and the Greenhouse Effect 213
Stratospheric Ozone (An Absorber of Ultraviolet Rays) 410
Water (A Special Substance for Planet Earth) 465
Acid Rain 700
E NVIRONMENT
Limestone Caves 748
The Chernobyl Nuclear Accident 892
FRONTIERS
Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability 56
Levitating Frogs and People 311
Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry 335
The World’s Smallest Test Tubes 514
F RONTIERS
Seeing Molecules React 602
E V E RY D AY L I F E
The Birth of the Post-it Note® 5
Lucifers and Other Matches 236
Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays 271
Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin 344
EVERYDAY L IFE
Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules 384
Removing Caffeine from Coffee 433
Liquid-Crystal Displays 453
Slime Molds and Leopards’ Spots 629
Unclogging the Sink and Other Chores 682
Salad Dressing and Chelate Stability 973

xxi
xxii Essays

I N S T R U M E N TA L M E T H O D S
Separation of Mixtures by Chromatography 14
Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Formula 98
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 282
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 298
X Rays, Atomic Numbers, and Orbital Structure (Photoelectron
Spectroscopy) 305
Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations of Chemical Bonds 363
Automated X-Ray Diffractometry 464
Preface
To the Instructor
In the preface to the first edition, we wrote, “Scientists delve into the molecular
machinery of the biological cell and examine bits of material from the planets of the
solar system. The challenge for the instructors of introductory chemistry is to capture
the excitement of these discoveries [of chemistry] while giving students a solid under-
standing of the basic principles and facts. The challenge for the students is to be recep-
tive to a new way of thinking, which will allow them to be caught up in the excite-
ment of discovery.” From the very first edition of this text, our aims have always been
to help instructors capture the excitement of chemistry and to teach students to “think
chemistry.” Here are some of the features of the text that we feel are especially impor-
tant in achieving these goals.

Clear, Lucid Explanations of Chemical Concepts From the first edition, we have
always placed the highest priority on writing clear, lucid explanations of chemical
concepts. We have strived to relate abstract concepts to specific real-world events and
have presented topics in a logical, yet flexible, order. With succeeding editions, incor-
porating suggestions from instructors and students, we have refined the writing.

Coherent Problem-Solving Approach With the first edition, we presented a

coherent problem-solving approach that involved worked-out Examples coupled with
Exercises and corresponding end-of-chapter Problems. This approach received an
enormously positive response. In later editions, while refining the pedagogy of these
examples and problems, we added Problem Strategies to underscore how one thinks
through a problem solution. With this new edition, we have added Answer Checks,
which have been designed to help students learn to evaluate their answers to a prob-
lem with a final question: Is this answer reasonable in terms of the general knowl-
edge that I have of the problem? This final phase of problem solving is a critical step
often overlooked by students. By providing Answer Checks throughout the text, we
hope to teach and encourage students to evaluate their answers for reasonableness.
In the sixth edition, we added two new study aids, which met with an enthusi-
astic response: Concept Checks and Conceptual Problems. We wrote these problems
to force students to think about the chemical concepts involved, rather than focus on
obtaining a numerical result. Since that edition, we have strengthened this feature of
the book. We now cover many more topics, and we have added artwork, including
molecular models, to many of these problems. Since visualization is such a critical
part of learning and understanding chemistry, adding this artwork continues to
strengthen the pedagogical and conceptual elements of the text.

An Illustration Program with an Emphasis on Molecular Concepts Most of us

are strongly visual in our learning. When you see something, you tend to remember
it. As in the previous edition, we went over each piece of art, asking how we might
improve it or where we might add art to improve student comprehension. We con-
tinue to focus on the presentation of chemistry at the molecular level. We start build-
ing the molecular “story” in Chapter 1, and by Chapter 2 we have developed the mol-
ecular view and have integrated it into the problem-solving apparatus as well as into
the text discussions. We continue in the following chapters to use the molecular view
xxiii
xxiv Preface

as into the text discussions. We continue in the following chapters to use the molecular
view to strengthen chemical concepts. In Chapter 3, on stoichiometry, for example, a
Concept Check asks the student to visualize the concept of limiting reactants in terms
of molecular models.

Media Summaries to Help You Integrate Electronic Resources into Your Course
For the new Media Enhanced Edition, we added Online Study Center Media Sum-
maries to the end of each chapter to facilitate integration of our electronic resources
into your course work and assignments. These summaries provide a complete listing
of all the related media activities available to students at the Online Study Center (stu-
dent web site) in one convenient location.

Chapter Essays Showcasing Chemistry as a Modern Science With the eighth

edition, we continued our A Chemist Looks At essays which cover up-to-date issues
of science and technology. We have chosen topics that we thought would engage stu-
dents’ interest while at the same time showcasing the chemistry involved. We also
adopted icons to describe the content area (materials, environment, everyday life, fron-
tiers, and life science) of these essays.
The essays show students that chemistry is a vibrant, constantly changing science
that has relevance for our modern world. The essay, “Removing Caffeine from
Coffee,” for example, describes the removal of caffeine from coffee using supercrit-
ical carbon dioxide instead of environmentally problematical organic solvents. Some
other examples are “Nitric Oxide and Biological Signaling,” which describes the
importance of a simple chemical compound in human biology, and “Seeing Molecules
React,” which emphasizes that chemists are more and more able to work with single
molecules.
Also, with the eighth edition, we continue the Instrumental Methods essays. We
included these essays because we have felt that students sometimes come away from
their general chemistry course not realizing that modern chemistry very much
depends on sophisticated instruments. When they do realize this, they often become
quite excited by the subject. Each of the essays in this series focuses on an instru-
mental method used by research chemists, such as mass spectroscopy or nuclear
magnetic resonance. The essays are short, with just enough detail to pique students’
interest.

Chapters on Materials and Polymers We have two chapters that are explicitly on
the materials of modern technology. One of these is Chapter 13, “Materials of Tech-
nology.” This chapter includes material on nonmetals, such as the fullerenes, ceram-
ics, and composites, and nanotechnology. The final chapter of the book, Chapter 25,
“Polymer Materials: Synthetic and Biological,” discusses one of the most important
materials of modern technology. This chapter consists of two parts, one on synthetic
polymers (including a section on conducting polymers) and the other on biological
polymers.

Revision of Material on Thermodynamics and Kinetics For the eighth edition,

we completely revised all the thermodynamics data used in the book, making sure
that it is accurate and up-to-date. Also, the discussion of entropy in Chapter 19 was
rewritten to present entropy as a measure of the dispersal of energy.
In Chapter 14 we have included a more thorough discussion of second-order
reactions, and we have expanded the coverage of integrated rate laws (concentration–
time equations) and reaction half-life to include zero-order reactions. Several new
end-of-chapter Problems covering these topics also have been added.
 Preface xxv

Revision of Material on Kinetics In Chapter 14, we have included a more thor-

ough discussion of second-order reactions, and we have expanded the coverage of
integrated rate laws (concentration-time equations) and reaction half-life to include
zero-order reactions. Several new end-of-chapter problems covering these topics have
also been added.

To the Student
You are about to embark on a fascinating intellectual adventure. You are surrounded
by chemical materials and substances, and if you are even a bit curious, you have
asked yourself questions about these things. As you look at the print in this book,
light particles, or photons, scatter from the ink, some passing into your eye. What
chemistry happens when these photons strike the retina at the back of your eye? Per-
haps you are drinking a cup of decaffeinated coffee or a cola soda that contains some
of the caffeine taken from the coffee. How do they remove the caffeine without
removing the flavor (at least not all of it)?
Of course, any new subject has its concepts and its ways of looking at things that
may, at first, seem strange. Chemistry, dealing as it does with all the materials of the
universe, from living things to the objects of the heavens, has its share of complex-
ity. But its central concept is simple: Everything is composed of a selection (from
about one hundred different kinds) of atoms chemically combined as molecules or
other clumps of matter. As abstract as such objects might seem, chemists now have
supermicroscopes that can see these atoms and molecules.
Having studied and taught chemistry for some years, your authors are well aware
of the problems students encounter in their study of chemistry. In writing this book,
we have constantly striven to relate chemical concepts to specific things in the real
world, and we have written an abundance of instructional aids to help you grapple
with the ideas presented.

Features of the Eighth Edition

Each individual learns in a different way. For that reason, we have incorporated a
number of different features into the text to help you master the subject. We hope that
by becoming familiar with these features, which are listed below, you will be able to
tailor a study program that meets your particular needs.

Chapter Theme We begin each chapter with a theme—something specific that

reveals the real-world relevance of the chapter topic. For example, we open Chap-
ter 2, Atoms, Molecules, and Ions, with a discussion of sodium, chlorine, and sodium
chloride. This chapter theme then leads naturally into a series of questions (for
instance, “How do we explain the differences in properties of different forms of
matter?”), which we answer later in the chapter.

Vocabulary Chemistry uses words in a precise way, and it is important that you
develop a vocabulary of terms in order to read and communicate the subject effec-
tively. When a new, important word is introduced in the text, we have flagged it by
putting it in boldface type. The definition of that word will generally follow in the
same sentence in italic type. All of these words are collected at the end of the chap-
ter in the list of Important Terms. They also appear, along with a few other words, in
the Glossary at the end of the book, and online for easy reference. In addition, on the
xxvi Preface

to a problem will not help you to obtain the answer. In many cases, your conceptual
understanding of chemistry will be what you remember and apply later in life.
To assist you in mastering the concepts presented in this text, we have placed
Concept Checks in the body of every chapter and a section of Conceptual Problems
at the end of each chapter. Answers to the Concept Checks and the odd-numbered
Conceptual Problems are provided at the end of the book. Detailed solutions to the
Concept Checks are available at the Online Study Center.

Problem-Solving Program Problem solving is an important part of chemistry. By

solving problems yourself, you become involved with the subject, and by being
involved with the subject, you learn it. But problem solving is like learning to swim
or play a musical instrument; it becomes easy only with practice. Chemistry builds
one concept on another and fact on fact. The secret of problem solving in chemistry
is to know what you learned earlier so well that when you approach a new problem,
you know how to put the pieces together.
Recognizing the importance of problem solving in chemistry, we felt that the bur-
den could be much reduced if we followed a consistent problem-solving program. We
introduce each problem-solving skill with an Example, in which you are led through
the reasoning involved in working out a particular type of problem. Most of these
Examples include a Problem Strategy that underscores the thinking process involved
in solving the problem. With this edition, some Examples include an Answer Check.
These employ a “check of reasonableness” of the answer that is based on general
knowledge of the problem. By applying a reasonableness check to your answers, you
often will be able to catch mistakes.
Each Example is accompanied by an Exercise, which is a similar problem that
you can try. The answers to these Exercises are at the end of the book. At the end of
each Exercise is a list of corresponding end-of-chapter Practice Problems. Try some
of these to gain mastery of that problem-solving skill. Problems are in matched pairs,
and answers to odd-numbered Problems are provided at the end of the book.
We also have provided two other sources of problems for you to try: the ACE
Practice Tests, multiple-choice self-quizzes, at the Online Study Center and the online
homework problems available in Eduspace®.

Checklist for Review When it comes to reviewing, students generally develop their
own techniques. We have tried to accommodate these differences by presenting var-
ious review possibilities. For example, you may find that the list of Important Terms
is useful not only because it is a list of new words but also because as you look over
the words, you see the structure of the chapter. As you mentally note this structure,
try to recall the ideas associated with the words. You also may choose to use the elec-
tronic Flashcards at the Online Study Center to review these terms. Many chapters
also introduce one or more mathematical equations to be used in problem solving. In
the chapter, these equations are shaded in color; then, in the Checklist for Review, they
are listed as Key Equations. The Summary of Facts and Concepts presents a verbal
summary of the chapter. Study this, and as you go over each statement, try to flesh out
points. Finally, we present a list of Operational Skills. This is a summary of the chapter’s
problem-solving skills. Each operational skill tells you what information is needed and
what is to be solved for in a given type of problem. Each operational skill also refers
back to the Examples that discuss that problem-solving skill.

End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems This section begins with Review Ques-
tions, which have been designed to test your understanding of the chapter ideas.
 Preface xxvii

Generally, they can be answered by straightforward recall or by simple extension of the

chapter material. After these questions, we have added a section of Conceptual Prob-
lems. Following these problems, we have listed several sections of problems to help you
gain mastery of problem-solving skills. The Practice Problems are keyed to a particu-
lar topic by heading; the General Problems are not. The Cumulative-Skills Problems
require you to combine several skills, often from previous chapters. These problems all
appear in matched pairs for additional practice. With the Media Enhanced Edition,
875 of the end-of-chapter problems are now offered as online homework in Eduspace®.

Complete Instructional Package

Resources for Instructors
A complete suite of customizable teaching tools accompanies the Media Enhanced
Edition of General Chemistry, Eighth Edition. Whether online or via CD, these inte-
grated resources are designed to save you time and help to make class preparation,
presentation, assessment, and course management more efficient and effective.

Technology for Instructors

New! • Media Integration Guide for Instructors This guide provides an overview
of instructor and student media resources available with the text, provides the
password to the Online Teaching Center, and includes the instructor CDs: HM
Testing™ (powered by Diploma®) and HM ClassPresent™. Throughout the
guide, recommendations are given that suggest how, why, and when to use the
media offered in this program.
Updated! • HM Testing™ (powered by Diploma®) combines a flexible test-editing
program with a comprehensive gradebook function for easy administration and
tracking. With HM Testing™, instructors can administer tests via print, network
server, or the web. Questions can be selected based on question format, topic,
or level of difficulty. Conceptual questions at the end of each chapter follow
the text’s fully integrated approach to conceptual understanding.
• Instructors also have the option of accessing the test-bank content from
Eduspace®. The Complete Solutions Manual files are also included on this CD.
With HM Testing™, you can:
• Choose from over 2200 test items designed to measure the concepts and
principles covered in the text. Most of these questions have been used on
exams by the author in his general chemistry course.
• Ensure that each student gets a different version of the problem by select-
ing from over 500 algorithmic questions within the computerized test bank.
• Edit or author algorithmic questions.
• Choose problems designated as single-skill (easy), multi-skill (moderate),
and challenging and multi-skill (difficult) or create questions, which then are
part of the question database for future use.
• Customize tests to assess the specific content from the text.
• Create several forms of the same test where questions and answers are
scrambled.
Updated! • HM ClassPresent™ General Chemistry features animations and video
demonstrations to enhance classroom presentations. Organized by chapter and
xxviii Preface

topic, HM ClassPresent™ provides a library of high-quality, scalable lab

demonstration videos and animations covering core chemistry concepts. The
resources within it can be browsed by thumbnail and description or searched
by chapter, title, or keyword. Instructors can export the animations and videos
to their own computers or use them for presentation directly from the CD. Full
transcripts accompany all audio commentary to reinforce visual presentations
and to accommodate different learning styles.
Updated! • Online Teaching Center (college.hmco.com/pic/ebbingmee8e) includes every-
thing instructors need to develop lectures: Lecture Outline PowerPoint slides;
virtually all the text figures, tables, and photos available in PPT slides and
digital files (JPEG); the Instructor’s Resource Manual for both the main text
and the Lab Manual (Experiments in General Chemistry) (PDF format); trans-
parencies (PDF format); animations and videos; and Classroom Response
System (CRS) content.
• Lecture Outline PowerPoint slides include lecture outlines, animations and
video demonstrations, art from the textbook, and questions to gauge stu-
dents’ comprehension.
• Classroom Response System (CRS) content transforms traditional lectures into
student-centered learning environments that promote peer interaction and col-
laboration. The instructor has a formative assessment tool that provides real-
time feedback when the histogram of student responses to the questions is
displayed. CRS offers a dynamic way to facilitate interactive learning with
students—perform immediate assessments, deliver quick quizzes, measure
comprehension, and take class attendance easily. Houghton Mifflin offers text-
specific slides that pose multiple-choice questions to students and challenge
them to answer using wireless “clickers.” (Additional hardware and software
are required. Contact your sales representative for more information.)
Updated! • Eduspace®, Houghton Mifflin’s Complete Online Learning Tool, is an
instructor’s “one-stop resource” for all course material. Through Eduspace®,
instructors have access to all the media included within the Online Teaching Cen-
ter and the Online Study Center, plus three types of additional homework prob-
lems and assignments. This additional content includes selected text-specific end-
of-chapter problems (most of which contain algorithms, giving students different
versions of each problem), problems based on the in-text examples (multiple, ran-
domizing versions of each example assignment ensure that students do not all
get the same one), and test-bank questions. All assignments in Eduspace® are
automatically scored and recorded in the gradebook. End-of-chapter problems
include links to equations, tables, and art from the textbook, as well as optional
hints that link to the online multimedia eBook. SMARTHINKING®, live, online
tutoring, is also included through Eduspace® for students.
Eduspace® includes all of Blackboard’s powerful tools for teaching and learn-
ing, as well as customized functions that allow instructors to tailor these materi-
als to their specific needs. Instructors can select, create, and post homework
assignments and tests, communicate with students in a variety of ways, track
student progress, and manage their portfolio of course work in the gradebook.
Updated! • Online Course Content for Blackboard® and WebCT allows delivery of
text-specific content online using your institution’s local course management
system. Through these course management systems, Houghton Mifflin offers
access to all assets within Eduspace®, such as end-of-chapter problems, in-
chapter example problems, tutorials, video lessons, and other resources.
 Preface xxix

Print Supplements for Instructors

Updated! • Instructor’s Annotated Edition (Darrell D. Ebbing, Wayne State University,
and Steven D. Gammon, Western Washington University) The IAE consists
of the student text and a program of annotations to assist the instructor in syl-
labus and lecture preparation. Updated for the Media Enhanced Edition, the
annotations refer to material such as transparencies, lecture demonstrations, and
ideas for alternative course sequence or abbreviation. Other annotations suggest
ways to integrate other instructional resources with your use of this text.
• Instructor’s Resource Manual (Darrell D. Ebbing, Wayne State University,
and Steven D. Gammon, Western Washington University) This manual offers
information about chapter essays, suggestions for alternative sequencing of top-
ics, short chapter descriptions, a master list of operational skills, correlation of
cumulative-skills problems with text topics, alternative examples for lectures,
suggested lecture demonstrations, and a list of overhead transparencies. Also
available electronically on the Online Teaching Center.
• Complete Solutions Manual (David Bookin, Mount San Jacinto College,
Darrell D. Ebbing, Wayne State University, and Steven D. Gammon, Western
Washington University) This complete version of the Student Solutions
Manual contains detailed solutions to the in-chapter exercises and all end-of-
chapter problems, as well as the answers to the Concept Checks and Review
Questions. This supplement is intended for the instructor’s convenience and for
those who wish their students to have solutions to all problems. Also available
electronically on the HM Testing™ CD.

For the Lab

• Experiments in General Chemistry (R. A. D. Wentworth, Indiana University)
Forty experiments parallel the material found in the textbook. Each lab exercise
has a pre-lab assignment, background information, clear instructions for per-
forming the experiment, and a convenient section for reporting results and obser-
vations. Several experiments incorporate the use of computers and the Internet.
• Instructor’s Resource Manual to the Lab Manual (R. A. D. Wentworth,
Indiana University) This manual provides instructors with sample results to
all pre- and post-lab activities in Experiments in General Chemistry. Also avail-
able electronically at the Online Teaching Center.

Resources for Students

An extensive print and media package has been created to assist students in working
problems, visualizing molecular-level interactions, and building study strategies to
fully comprehend concepts.

Technology for Students

Updated! • From the Online Study Center (college.hmco.com/pic/ebbingmee8e), stu-
dents will have access to Visualizations (animated molecular concepts and lab
demonstration videos), interactive tutorials, electronic flashcards, ACE Prac-
tice Tests, and over 45 hours of video lessons from Thinkwell. These resources
xxx Preface

will help students to prepare for class, study for quizzes and exams, and
improve their grade. Your Guide to an A can be packaged free with new texts
and provides students with a passkey to access all the premium resources avail-
able at the Online Study Center.
• Visualizations Animations and videos bring chemical concepts to life with
animated molecular-level interactions and lab demonstrations. Each anima-
tion and video includes practice questions to test the student’s knowledge of
that concept.
• Tutorials These interactive tutorials guide students from preparation to
comprehension using a variety of learning techniques, including preview and
practice questions, concept overviews, animated demonstrations, and inter-
active activities to gauge their mastery of concepts from the text.
• Video Lessons from Thinkwell Over 45 hours of video lessons, delivered
via streaming audio, are available for student review. Each 8- to 10-minute
mini-lecture includes a chemistry expert lecturing on key topics. These
lessons combine video, audio, and whiteboard examples to help students
understand and review concepts.
Also included in the Online Study Center are an interactive periodic table, a
molecule library of chemical structures, and a Careers in Chemistry page,
which has links to information on careers in industry, education, medicine, law,
and other fields. A passkey is not required to access these resources.
Updated! • Eduspace®, Houghton Mifflin’s Complete Online Learning Tool, features
all the student resources included within the Online Study Center (described
above), such as tutorials, Visualizations, video lessons from Thinkwell, flash-
cards, and ACE Practice Tests, as well as text-specific end-of-chapter prob-
lems, text-specific in-chapter example problems, an online multimedia eBook,
and SMARTHINKING®—live, online tutoring. The end-of-chapter problems
include helpful links to equations, tables, and art from the textbook for student
review, as well as hints that link to the multimedia eBook.
New! • The online multimedia eBook available within Eduspace® integrates reading
textbook content with interactive media. Students can visualize molecular con-
cepts, work through interactive tutorials, watch video lessons, practice prob-
lem solving, and quiz themselves on key terms by clicking the embedded icons
within the eBook.
• Live, Online Tutoring available through SMARTHINKING® provides per-
sonalized, text-specific tutoring during peak study hours when students need it
most (terms and conditions subject to change; some limits apply). It allows stu-
dents to use a powerful whiteboard with full scientific notation and graphics
to interact with a live e-structor; submit a question and get a response usually
within 24 hours; view past online sessions, questions, or essays in an archive
on their personal academic homepage; and view their tutoring schedule. E-
structors help students with the process of problem solving rather than supplying
answers. SMARTHINKING® is available through Eduspace® or, on instructor
request, packaged with new copies of the student textbook.

Print Supplements for Students

New! • Your Guide to an A This booklet provides a passkey that is your students’
portal to all the premium resources available at the Online Study Center
 Preface xxxi

(college.hmco.com/pic/ebbingmee8e). If students have bought a used text-

book, they can purchase Your Guide to an A separately.
• Student Solutions Manual (David Bookin, Mount San Jacinto College,
Darrell D. Ebbing, Wayne State University, and Steven D. Gammon, Western
Washington University) This manual contains detailed solutions to the in-
chapter exercises and odd-numbered end-of-chapter problems. It also contains
answers to the Review Questions. All solutions have been checked by an inde-
pendent reviewer to ensure accuracy and precision.
• Study Guide for General Chemistry (Larry K. Krannich, University of
Alabama at Birmingham) Each chapter of the Study Guide reinforces the
students’ understanding of concepts and operational skills presented in the text.
It includes the following features for each chapter: a list of key terms and their
definitions, a diagnostic test with answers, a summary of major concepts and
operational skills, additional practice problems and their solutions, and a chap-
ter posttest with answers.

Acknowledgments
For a Media Enhanced Edition, the technology component of the text package is
crucial. Many people who were involved in the authoring and development of the new
and updated media deserve great thanks: Linda Bush, chemist and educational con-
sultant; Jason Overby, College of Charleston, David Erwin, Rose-Hulman Institute of
Technology; Richard Nafshun, Oregon State University; Diane Payne and George
Lauterbach, both of Villa Julie College; Laura Tilton, chemical consultant; and Maria
Schiza, Millersville University. Our new and updated technology would not have been
possible without all their hard work.
We thank Lynne Blaszak, senior media producer, Rob Sherman, Eduspace® pro-
ject manager, Peggy O’Connell, senior media producer (HM Testing™), Dustin
Brandt, associate media producer, and Adan Virk, media production assistant, for their
work in the production of an outstanding package of technology-based materials to
accompany the text. Nan Lewis-Schultz, project editor, oversaw the updates of the
text needed for the Media Enhanced Edition. And we also want to thank Charles
Hartford, publisher; Kate Heinle, development editor; Laura McGinn, senior market-
ing manager; and Kris Bishop, marketing associate, for their contributions to the
Media Enhanced Edition.
Our sincere thanks remain in place for everyone who worked so hard on the
eighth edition. We again want to thank Richard Stratton, executive editor, for his help
in so many ways. Richard, who has been with this book—except for a brief hiatus—
from its first edition, has always been a source of confidence and encouragement and
a friend. Danielle Richardson, associate editor, was our day-to-day source of inspira-
tion. She contributed ideas and spurred us on. We thank her and Rosemary Mack, edi-
torial associate, for her work in overseeing the ancillary revision process. And we also
want to thank Katherine Greig, senior marketing manager, and Alexandra Shaw, mar-
keting associate, for their contributions to the book.
For the eighth edition we had a superlative production team: Nancy Blodget,
senior project editor, directed the molding of our manuscript into a finished book, and
Jill Haber, senior production/design coordinator, directed the overall art program.
Jessyca Broekman, line-art editor, took our scribbles of art ideas and made them into
finished artwork. And Naomi Kornhauser, photography editor, took our sketchy
xxxii Preface

requests for photos and found the perfect pictures. She also coordinated the setup pho-
tography. Steve Borick, of Scottsdale Community College, our chemistry consultant,
and Jennifer Tatum, staff photographer of American Color, were responsible for the
actual setup photography. Henry Rachlin, again the book designer, achieved a result that
is exceptionally pleasing to the eye while soundly emphasizing the pedagogy of the
book. We give our special thanks to these people.
We are especially indebted to those who contributed conceptual questions to the
eighth edition test bank: Dawn Del Carlo, Montclair State University; John Hardee,
Henderson State University; Kirk Kawagoe, Fresno City College; Robert Pribush,
Butler University; and Gary Mort, Lane Community College. We also want to thank
the following: Michael Golde, University of Pittsburgh, who offered helpful feedback
on the text and on the media program; Abdul Mohammed, North Carolina A&T Uni-
versity, who reviewed the text and the test bank and revised the PowerPoint Lecture
Slides; Jeff Appling, Clemson University, who reviewed the animations and worked
as consultant on the complete revision of HM ClassPresent™ CD; Patty Pieper,
Anoka-Ramsey Community College, who was accuracy checker for the manuscript;
and Conrad Bergo, who was accuracy checker of page proof.
The development of any revision would be impossible without the help of many
reviewers. We are enormously grateful to the following people for giving their time
and ideas to the eighth edition of General Chemistry.

Text Reviewers
Mufeed Basti, North Carolina A&T State University Kirk Kawagoe, Fresno City College
P. J. Brucat, University of Florida Alvin Kennedy, Morgan State University
Joe Casalnuovo, California State Polytechnic University, Cathy MacGowan, Armstrong Atlantic State University
Pomona Abdul Mohammed, North Carolina A&T State University
Edward Case, Clemson University Ray Mohseni, East Tennessee State University
David Chitharanjan, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point Gary Mort, Lane Community College
Kevin Crawford, The Citadel John Pollard, University of Arizona
Thomas Dowd, William Rainey Harper College Dennis Sardella, Boston College
John Hardee, Henderson State University John Thompson, Lane Community College
Daniel Haworth, Marquette University Mike Van Stipdonk, Wichita State University
David Herrick, University of Oregon Carmen Works, Sonoma State University
Linda Hobart, Finger Lakes Community College Tim Zauche, University of Wisconsin, Platteville
Donna Hobbs, Augusta State University

Test-Bank Reviewers
Kenneth Brown, Old Dominion University Abdul Mohammed, North Carolina A&T University
Jack Gill, Texas Woman’s University Patricia Pieper, Anoka-Ramsey Community College
John Hardee, Henderson State University John Pollard, University of Arizona
Deborah McClinton, Brevard Community College John Thompson, Lane Community College
Darrell wishes to thank his wife, Jean, and children, Julie, Linda, and Russell, for their
continued support and encouragement over many years of writing. Steve thanks his
wife, Jodi, and children, Katie and Andrew, and his parents, Judy and Dick, for their
support and for helping him to keep a perspective on the important things in life.
Darrell D. Ebbing
Steven D. Gammon
Superior Student and Instructor Support
The Media Enhanced Edition of General Chemistry preserves the
hallmark qualities of the eighth edition—a carefully developed, thoroughly
integrated approach to problem solving with a strong conceptual
focus—while providing students and instructors with the latest media. The
seamlessly integrated technology program has been completely updated
and expanded to enhance the core strengths of the book—problem
solving, conceptual understanding, and visualization.

Coherent Problem-Solving Approach

In-text Examples guide stu-
dents through the logic of solv-
• EXAMPLE 12.7 Converting Molality to Molarity
An aqueous solution is 0.273 m KCl. What is the molar concentration of potas-
ing certain types of problems. sium chloride, KCl? The density of the solution is 1.011  103 g/L.
PROBLEM STRATEGY The molality tells you that the solution contains 0.273 mol KCl in 1 kg of water.
Problem Strategies outline
the thinking that underlies the
• You take the mass of solution that contains 1 kg of water (the mass of 0.273 mol
KCl plus 1.000  103 g H2O) and use the density to convert this quantity of
solution to volume. Molarity equals moles of solute (KCl) divided by volume
numerical solution of the of solution in liters.
problem. The Solution then SOLUTION The mass of potassium chloride in this quantity of solution is
applies that thinking to a 74.6 g KCl
0.273 mol KCl   20.4 g KCl
particular problem. 1 mol KCl
The total mass of the solution equals the mass of water plus the mass of potas-
Answer Checks appear
after the Solutions in selected
• sium chloride.
1.000  103 g  20.4 g  1.020  103 g
Examples in the text. This feature The volume of the solution can be calculated using the inverse of the density of
helps students learn the critical the solution.
last step in problem solving: how Volume of solution  1.020  103 g 
1L
 1.009 L
1.011  103 g
to evaluate their answers to
ensure that they are reason- Hence, the molarity of the solution is
able, based on their general 0.273 mol KCl
 0.271 M KCl
1.009 L solution
knowledge of the problems.
Note that the molarity and the molality of this solution are approximately equal.
Each example is followed by an
Exercise to allow students to
• urea
This happens in cases where the solutions are dilute and the density is about
1 g/mL.
ANSWER CHECK If you are converting between molarity and molality of an aqueous solution, the
practice what they have concentrations expressed either way generally do not differ greatly.You can see that
just seen worked out. is the case here: 0.271 M KCl versus 0.273 m KCl. Use this fact to check your
answers for this type of problem.
A Reference to End-of-Chapter EXERCISE 12.10 Urea, (NH2)2CO, is used as a fertilizer. What is the molar concentration of an aque-
Problems directs students to ous solution that is 3.42 m urea? The density of the solution is 1.045 g/mL.
other problems of this type. • See Problems 12.57 and 12.58.

End-of-chapter Practice • Practice Problems

Problems are keyed to particu- ■ Energy and Its Units ■ Heat of Reaction
lar topics by a heading. In 6.35 Methane, CH4, is a major component of marsh gas. 6.41 The process of dissolving ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3,
addition, there are General When 0.5000 mol methane burns to produce carbon dioxide
and liquid water, 445.1 kJ of heat is released. What is this
in water is an endothermic process. What is the sign of q? If
you were to add some ammonium nitrate to water in a flask,
Problems and Cumulative-Skills heat in kilocalories? would you expect the flask to feel warm or cool?
6.36 Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, is produced during decomposi- 6.42 The decomposition of ozone, O3, to oxygen, O2, is an
Problems, which require stu- tion of organic matter. When 0.5000 mol H2S burns to produce exothermic reaction. What is the sign of q? If you were to
SO2(g) and H2O(l), 281.0 kJ of heat is released. What is this
dents to combine several skills. heat in kilocalories?
touch a flask in which ozone is decomposing to oxygen, would
you expect the flask to feel warm or cool?

Media Activities are interactive • Media Activities

exercises that prompt students 11.125 Open the Changes of State Understanding Concepts forces present in SO2, N2H4, O3, and SP6. Try as many addi-
activity on the student CD to review phase changes and heating tional structures provided by the program as necessary in order
to further test and develop their curves. to master the concepts.
understanding of chapter topics a. When a solid converts to a liquid and then to a gas, describe 11.128 Run the Unit Cells and Crystal Packing Visualiza-
what happens during each step in terms of the intermolecu- tion on the student CD.
using multimedia resources lar forces. a. Which unit cell—simple cubic, face-centered cubic, or
b. Rationalize why Hvap for water is over six times larger body-centered cubic—is a closest-packed arrangement?
available on the student than Hfus. b. Which unit cell—simple cubic, face-centered cubic, or
c. What values of H would you need to calculate in order to
CD-ROM and web site. determine the total amount of heat required to change ice at
body-centered cubic—contains the most atoms?
c. Which packing arrangement of the layers in a solid has a
20°C to liquid water at 45°C? face-centered cubic unit cell?
 Enhanced Conceptual Understanding

Concept Checks are included

throughout the text to further
• CONCEPT CHECK 2.4 Identify the following compounds as being a hydrocarbon, an alcohol,
an ether, or a carboxylic acid.

challenge students to under- H

stand the ideas underlying C

chemistry. A comprehensive
strategy and solution for each
O
Concept Check are available at
the Online Study Center. (a) (b) (c) (d)

Conceptual Problems at
the end of each chapter rein-
• Conceptual Problems
3.13 You react nitrogen and hydrogen in a container to pro- c. When using a gas grill you can sometimes turn the gas up to
force principles by asking duce ammonia, NH3(g). The following figure depicts the con- the point at which the flame becomes yellow and smokey. In
tents of the container after the reaction is complete. terms of the chemical reaction, what is happening?
non-quantitative questions 3.15 A critical point to master in becoming proficient at solv-
about the material. = NH3 ing problems is evaluating whether or not your answer is rea-
= N2 sonable. A friend asks you to look over her homework to see if
she has done the calculations correctly. Shown below are de-
scriptions of some of her answers. Without using your calcula-
tor or doing calculations on paper, see if you can judge the an-
swers below as being reasonable or ones that will require her to
go back and work the problems again.
a. 0.33 mole of an element has a mass of 1.0  103 g.
a. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
b. The mass of one molecule of water is 1.80  1010 g.
b. What is the limiting reactant?
c. There are 3.01  1023 atoms of Na in 0.500 mol of Na.
c. How many molecules of the limiting reactant would you
d. The molar mass of CO2 is 44.0 kg/mol.
need to add to the container in order to have a complete re-
action (convert all reactants to products)? 3.16 An exciting, and often loud, chemical demonstration
3.14 Propane, C3H8, is the fuel of choice in a gas barbecue. involves the simple reaction of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to
When burning, the balanced equation is produce water vapor:

C3H8  5O2 ±£ 3CO2  4H2O 2H2(g)  O2(g) ±£ 2H2O(g)

NEW Online Study Center

Media Summaries at the end of
• Online Study Center Media Summary
Visit the Online Study Center at college.hmco.com/pic/ebbingmee8e to help prepare for class, study for quizzes and exams, un-
derstand core concepts, and visualize molecular-level interactions. The following media activities are available for this chapter:
each chapter refer students to all
Prepare for Class Improve Your Grade
the media activities available at
Video Lessons Visualizations
the Online Study Center that –Mini lectures from chemistry experts –Molecular-level animations and lab
reinforce concepts addressed in • An Introduction to Chemistry demonstration videos
• The Scientific Method • Structure of a Solid
the chapter. With all these • States of Matter • Structure of a Liquid
• CIA Demonstration: Distillation • Structure of a Gas
activities listed together in one • Properties of Matter • Comparison of a Compound and a Mixture
convenient location, it’s easy for • CIA Demonstration: Chromatography • Comparison of a Solution and a Mixture
• Precision and Accuracy • Homogeneous Mixtures: Air and Brass
instructors to integrate tech- • CIA Demonstration: Precision and Accuracy with
Glassware Tutorials
nology into their course and • Significant Figures –Animated examples and interactive activities
assignments. • Scientific (Exponential) Notation • Unit Conversions
• The Measurement of Matter
• CIA Demonstration: Differences in Density Due Flashcards
to Temperature –Key terms and definitions
• Dimensional Analysis • Online Flashcards

ACE the Test

–Multiple-choice quizzes
• 3 ACE Practice Tests

Access these resources using the passkey in Your Guide to an A available free with new texts or for purchase separately.

A chapter-ending Summary • ■ Summary of Facts and Concepts

A formula weight equals the sum of the atomic weights of the to ratios of moles, which, when expressed in smallest whole
of Facts and Concepts atoms in the formula of a compound. If the formula corre- numbers, give the subscripts in the formula. A molecular for-
revisits the important sponds to that of a molecule, this sum of atomic weights equals mula is a multiple of the empirical formula; this multiple is de-
the molecular weight of the compound. The mass of Avo- termined from the experimental value of the molecular weight.
concepts in each chapter. gadro’s number (6.02  1023) of formula units—that is, the A chemical equation may be interpreted in terms of moles
mass of one mole of substance—equals the mass in grams that of reactants and products, as well as in terms of molecules. Us-
corresponds to the numerical value of the formula weight in ing this molar interpretation, you can convert from the mass of
amu. This mass is called the molar mass. one substance in a chemical equation to the mass of another.

xxxiv
Dynamic Art Program
Figure 4.17
The combustion of iron wool
Iron reacts with oxygen in the air
to produce iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.
H The reaction is similar to the
W rusting of iron but is much faster.
H H H H H H H H H H H±C±H H
W W W W W W W W W W W W
H±C±C±C±C±C±H H±C±C±C±C±H H±C±±±C±±±C±H
W W W W W W W W W W W W
H H H H H H W H H H H±C±H H
W W
H±C±H H
W
H
Name: pentane 2-methylbutane 2,2-dimethylpropane
Boiling Point: 36˚C 28˚C 9.5˚C
ΔHvap: 25.8 kJ/mol 24.7 kJ/mol 22.8 kJ/mol

All have the same molecular formula, C5H12, and thus the same molecular weight,
but they differ in the arrangement of the atoms. Pentane is a long chain of carbon
atoms to which hydrogen atoms are attached. Isopentane and neopentane, however,
have increasingly more compact arrangements of atoms. As a result, you expect
London forces to decrease from pentane to isopentane and from isopentane to
neopentane. This is confirmed in the heats of vaporization and boiling points listed
above.
Figure 4.18
Fe
Rusting of iron wool
O Zn H2O
The temperature rises
• Many chemical structures are
depicted in multiple ways to help
perceptibly during the rusting,
showing that heat is released
– iron
by the reaction just as ifClthe
students make the leap from were being burned (see Figure
symbolic to visual representations. 4.17). Note the temperature
Fe3+ increase of the thermometer
O2– wrapped with moist iron wool. H+

H2
Molecular blowups help students connect
the macroscopic to the molecular level.
• Zn2+

Cl–

Figure 4.16
Displacement reaction
Displacement reaction of zinc
metal and hydrochloric acid.
Hydrogen gas formed in the
reaction bubbles from the metal
surface that dips into the acid.

To vacuum
pump

Diagrams convey
chemical principles
• Electrically
charged plates (–)

clearly and Cathode

effectively. (–)

Anode
(+) (+)

High voltage

Figure 2.4
Formation of cathode rays
Cathode rays leave the cathode, or negative electrode, and are accelerated toward the anode,
or positive electrode. Some of the rays pass through the hole in the anode to form a beam,
which then is bent by the electric plates in the tube.

xxxv
 Real-Life Applications and Research Methods

Materials of Technology 13
• Adevelopments
chapter on Materials includes cutting-edge
and applications of particular
value to students in science-related majors.

An STM image of the

atomic structure of gallium
arsenide, GaAs (Ga, blue;
As, red).

I
n the summer of 2000, scientists at Bell Laboratories and Oxford University
reported that they had constructed a motor out of DNA, the chemical material of
the genetic code. This molecular-scale motor used DNA as both a structural mate-
• Each chapter begins with a chapter theme, a
provocative real-world topic that leads into a
rial and as a fuel to run the motor. Earlier, Harvard University chemists had con-
structed molecular-scale tweezers out of carbon-atom tubes, showing that they
could manipulate clusters of polystyrene molecules, and NASA scientists have stud-
CONTENTS
Metals and Metallurgy chapter topic.
ied the possibility of constructing a molecular-scale gear assembly (see Figure 13.1). 13.1 Natural Sources of the
These scientists’ efforts represent some of the many ongoing investigations into Metallic Elements
“nanotechnology,” in which one manipulates materials on a molecular scale to create 13.2 Metallurgy
13.3 Bonding in Metals
useful devices.
Nonmetallic Materials
Nanotechnology is only the latest of a series of developments in materials
science, in which one studies materials with a view toward developing useful appli- 13.4 Diamond, Graphite, the
Fullerenes, and Nanotechnology
cations. Telecommunications is an example of an area in which the development of
13.5 Semiconductors
new materials has had immense impact, leading to rapid change in the technology. 13.6 Silicon, Silica, and Silicates
Initially, telecommunications was restricted to voice communication by telephone 13.7 Ceramics
using copper wires to carry a message in the form of an electrical signal. Today, it 13.8 Composites
A C H E M I S T LO O K S AT Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays
523

In 1993 in Seattle, Washington, four whether a food’s nutritional value might

children died and hundreds of people be- be significantly diminished and whether EVERYDAY L IFE
came sick from food poisoning when decomposition products might cause
they ate undercooked hamburgers con- cancer—appear to be without foundation. Irradiation of

A Chemist Looks At
essays relate chemical
• taining a dangerous strain of a normally harmless bacteria,
Escherichia coli. A similar bout of food poisoning from
hamburgers containing the dangerous strain of E. coli oc-
curred in the summer of 1997; 17 people became ill. This
foods with gamma rays may soon join pasteurization as a
way to protect our food supply from harmful bacteria.

time the tainted hamburger was traced to a meat processor

concepts to real-world in Nebraska, which immediately recalled 25 million pounds
of ground beef. Within months, the U.S. Food and Drug Ad-

applications. Icons key ministration approved the irradiation of red meat by gamma
rays to kill harmful bacteria. Gamma rays are a form of
electromagnetic radiation similar to x rays, but the photons
students to particular of gamma rays have higher energy.
The idea of using high-energy radiation to disinfect
areas of interest: foods is not new (Figure 7.7). It has been known for about
50 years that high-energy radiation kills bacteria and molds

medicine, health, in foods, prolonging their shelf life. Gamma rays kill organ-
isms by breaking up the DNA molecules within their cells.
This DNA holds the information for producing vital cell
frontiers of science, proteins.
Currently, the gamma rays used in food irradiation Figure 7.7
the environment, and come from the radioactive decay of cobalt-60. It is perhaps
this association with radioactivity that has slowed the ac-
I N S T R U M E N TA L M E T H O D S
Gamma irradiation of foods
Here fresh produce has been irradiated to reduce
Separation of Mixtures by Chromatography

everyday life. Chromatography is a group of similar separation techniques. Each depends on how fast a
substance moves, in a stream of gas or liquid, past a stationary phase to which the substance
may be slightly attracted. An example is provided by a simple experiment in paper chro-
matography (see Figure 1.17). In this experiment, a line of ink is drawn near one edge of a

Figure 1.17
An illustration of paper

Instrumental Methods essays. Sometimes

students may come away from a general chem-
• chromatography
A line of ink has been drawn
along the lower edge of a sheet
of paper.The dyes in the ink
separate as a solution of
methanol and water creeps up
istry course not realizing how modern chemistry the paper.

depends on sophisticated instruments. This series

of essays helps students make this connection, by
covering instrumental methods in just enough Figure 1.18 Substances to
detail to pique students’ interest. Column chromatography
(A) A solution containing
be separated
dissolved in liquid
substances to be separated is
poured into the top of a column,
which contains powdered chalk.
(B) Pure liquid is added to the
column, and the substances Pure
liquid
begin to separate into bands.
(C) The substances separate
further on the column. Each
substance is collected in a
separate flask as it comes off
the column.

xxxvi
Online Study Center (college.hmco.com/pic/ebbingmee8e)

• From the Online Study Center

(passkey required), students
will have access to
Visualizations (animated mole-
cular concepts and lab demon-
stration videos), interactive
tutorials with pedagogy, elec-
tronic flashcards, ACE Practice
Tests, and over 45 hours of video
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prepare for class, study for
quizzes and exams, and
improve their grade.

• Video Lessons from Thinkwell

are mini-lectures that combine
video, audio, and whiteboard
examples for student review.
Each 8- to 10-minute segment
features a chemistry expert
lecturing on key concepts.

Interactive tutorials guide

students from preparation to
•
comprehension using a variety
of learning techniques, includ-
ing preview and practice
questions, concept overviews,
animated demonstrations, and
interactive activities to gauge
their mastery of the concepts
from the text.

• Visualizations include
molecular-level animations
and video lab demonstrations.
Each animation and video
includes practice questions to
test the student’s knowledge
of that concept.

xxxvii
Online Teaching Center
(college.hmco.com/pic/ebbingmee8e)

• The Online Teaching Center includes everything

instructors need to develop lectures:
• Lecture Outline PowerPoint slides
• Virtually all the text figures, tables, and photos
available in PPT slides and digital files (JPEG)
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main text and Lab Manual (Experiments in
General Chemistry) (PDF formats)
• Transparencies (PDF format)
• Classroom Response System (CRS) content
• Animations and lab demonstration videos

Lecture Outline PowerPoint

slides include lecture outlines,
•
animations and video demon-
strations, art from the textbook,
and questions to gauge stu-
dents’ comprehension.

• Classroom Response System (CRS) content trans-

forms traditional lectures into student-centered
learning environments that promote peer interac-
tion and collaboration. Houghton Mifflin provides
text-specific slides that pose multiple-choice ques-
tions for students to test their understanding. CRS
offers a dynamic way to facilitate interactive learn-
ing with students—perform immediate assess-
ments, deliver quick, text-specific quizzes, gauge
comprehension, and take class attendance easily.

xxxviii
Eduspace®

Eduspace®, Houghton Mifflin’s

complete online learning tool,
•
is an instructor’s “one-stop”
resource for all course material.
Through Eduspace, instruc-
tors have access to all the
media included within the
Online Teaching Center and
the Online Study Center, plus
three types of additional
online homework problems
and assignments.

• Eduspace
The online homework within
includes text-specific
end-of-chapter problems (the
majority of which are algorith-
mically generated, ensuring
that each student gets a
unique version), problems
based on in-text examples from
the book (multiple, randomiz-
ing versions of each problem
ensure that students do not
get the same one), and test-
bank questions. End-of-chapter
and in-chapter example prob-
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tables, and art from the text-
book, as well as optional hints
that link to the online
multimedia eBook.

The online multimedia

eBook, available only within
•
Eduspace, integrates reading
textbook content with interac-
tive media. Students can
visualize molecular concepts,
work through interactive
tutorials, watch video lessons,
practice problem solving, and
quiz themselves on key terms
by clicking the embedded
icons within the eBook.

xxxix
 HM Testing™ (powered by
Diploma®) combines a flexible
•
test-editing program with a
comprehensive gradebook for
easy administration and track-
ing via print, network server, or
the web. Questions can be
selected based on their chap-
ter, topic, format, and level of
difficulty. Instructors can edit
or author questions and can
create several versions of the
same test. You also have the
option of accessing the test-
bank content from Eduspace®.

• With HM Testing, you can

choose from over 2200 test
items designed to measure
the concepts and principles
covered in the text. You can
ensure that each student gets
a different version of the prob-
lem by selecting from over 500
algorithmic questions within
the computerized test bank.

HM ClassPresent™ General
Chemistry CD-ROM features
•
animations and video demon-
strations. Arranged by chapter
and topic, HM ClassPresent pro-
vides a library of high-quality,
scalable lab demonstration
videos and animations cover-
ing core chemistry concepts.
The resources within it can be
browsed by thumbnail and
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Instructors can export the
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their own computers or use
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from the CD.

xl
General Chemistry
This page intentionally left blank
Chemistry and 1
Measurement

Removed due to copyright

permissions restrictions.

Optical fibers that use light

for data transmission.

I
n 1964 Barnett Rosenberg and his coworkers at Michigan CONTENTS
State University were studying the effects of electricity on An Introduction to Chemistry
bacterial growth. They inserted platinum wire electrodes into a live bacterial cul- 1.1 Modern Chemistry:
ture and allowed an electric current to pass. After 1 to 2 hours, they noted that cell A Brief Glimpse
division in the bacteria stopped. The researchers were very surprised by this result, 1.2 Experiment and Explanation
but even more surprised by the explanation. They were able to show that cell divi- 1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass
sion was inhibited by a substance containing platinum, produced from the plat- 1.4 Matter: Physical State and
Chemical Constitution
inum electrodes by the electric current. A substance such as this one, the
Physical Measurements
researchers thought, might be useful as an anticancer drug, because cancer involves
runaway cell division. Later research confirmed this view, and today the platinum- 1.5 Measurement and Significant
Figures
containing substance cisplatin is a leading anticancer drug (Figure 1.1).
1.6 SI Units
This story illustrates three significant reasons to study chemistry. First, chem- 1.7 Derived Units
istry has important practical applications. The development of lifesaving drugs is 1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis
one, and a complete list would touch upon most areas of modern technology. (Factor-Label Method)

1
2 CHAPTER 1 Chemistry and Measurement

Second, chemistry is an intellectual enterprise, a way of explaining our material

world. When Rosenberg and his coworkers saw that cell division in the bacteria had
ceased, they systematically looked for the chemical substance that caused it to cease.
They sought a chemical explanation for the occurrence.
Finally, chemistry figures prominently in other fields. Rosenberg’s experiment
began as a problem in biology; through the application of chemistry it led to an
advance in medicine. Whatever your career plans, you will find your knowledge of
chemistry is a useful intellectual tool for making important decisions.

An Introduction to Chemistry
All of the objects around you—this book, your pen or pencil, and the things of nature
such as rocks, water, and plant and animal substances—constitute the matter of the
universe. Each of the particular kinds of matter, such as a certain kind of paper or plas-
Removed due to tic or metal, is referred to as a material. We can define chemistry as the science of the
copyright permissions composition and structure of materials and of the changes that materials undergo.
One chemist may hope that by understanding certain materials he or she will be
restrictions. able to find a cure for a disease or a solution for an environmental ill. Another chemist
may simply want to understand a phenomenon. Because chemistry deals with all mate-
rials, it is a subject of enormous breadth. It would be difficult to exaggerate the influ-
Figure 1.1 ence of chemistry on modern science and technology or on our ideas about our planet
Barnett Rosenberg and the universe. In the section that follows, we will take a brief glimpse at modern
Discoverer of the anticancer chemistry and see some of the ways it has influenced technology, science, and mod-
activity of cisplatin. ern thought.

1.1 Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse

For thousands of years, human beings have fashioned natural materials into useful
products. Modern chemistry certainly has its roots in this endeavor. After the discov-
ery of fire, people began to notice changes in certain rocks and minerals exposed to
high temperatures. From these observations came the development of ceramics, glass,
and metals, which today are among our most useful materials. Dyes and medicines
were other early products obtained from natural substances. For example, the ancient
Phoenicians extracted a bright purple dye, known as Tyrian purple, from a species of
sea snail. One ounce of Tyrian purple required over 200,000 snails. Because of its
brilliant hue and scarcity, the dye became the choice of royalty.
Although chemistry has its roots in early technology, chemistry as a field of study
based on scientific principles came into being only in the latter part of the eighteenth
century. Chemists began to look at the precise quantities of substances they used in
their experiments. From this work came the central principle of modern chemistry:
the materials around us are composed of exceedingly small particles called atoms, and
the precise arrangement of these atoms into molecules or more complicated structures
accounts for the many different characteristics of materials. Once chemists understood
this central principle, they could begin to fashion molecules to order. They could syn-
thesize molecules; that is, they could build large molecules from small ones. Tyrian
purple, for example, was eventually synthesized from the simpler molecule aniline;
see Figure 1.2. Chemists could also correlate molecular structure with the character-
istics of materials and so begin to fashion materials with special characteristics.
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